Morphometric Affinity of the Late Neolithic Human Remains from Man Bac, Ninh Binh Province, Vietnam: Key Skeletons with Which to Debate the ‘Two Layer’ Hypothesis

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE Vol. 116(2), 135–148, 2008

Morphometric affinity of the late Neolithic human remains from Man Bac, Ninh Binh Province, Vietnam: key skeletons with which to debate the ‘two layer’ hypothesis

Hirofumi MATSUMURA1*, Marc F. OXENHAM2, Yukio DODO3, Kate DOMETT4, Nguyen Kim THUY5, Nguyen Lan CUONG5, Nguyen Kim DUNG5, Damien HUFFER, Mariko YAMAGATA6 1Department of Anatomy, Sapporo Medical University, Sapporo 060-8556, Japan 2School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra ACT0200, Australia 3Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8575, Japan 4School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville QLD4811, Australia 5Institute of Archeology, Ha Noi, Vietnam 6Faculty of Literature, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8644, Japan

Received 5 April 2007; accepted 9 November 2007

Abstract The excavation of the Man Bac site (c. 3800–3500 years BP) in Ninh Binh Province, Northern Vietnam, yielded a large mortuary assemblage. A total of 31 inhumations were recovered during the 2004–2005 excavation. Multivariate comparisons using cranial and dental metrics demonstrated close affinities of the Man Bac people to later early Metal Age Dong Son Vietnamese and early and modern samples from southern China including the Neolithic to Western Han period samples from the Yangtze Basin. In contrast, large morphological gaps were found between the Man Bac people, except for a single individual, and the other earlier prehistoric Vietnamese samples represented by Ho- abinhian and early Neolithic Bac Son and Da But cultural contexts. These findings suggest the initial appearance of immigrants in northern Vietnam, who were biologically related to pre- or early historic population stocks in northern or eastern peripheral areas, including Southern China. The Man Bac skeletons support the ‘two-layer’ hypothesis in discussions pertaining to the population history of South- east Asia.

Key words: late Neolithic, Vietnam, Man Bac, human remains, Two-Layer hypothesis

Introduction stones, saw blades, and various types of semi-precious stone ornaments and jewelry. Ceramic artifacts comprised net sink- The site of Man Bac is located in Yen Mo district, Ninh ers, high-footed bowls, pediform clay support stands, mush- Binh province, northern Vietnam (109°59′17″ East and room-shaped ceramic anvils (used for pottery making), and 20°08′00″ North) (Figure 1). The site is almost completely over 10000 potsherds. In addition, five well-preserved buri- surrounded by karst limestone mountains, and extends in an als were uncovered, in which six individuals were buried. arc on a terrace of soil and sand lying to the south of the In 2001, the Vietnamese Institute of Archaeology, in col- mountain range. The coast is approximately 25 km from the laboration with the Ninh Binh Provincial Museum, conduct- site. ed the second excavation. This resulted in the finding of a This site was discovered in 1998 during reconnaissance substantial volume of stone and clay objects, associated with work carried out by the Vietnamese Institute of Archaeology ten burials containing skeletons in good condition (Cuong, and the Ninh Binh Provincial Museum. According to prelim- 2001; Phung, 2001; Hiep and Phung, 2004). inary findings, the site was considered to be a large-scale set- In order to undertake a more extensive investigation of tlement of the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age. Initial exca- Man Bac, especially regarding the human remains and buri- vation was undertaken in 1999 by the Institute of als, an international team, consisting of members from Viet- Archaeology, Ha Noi, Vietnam, and uncovered a substantial nam, Japan, Australia, and the USA, carried out a third exca- amount of stone and ceramic artifacts. The stone artifacts vation season during December 2004 and January 2005, and comprised axes, adzes, chisels, grinding stones, hammer revealed 31 additional inhumation burials associated with a considerable number of material objects (Figure 2). In the first three excavation seasons, therefore, a total of 48 skele- * Correspondence to: Hirofumi Matsumura, Department of Anat- omy, Sapporo Medical University, South 1 West 17, Sapporo 060- tons were recovered from the combined grids, covering an 8556, Japan. area of over 90 square meters. E-mail: [email protected] The temporal context of the Man Bac site was determined Published online 21 February 2008 to be a transitional period from the late Neolithic to the early in J-STAGE (www.jstage.jst.go.jp) DOI: 10.1537/ase.070405 Bronze Age (3800 years–3500 years BP). In terms of local

© 2008 The Anthropological Society of Nippon 135 136 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE cultural chronologies, the material culture displays many characteristics close to those of the Phung Nguyen period, whose people inhabited more northerly areas of Vietnam (Tri and Tan, 1999), primarily along the upper reaches of the Red River. In a Southeast Asian regional context, the overall material evidence suggests that the ways of life of the Man Bac people had much in common with those seen at other contemporaneous sites in Vietnam and Southeast Asia, such as evidence for agriculture, land clearance, ceramic manu- facture, hunting, marine resource gathering and trade (Hiep and Phung, 2004; Huffer, 2005). The aim of the present morphometric study utilizing the Man Bac skeletal sequence revolves around two questions. The first focuses on the local population history of this region of northern Vietnam. The authors seek to investigate whether or not the Man Bac people were direct descendants of early Neolithic Da But peoples, or earlier Neolithic Bac Son peoples. Or, can their origins be traced even further back to the pre-Neolithic Hoabinhian peoples who first settled the surrounding area? Furthermore, an exploration of possible biological relationships with later early historic Dong Son people, and the present-day Vietnamese, is also relevant to this question. The second aim, dictated by the results of the above-mentioned micro regional analysis presented below, is to chal-

Figure 2. View of the excavation trench and inhumation burials in the Man Bac site (top: over view of trench looking from North, middle left: burial C30, middle right: burial C31, bottom left and right: burial C29).

lenge the currently dominant model of the population history of Southeast Asia from a macro regional perspective. Since the early 20th century, it has been argued that Southeast Asia was initially occupied by an ‘Australo-Melanesian’ population that later underwent substantial genetic admixture with East Asian immigrants associated with the spread of agriculture from the Neolithic period onwards. This model is currently referred to as the ‘two layer’ hypothesis (Callenfels, 1936; Mijsberg, 1940; Barth, 1952; Von Koenigswald, 1952; Coon, 1962; Thoma, 1964; Jacob, 1967, 1975; Brace, 1976; Howells, 1976; Brace et al., 1991). A number of recent reviews of archeological studies conclude that a rice farming people with associated Neolithic material culture spread south from the Yangtze Basin into mainland and island Southeast Asia from the fifth millennium BP (Spriggs, 1989; Bellwood, 1987, 1997; Bellwood et al., 1992; Glover and Higham, 1996). In order to further refine, or reject, this scenario of the expansion of East Asian farming populations Figure 1. Location of the Man Bac site in Ninh Binh Province, into Southeast Asia, we need to focus more on the biological Vietnam. relationships between the Neolithic and pre-Neolithic occu- Vol. 116, 2008 MAN BAC SKELETONS IN VIETNAM 137 pants of each region of Southeast Asia. Given these perspec- ing, because the skull was not recovered as it was beyond the tives, the Man Bac skeletons are crucial materials to assess excavation trench. the ‘two layer’ hypothesis. Along with the above-mentioned The cranial and dental metric measurements recorded for aims, this paper presents results pertaining to population af- the Man Bac specimens combining all three season’s finities of the Man Bac skeletal sequence with early and datasets, are given in Table 2 and Table 3. The cranial mea- modern population samples from the area covering East/ surements were undertaken following Martin’s definitions Southeast Asia and the West Pacific regions based on cranial (Bräuer, 1988), and Yamaguchi’s (1973) method was uti- and dental metric data. lized for facial flatness measurements. The tooth crown diameters were recorded as maximum diameters according to Materials and Methods Fujita’s system (1949). Figure 3 displays nearly complete adult and near-adult Man Bac samples (C13) skeletons recovered from our 2004–2005 excavation The skeletal human remains unearthed at the Man Bac site at Man Bac. In general, except for one individual described through three excavation seasons, 1999, 2001, and 2004– below, the cranial morphology is characterized by relatively 2005, are listed in Table 1 with their age estimates, sex de- narrow faces, flat glabellas, superciliary arches and nasal terminations, and conditions of preservations. Age estimates roots, and round orbits. As shown in Figure 2 and Figure 4, were made based on tooth eruption, extent of tooth attrition, only the male cranium from C29 presents quite unique fea- cranial suture closures, postcranial epiphyseal unions, pubic tures such as a dolichocephalic calvarium, large zygomatic symphyseal face morphology, sequential changes at sternum bones, a remarkably prominent glabella and superciliary and rib and severity of osteoarthritis. Sex determination was arches, a concave nasal root and a low and wide face with a based on pelvic features, cranial morphology and epiphy- protruding mandible. seal size of the long-bones. The age and sex were assessed using standard anthropological methods recommended by Comparative samples Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). This sex estimation is not Cranial and dental measurements from representative late highly reliable for infant skeletons, so determination of sex Pleistocene and Holocene human specimens from the sur- relies on Schutkowski’s (1993) techniques based on mandi- rounding mainland Southeast Asian region, including China bular morphology as necessary. Of a total of 48 individuals, and the Southwest Pacific, were used as a basis for compar- 17 specimens are adults; the remaining 31 skeletons are chil- ison with the Man Bac skeletons. A list of comparative cra- dren or adolescents. From this sequence, the present study nial and tooth samples and data sources are given in Table 4. used male adult skulls for cranial metric analysis and male All the comparative data are from males. permanent teeth for dental metric analysis. The adult C16 Data from pre- and proto-historic Vietnamese samples was not used for this study despite the whole body remain- were from the following four skeletal series. The Mai Da

Table 1. List of human remains excavated from the Man Bac site in 1999, 2001, and 2004–2005 Burial No. Age class Sex Completeness Burial No. Age class Sex Completeness A1 Young adult Partial C8 Young child Partial A2 Young adult Female Fragmentary C9 Middle adult Female Whole A3 Young adult Male Whole C10 Old child Male Most A4 Young child Partial C11 Young adult Male Most A5a Middle child Partial C12 Middle child Most A5b Middle adult Female Most C13 Adolescent Whole B1 Old child Whole C14 Middle child Most B2 Young or middle child Fragmentary C15 Young adult Male Partial B3 Young child Fragmentary C16 Middle adult Male Whole B4a Young child Fragmentary C17 Old child or Adolescent Fragmentary B4b Young child Fragmentary C18 Middle child Most B5 Old adult Male Partial C19 Young or middle adult Fragmentary B6 Young or middle child Fragmentary C20 Middle adult Male Whole B7 Middle or old child Fragmentary C21 Young child Most B8 Young or middle child Fragmentary C22 Middle child Fragmentary B9 Young adult Male Partial C23 Middle child Most B10 Middle adult Male Partial C24 Old child Whole C1 Middle child Fragmentary C25 Middle child Whole C2 Young child Most C26 Middle child Fragmentary C3 Young child Most C27 Young or middle adult Fragmentary C4 Middle child Fragmentary C28 Middle adult Male Partial C5 Middle child Most C29 Middle adult Male Whole C6 Middle child Partial C30 Young child Partial C7 Young child Partial C31 Middle adult Male Whole Key: A = 1999; B = 2001; C = 2004. Age class: Young child: aged up to 1 year, Middle child: aged between 1 and 6 years, Old child: aged between 7 and 12 years. 138 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE Mean SD n Mean SD n 169 173136 183 136 180 129 186 140 175 138 155 8 179.3 8 4.7 140.5 7.6 3 171.3 3 4.0 134.7 3.2 119 116 113133 110103 130 130 113 133 109 4 119.3 7.5 138 111 3 146 100 113.0 7 6.6 7 138.6 106.1 8.0 4.8 3 2 127.0 100.0 6.6 4.2 0 107 106 109 107 109 111 8 109.1 4.6 3 104.0 4.4 Table 2. Cranial measurements (mm) and indices of the Man Bac series 3 100 99 85 97 92 103 5 96.8 3.1 3 90.0 4.4 th 112 104 107 105 104 110 105 107 4 106.3 2.9 3 108.0 3.6 Sex Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Sample no. A2 A3 A5b B5 B9 B10 C9 C11 C15 C20 C29 C31 Male averages* Female averages 1 Maximum cranial length5 Basion-nasion length8 Maximum cranial breadth9 Minimum frontal breadth 176 137 180 91 93 139 169 99 131 96 185 143 94 174 91 137 184 93 103 145 98 102 104 93 90 93 93 101 100 98 95 96 101 8 99.0 5 3.4 97.8 3 4.8 92.3 3 1.2 91.7 2.1 10 Maximum frontal breadth 106 118 114 1Obtlbedh44 0019904239740.11.1240.01.4 404041393940 4142 breadth 12 Maximum occipital bread 17 Basion-bregma height29 Frontal chord30 Parietal chord31 Occipital chord 12140 Basion-prosthion breadth Orbital 43 Upper facial breadth 14245 Bizygomatic breadth46 Bimaxillary breadth 92 13248 Upper facial height 99 10851 103 134 96 9952 Orbital height 117 120 11554 Nasal breadth 101 102 9 55 Nasal height 97 102 128 1238:1 Cranial Index 62 90 10648:45 Upper facial index 102 128 138Frontal chord 118 70Frontal subtense 142 128Simotic chord 33 110 147Simotic subtense 65 128 22 51.7Zygomaxillary chord 108 11 34 144 47Zygomaxillary subtense 54.7 77.8 147 75 28 109Frontal Index 50.8 77.2 35Simotic index 53 67 102 Zygomaxillary index 25 52.8 77.5 100 105 34 53Male averages*: excluding individual C29. 68 107 45.6 77.3 136 29 111 102 35 47.2 78.7 54 108 69 116 28 121 51.9 78.8 100 35 51 113 70 116 26 53.8 80.5 5 115 35 54 120 53.4 78.6 71 25 137.8 109 110 18 70.5 112 39 49 102 7.3 109 66 23 28 110 77.8 11 5 3 16 5 37 112 3 50 98 48.6 67 74.2 25 27 113.4 113.2 127.0 50.7 37 88.6 4 55 3.0 20.8 74 7.0 28 16.5 5.6 7 8 24.0 96 21.9 101.8 30 3 52 14.9 3 106 8 9 26 4.3 51.2 78.4 20 100.3 95 34 112.0 49 70.1 3.5 4.9 3 12 29 1.5 8 9.6 2 3.2 8 18.5 53 3 3 100.0 8 9.4 3 8.9 7 35.6 8 1 51.4 12.2 78.6 22.6 27.9 1.8 65.3 0.6 10 1.6 12.5 1.0 52.8 2 3.5 3 100 1.7 21.9 3 20 100 109 34.3 3 24.0 25 1.2 4 95 20 1.7 49.7 20.3 23.3 19 103.4 3 4 3.1 20.0 19.5 7.2 3 105.2 4 16.5 3 1 9.0 3.5 3 21.9 15.9 20.7 3 1 3.1 3 96.2 1 3.3 1.2 9.4 105.5 1 1.9 1 19.5 1 2.6 9.1 1.0 6.2 19.5 1 18.5 9.4 1 1 8.2 22.6 1.9 Vol. 116, 2008 MAN BAC SKELETONS IN VIETNAM 139

Table 3. Dental measurements (mm) of the Man Bac series Sample No. A3 B5 B9 B10 C9 C10 C11 C15 C20 C28 C29 C31 Male averages* Sex Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Male n Mean SD Mesiodistal diameters UI1 8.18 8.22 8.35 8.48 8.34 9.15 8.15 8.49 8.64 7 8.43 0.35 UI2 6.75 7.87 6.85 2 7.31 0.79 UC 7.35 7.82 7.61 7.50 7.44 8.83 8.36 7.86 7.48 8.19 8.70 9 7.95 0.55 UP1 7.27 7.11 7.41 7.98 7.29 7.39 7.28 6 7.39 0.30 UP2 7.02 6.53 5.60 6.42 7.11 7.36 7.07 7.46 6.92 7.14 9 6.86 0.58 UM1 9.93 10.23 10.75 10.68 10.93 10.73 10.43 10.53 10.59 9.66 9 10.43 0.42 UM2 8.35 9.57 9.11 9.15 9.98 9.81 10.20 9.04 9.44 9.73 10.20 9.17 10 9.36 0.51 LI1 5.40 5.65 4.98 4.93 5.92 5.62 5.62 5.21 7.86 7 5.49 0.31 LI2 5.96 5.83 6.08 5.33 6.33 6.42 6.54 6.34 7.29 7 6.21 0.26 LC 6.56 6.51 6.90 6.94 6.87 7.84 7.12 7.30 8.84 7.45 8 7.08 0.45 LP1 7.53 6.23 7.02 7.64 7.31 7.09 10.36 7.69 7 7.22 0.51 LP2 7.53 6.52 7.22 7.53 7.10 7.14 10.05 7.47 6 7.22 0.39 LM1 11.82 11.24 11.23 12.18 12.11 12.23 11.39 13.24 11.21 7 11.74 0.45 LM2 10.29 10.12 10.18 11.04 11.61 9.82 9.38 10.63 12.50 10.66 8 10.34 0.66 Buccolingual diameters UI1 6.53 6.98 7.53 7.42 7.01 7.13 6.83 6.70 5.70 7 7.02 0.37 UI2 6.82 6.80 6.27 2 6.81 0.01 UC 7.51 7.52 7.72 6.62 8.01 8.49 8.48 7.64 7.77 7.20 8.74 9 7.83 0.65 UP1 9.13 9.60 9.43 9.62 9.64 9.33 7.17 9.78 6 9.52 0.24 UP2 9.37 8.86 8.91 9.18 8.85 9.39 9.53 9.49 9.65 7.13 9.59 9 9.33 0.29 UM1 11.46 11.40 11.51 11.37 11.77 11.37 12.47 12.91 11.55 12.31 11.69 9 11.75 0.55 UM2 10.81 10.94 11.64 11.39 11.73 12.24 10.29 11.21 11.57 11.16 11.96 9 11.34 0.60 LI1 5.42 5.58 5.20 5.65 6.01 5.73 5.77 5.59 6.60 7 5.61 0.26 LI2 5.78 6.29 5.82 6.10 6.07 6.34 5.88 6.12 6.80 7 6.04 0.22 LC 6.87 7.20 8.04 7.17 7.25 7.80 7.81 7.20 8.37 8.00 8 7.51 0.45 LP1 7.82 7.28 8.24 7.97 8.47 7.97 7.97 9.48 8.54 7 8.04 0.43 LP2 8.00 7.81 8.06 8.50 8.56 8.03 7.91 9.17 8.41 7 8.11 0.27 LM1 10.04 10.65 10.19 10.32 10.67 11.75 11.21 10.46 12.11 10.99 8 10.75 0.56 LM2 9.28 9.64 9.41 9.98 11.02 10.08 9.94 10.03 11.13 10.54 8 9.99 0.58 Male averages*: excluding C29 individual.

Nuoc specimen is from the early Holocene, and is a nearly strata, they are combined here since previous research found complete skull of the late Hoabinhian period (c. 8000 years few morphological differences between the two phases (Bul- BP) excavated from the Mai Da Nuoc rock shelter in Thanh beck, 2000). Cranial metrics were provided only for the Hoa Province, northern Vietnam (Cuong, 1986). Bac Son re- specimen numbered Gua Cha H12, because no other com- fers to an early to middle Holocene Neolithic culture, and plete skulls exist. The Guar Kepah series was discovered in the skeletal series used here are from the sites of Lang a shell midden site in Lenggong district, Malaysia, and be- Cuom, Pho Binh Gia, Khac Kiem, and Keo Phay in northern longs to the late Hoabinhian period (Mijsberg, 1940; Callen- Vietnam (c. 10000 years–6000 years BP; Mansuy and Col- fels, 1936). Even though some pottery was also recovered, ani, 1925; Huard and Saurin, 1938; cf. Pietrusewsky and its precise stratigraphy is unclear (Bellwood, 1997; Bulbeck, Douglas, 2002, pp. 223–224). The Da But culture belongs to 2000). The Ban Chiang series comes from an early Metal the middle Holocene Neolithic period, and is represented by Age (Bronze Age, c. 3500 BP) site in Thailand, with direct samples from the Con Co Ngua site from Ha Trung district, evidence for local agriculture (including domesticated rice) Than Hoa province (c. 5000 years BP; Patte, 1965; Thuy, and early metallurgy (including early bronze) (Gorman and 1990; Bui, 1991). Dong Son refers to the early Iron Age cul- Charoenwongsa, 1976; Pietrusewsky and Douglas, 2002). ture of north Vietnam, and is represented here by specimens From China, three Neolithic to early historic samples from the sites of Vinh Quang, Chau Son, Doi Son, Nui Nap, were used for comparison. The Weidun site is located near and Minh Duc located near Ha Noi, which date from c. Shanghai in the Lake Tai region south of the Yangtze River 3000–1700 years BP (Thuy, 1993). in Jiangsu Province. The human remains from Weidun be- Early to Middle Holocene sites of Malaysia and Thailand long to the Majiabang culture, which corresponds to the ear- provided three samples used in this study. Gua Cha is a rock liest Neolithic period in the Lake Tai region (Chang, 1986). shelter site located in the State of Kelantan, Malaysia, dug Radiocarbon dating places the earliest phase of the Majia- by Sieveking (1954). The skeletal series from this site con- bang culture at c. 7040 years BP and the latest at c. 5245 sists mainly of middle Holocene specimens belonging to the years BP (Nakahashi and Li, 2002). The frequent recovery late Hoabinhian, but also includes remains from the subse- of carbonized rice along with the human remains suggests quent Neolithic period (c. 3000 years BP). Although the Ho- that these people were associated with a rice-farming cul- abinhian and Neolithic burials clearly derive from different ture. The Anyang series, dated to c. 3400–3200 years BP, 140 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Figure 3. Views of the representative adult skulls unearthed from the Man Bac site by 2004–2005’s excavation.

and classified as Bronze Age, was excavated from Shang pe- from western Japan, and include materials from the Kaneno- riod sites in Henan Province (IHIA and CASS, 1982). These kuma site in Fukuoka Prefecture, as well as from the sites of specimens are from sacrificial burial pits in and around the Doigahama and Nakanohama in Yamaguchi Prefecture. All imperial tombs at Anyang. The Jiangnan series consists of of these specimens are considered to be among the first rice specimens dated to the Zhou and Western Han period (c. cultivators in the Japanese archipelago, and are believed to 2770–1992 years BP), excavated from various sites in the represent immigrants from the Asian continent or their de- Chang Jiang basin and Jiangsu Province, south of the scendants (Kanaseki et al., 1960; Nakahashi, 1989). In addi- Yangtze River. The details of these specimens and sites are tion to these ancient series, data recorded for twelve modern described in Nakahashi and Li (2002), in which a close bio- samples, as listed in Table 4, were used for cranial or dental logical relationship with the Yayoi immigrants in Japan is metric comparisons. advocated. The Jomon represent early native hunter-gatherers who Statistical procedures lived in the Japanese archipelago from c. 13000–2300 years Eleven cranial measurements (Martin’s numbers 1, 8, 17, BP (Akazawa and Aikens, 1986). The samples used here are 40, 45, 46, 48, 51, 52, 54 and 55) were selected for statistical from various regions in Japan, dating from the middle to fi- comparisons, because all of the comparison series, including nal Jomon phases (c. 4000–2300 years BP). The Yayoi sam- Man Bac, had these variables in common and readily acces- ples, dated from c. 2400–1750 BP (Hudson, 1990), came sible. Vol. 116, 2008 MAN BAC SKELETONS IN VIETNAM 141

Figure 4. Frontal and oblique views of the No. C29 adult male skull excavated from the Man Bac site.

Similarities in cranial metric proportions were estimated dividually separated data were not made in the dental metric by Q-mode correlation coefficients based on male data from analysis, because the procedure based on the factor scores the eleven cranial measurements above. The measurement requires nearly full battery of crown diameters which was data were then standardized using grand mean values of all obtained from only a few individual specimens. Neverthe- comparative samples and standard deviations of Vietnamese less in order to assess the uniqueness of individual C29, only sample recorded by Cuong (1996). this specimen was separated from others in calculation of Before grouping Man Bac specimens as a single popula- mean values of crown diameters as given in Table 3. tion sample, in order to confirm impressions of morphologi- Finally, we applied the cluster analysis to the Q-mode cor- cal uniqueness of C29, cranial similarities were analyzed be- relation coefficients to provide a summarized pattern of pop- tween individually separated specimens. ulation affinities. To aid in the interpretation of the matrix of inter-sample Calculating distances of Q-mode correation coefficients phenetic distances, cluster analysis using the un-weighted and cluster analysis were processed using the data analysis pair-group method (UPGMA: Sneath and Sokal, 1973) were software ‘STATISTICA version 06J’ (StatSoft Inc.). applied to the Q-mode correlation coefficients. In the same way, dental metric comparisons were made Results using the mesiodistal and buccolingual crown diameters of males, excluding the third molars. Before calculating Q- Cranial metric affinity mode correlation coefficients among the populations, the 28 Figure 5 represents the results of cluster analysis applied crown diameters were summarized into a small number of to the Q-mode correlation coefficients, based on the eleven new values, taking correlations between the same teeth, and cranial measurements of six individuals from Man Bac and between mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters, into ac- 21 comparative population samples. This analysis yields a count. In order to reduce the measurements to such a small separation of Man Bac C29 and the other five Man Bac indi- number of values, the results of the factor analysis conduct- viduals. C29 specimen was placed in the cluster containing ed on Japanese males in a separate study (Matsumura, 1994) the Hoabinhian/early Neolithic Southeast Asians and Aus- were utilized by assuming that the obtained factors derived tralo-Melanesians, while the other five Man Bac specimens from such a single representative population are shared were grouped with the early Metal Age to modern East/ among all human populations. Table 5 gives loading values Southeast Asians and Neolithic Weidun sample. greater than 0.6 for the six primary factors whose eigenval- Since individual C29 was thus clearly separated from oth- ues were greater than 1.0. On the basis of these factor load- er comparable individuals of Man Bac, this individual was ings and the mean diameters for each population sample, dealt with as a separate sample, and the Q-mode correlation scores of the six factors were calculated. Q-mode correlation coefficients were calculated using the mean values of Man coefficients were computed using the factor scores in order Bac males excluding specimen C29, i.e. as given in Table 2. to measure similarities in tooth size proportion. The grand Table 6 gives distance values from the pooled Man Bac mean scores and standard deviations obtained from the Jap- males excluding C29 (hereafter referred to as Man Bac) and anese samples given in Table 5 were then used. those from individual C29 of Man Bac, which were trans- Calculations of Q-mode correlation coefficients using in- formed (1–r) from Q-mode correlation coefficients (r). The 142 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Table 4. Comparative cranial and dental samples from surrounding mainland East/Southeast Asia and West Pacific (males) Sample Locality Period Data (Skull) n Data (Dentition) n Mai Da Nuoc Northern Vietnam Early Holocene Cuong, 1986 1 — — (Hoabinhian) Bac Son Northern Vietnam Early Holocene Matsumura 4 Matsumura and Hudson, 8 (Early Neolithic) (unpublished) 2005 Da But Northern Vietnam Middle Holocene Cuong, 2003 19 Matsumura et al., 2001 20 (Early Neolithic) Dong Son Northern Vietnam Middle Holocene Cuong, 2006 9 Matsumura et al., 2001 20 (Early Metal age) Gua Cha Mainland Malaysia Middle Holocene Matsumura 1 Matsumura and Hudson, 20 (Hoabinhian-Neolithic) (unpublished) 2005 Guar Kepah Mainland Malaysia Middle Holocene — — Matsumura and Hudson, 9 (Neolithic) 2005 Ban Chiang* Northeastern Thailand Middle Holocene Pietrusewsky and 27 — — (Early Metal age) Douglas, 2002; Hanihara, 1993a Weidun Southern China Middle Holocene Nakahashi et al., 2002. 29 Matsumura, 2002 38 (Neolithic) Anyang Henang, China Middle Holocene IHIA and CASS, 1982 42 Matsumura, 1994 21 (Late Bronze—Iron Age) Jiangnan Southern China Middle Holocene Nakahashi et al., 2002. 18 Matsumura, 2002 15 (Zhou-Western Han) Jomon Japan Middle Holocene Hanihara, 1993a 113 Matsumura, 1989 210 (Neolithic) Yayoi migrants Western Japan Middle Holocene Nakahashi, 1993 184 Matsumura, 1994 86 (Early Metal age) Australian aborigines Australia Modern Hanihara, 1993a 53 Matsumura and Hudson, 47 2005 Melanesians #1 Fiji, Tongans; New Modern Hanihara, 1993a 18 — — Hebrides; New Guinea Melanesians #2 Loyalty Islands Modern Matsumura 17 Matsumura and Hudson, 29 (unpublished) 2005 Andaman Islanders Andaman Islands Modern — — Matsumura and Hudson, 25 2005 Vietnamese Northern Vietnam Modern Cuong, 2006 66 Matsumura and Hudson, 34 2005 Laotians Laos Modern Cuong, 2006 — Matsumura and Hudson, 29 2005 Thailanders Bangkok, Thailand Modern Cuong, 1996 — Matsumura, 1994 46 Thai Chinese Bangkok, Thailand Modern — — Matsumura, 1994 26 Taiwanese Taiwan Modern Hanihara, 1993a 19 — — Japanese Kanto, Japan Modern Hanihara, 1993a 140 Matsumura, 1994 31 Chinese #1 Manchuria, China Modern Hanihara, 1993a 71 Matsumura, 1994 100 Chinese #2 Kirin, China Modern Hanihara, 1993a 26 — — Ban Chiang*: data of orbital breadth (M51) and nasal height (M55) cited from Hanihara, 1993a.

Table 5. Factor loadings1 after the varimax rotation for the six factors derived from the tooth crown diameters of the Japanese sample (cited from Matsumura, 1994) Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 MD UI2 0.620 MD UP1 0.689 MD UC 0.704 MD LM1 0.789 MD UI1 0.724 MD UM20.778 BL UI1 0.685 MD UP2 0.811 MD LC 0.698 BL UM1 0.650 MD LI1 0.806 MD LM2 0.731 BL UI2 0.817 MD LP1 0.617 BL UC 0.663 BL LM1 0.771 MD LI2 0.747 BL LI1 0.678 MD LP2 0.720 BL LC 0.754 Trace 16.79% 13.98% 13.60% 11.74% 10.39% 9.98% Score2 18.834 20.029 21.803 25.454 14.974 15.477 SD3 1.013 1.094 1.154 0.996 0.841 0.804 1 loading: values of greater than 0.600 are shown. 2 Score: mean score obtained from the Japanese individual samples. 3 SD: standard deviation of the pooled Japanese individual samples. Vol. 116, 2008 MAN BAC SKELETONS IN VIETNAM 143

Figure 5. Dendrogram of a cluster analysis applied to the distances of Q-mode correlation coefficients between the six individuals of Man Bac and comparative samples, based on eleven cranial measurements.

Table 6. Distances of Q-mode correlation coefficients, based on eleven cranial measurements and 6 factor scores of dental measurements, from the Man Bac samples Distance by cranial measurements Distance by dental measurements Man Bac* Man Bac C29 Man Bac* Man Bac C29 Man Bac 0.000 1.323 0.000 1.331 Man Bac C29 1.323 0.000 1.331 — Mai Da Nuoc (Vietnam) 1.298 0.563 — — Bac Son (Vietnam) 1.276 0.702 1.392 0.961 Da But (Vietnam) 0.954 0.643 1.289 0.064 Dong Son (Vietnam) 0.512 0.936 0.735 1.704 Gua Cha (Malay) 0.952 0.712 1.453 0.753 Guar Kepah (Malay) — — 1.067 1.525 Ban Chiang (Thailand) 1.347 1.128 — — Weidun (China) 1.084 0.907 0.352 1.452 Anyang (China) 0.959 0.759 0.591 1.867 Jiangnan (China) 0.800 1.353 1.195 1.262 Jomon (Japan) 1.406 0.428 0.909 0.293 Yayoi migrants (Japan) 1.222 0.848 0.894 1.642 Australian aborigines 1.704 0.861 1.801 0.559 Melanesians #1 1.671 1.219 — — Melanesians #2 1.441 1.001 1.723 1.034 Andaman Islanders — — 1.481 1.206 Vietnamese 1.293 1.272 0.464 1.572 Laotians 1.046 1.311 0.030 1.211 Thailanders 0.930 1.115 0.554 1.917 Thai Chinese — — 0.538 1.745 Taiwanese 1.670 1.157 — — Japanese 1.366 1.298 0.756 1.566 Chinese #1 1.233 1.456 1.107 0.800 Chinese #2 1.249 1.444 — — Man Bac*: average of pooled Man Bac specimens excluding C29 individual. 144 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE closest sample to the Man Bac skulls is the early Iron Age ple, together with the Laotians, is loosely connected with the Dong Son people in Vietnam and the next closest is the Zhou cluster consisting of the early and modern samples from Chi- and Western Han Period Jiangnan sample. On the other na, the Yayoi migrants, the Dong Son series, and the modern hand, individual C29 shows close similarities to the Neolith- Vietnamese and Thailanders. On the other hand, individual ic Jomon, Hoabinhian Mai Da Nuoc, early Neolithic Bac C29 of Man Bac, as well as the early Neolithic Bac Son and Son and Da But Vietnamese. Da But Vietnamese, are placed in the other major cluster, Figure 6 shows a dendrogram resulting from a cluster which consists of the Australo-Melanesians, Andaman, analysis applied to the Q-mode correlation coefficients. The Jomon and Hoabinhian, and Neolithic Malaysian samples. Man Bac and Dong Son people, together forming a sub-cluster, are connected with one of two main clusters consisting Discussion of the modern Vietnamese and early Metal Age to modern samples from East/Southeast Asians and Neolithic Weidun The large morphological gaps between the late Neolithic sample. The Jomon sample and individual C29 of Man Bac Man Bac people, except the individual buried in grave C29, are neighbors, and they branch off from another major clus- and the early Neolithic Vietnamese as represented by the ter, in which the other prehistoric Vietnamese, represented Bac Son and Da But series, were evident in the results of the by the Mai Da Nuoc Hoabinhian specimen, and the early multivariate analyses of both cranial and dental metrics. Fur- Neolithic Bac Son and Da But samples, are grouped togeth- ther, these analyses demonstrated the considerable dissimi- er, and adjacent to the Gua Cha Malay and Australo-Melane- larity of the Man Bac people, except for individual C29, to sian samples. the pre-Neolithic Hoabinhian period samples in the Indochi- na region. The earlier prehistoric Vietnamese, as well as the Dental metric affinity early Malaysians, resembled the Australo-Melanesian sam- Table 6 gives the distances of Q-mode correlation coeffi- ples the most. Closer affinities to the Man Bac people cients from individual C29 and those from the pooled other amongst the series analyzed here were found in the subse- Man Bac specimens, based on of the six factor scores of the quent early Iron Age Dong Son sample, and in the early crown diameters. The Man Bac sample is quite close to the groups from southern China. Some discrepancies are notice- Weidun sample from Neolithic Southern China and the able when cranial and dental affinities are compared in terms modern Indochinese samples, such as the Laotians, Viet- of the closest Chinese samples to Man Bac, i.e. the Jiangnan namese, and Thailanders. The Dong Son Vietnamese are sample of the Zhou and Western Han periods for the cranial also relatively close to Man Bac. In contrast, individual C29, metrics, and the Neolithic Weidun sample for the dental which is far removed from the other Man Bac specimens, is metrics. Regardless of the chronological differences, it may closest to the early Neolithic Da But, followed by the Jomon be concluded that the Man Bac people were immigrants af- and Australian aborigine series. filiated with the populations along the Yangtze River region Figure 7 displays the results of the cluster analysis applied in southern China, and that they connect, through the subse- to the Q-mode correlation coefficients. The Man Bac sam- quent early Iron Age Dong Son people, to the present-day

Figure 6. Dendrogram of a cluster analysis applied to the Q-mode correlation coefficients between individual C29 of Man Bac, pooled other Man Bac specimens and comparative samples, based on eleven cranial measurements. Vol. 116, 2008 MAN BAC SKELETONS IN VIETNAM 145

Figure 7. Dendrogram of a cluster analysis applied to the Q-mode correlation coefficients between individual C29 of Man Bac, pooled other Man Bac specimens and comparative samples, based on six factor scores of tooth crown diameters.

majority of the Vietnamese. Thus, the Man Bac population east Asian populations. Ding et al. (2000) also found that (excluding individual C29) is not directly descended from populations in East and Southeast Asia were genetically very the Hoabinhian, Bac Son, or Da But indigenous populations. similar, and the result may suggest north-south migration, al- The ‘immigration’ hypothesis, also called the ‘two layer’ though the authors themselves prefer to interpret the genetic model, as a means of understanding the population history of patterns as simply due to isolation by distance. Southeast Asia, has been supported by a wide array of ar- However, there have long been criticisms of the tradition- chaeological, genetic, and historical linguistic studies. These al ‘two layer’ model. Although genetic and cranial data have researchers have shown that the pre-modern expansion of also been used, teeth have figured prominently in such criti- language families, specifically the Austronesian and Aus- cisms. Turner’s (1987) Sundadont/Sinodont hypothesis uses troasiatic families, can often be linked with the dispersal of dental evidence to propose an alternative to the ‘two layer’ rice-cultivating populations during the Neolithic period model, and other researchers have argued that the immigra- (Renfrew, 1987, 1989, 1992; Bellwood, 1991, 1993, 1997; tion hypothesis is not necessarily supported by recent analy- Hudson, 1994, 1999, 2003; Higham 1998, 2001; Hill, 2001; ses of cranial and dental data. Turner (1987, 1989, 1990, Bellwood and Renfrew, 2003; Diamond and Bellwood, 1992) assumed that the array of nonmetric dental traits, so- 2003). called ‘Sundadont’ traits, possessed by present-day South- Formerly, the conceptualization of this scenario has east Asians, are the product of long-standing continuity un- been driven by many earlier analyses of preceramic period interrupted by significant admixture with ‘Sinodont’ peoples human remains, which described morphological features from the north. Multivariate craniometric analyses by Pi- akin to those of Australian Aborigines or Melanesians (e.g., etrusewsky (1992, 1994, 1999) and Hanihara (1992a, b, Evans, 1918; Duckworth, 1934; Mijsberg, 1940; Trevor and 1993a, b, c, 1994) have demonstrated relatively close affini- Brothwell, 1962; Jacob, 1967). As a result, it had been ties between prehistoric and modern Southeast Asians, cou- argued that Southeast Asia was occupied by an indigenous pled with a distinct dissimilarity to Australo-Melanesians. population, sometimes referred to as ‘Australo-Melanesian,’ The prehistoric Southeast Asians used by these authors are before immigrants from East Asia dispersed widely into mainly Neolithic to early Metal Age samples from Thailand, this region (Callenfels, 1936; Mijsberg, 1940; Barth, 1952; Vietnam and Laos, and the finding of similarities with mod- Von Koenigswald, 1952; Coon, 1962; Thoma, 1964; Jacob, ern Southeast Asians is accepted as evidence for regional 1967, 1975; Brace, 1976; Howells, 1976; Bellwood, 1987, continuity in Southeast Asian population history. 1997; Brace et al., 1991). These previous analyses supporting regional continuity, Even today, molecular anthropological studies using clas- however, did not include extensive Mesolithic/Hoabinhian sic genetic markers and mtDNA have demonstrated many bi- samples from Southeast Asia. Up until now, only a few pre- ological similarities between Chinese and Southeast Asians Neolithic human remains have been discovered from South- (Ballinger et al., 1992; Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Omoto east Asia, as represented by the Gua Gunung Runtuh skele- and Saitou, 1997; Tan, 2001), which suggest some degree of ton from Malaysia (Zuraina 1994; Jacob and Soepriyo, genetic influence of southern Chinese populations on South- 1994; Matsumura and Zuraina, 1995, 1999), the Moh Khiew 146 H. MATSUMURA ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Cave specimen from Thailand (Pookajorn 1991, 1994; Mat- Acknowledgments sumura and Pookajorn, 2005), the Mai Da Nuoc, and Mai Da Dieu skulls, and the Hang Cho skeleton from Vietnam The authors are graterul to Director Dr. Ha Van Phung, (Cuong, 1986; Matsumura et al., 2004). Analyses of their and Vice Director Dr. Nguyen Giang Hai, Vietnamese Insti- skeletal morphologies demonstrated Australo-Melanesian tute of Archaeology, for their permission to excavate the characteristics, suggesting ancestral biological connections Man Bac site and for their cooperation. with each other. Furthermore, a broad comparison of dental This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid in traits conducted by Matsumura and Hudson (2005) found a 2003–2005 (No. 15405018) from the Japan Society for the close affinity between the Hoabinhian and Australo-Melane- Promotion of Science, and by the Toyota Foundation (No. sian samples, but identified northern source in the contem- D06-R-0035). porary Southeast Asians, regarded as supporting the immigration hypothesis rather than regional continuity. Although References the main source of the ‘East Asian’ populations who ex- panded into Southeast Asia, it is argued, was China, those Akazawa T. and Aikens C.M. (1986) Introduction. In: Akazawa T. and Aikens C.M. (eds.), Prehistoric Hunter-gatherers in people were not Chinese in the historical sense of that term. Japan: New research Methods. 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