WETLAND CONSERVATION PROJECT - SRI LANK

WETLAND SITE REPORT

UDAWALAWE RESERVOIR

CENTRAL ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORITY / EUROCONSULT

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT, ENVIRONMENT AND WOMEN'S AFFAIRS WETLAND SITE REPORT

UDAWALAWE RESERVOIR

CEA Library

90

This document has been prepared, as part of the programme of technical and financial assistance of the Netherlands' Directorate General for International Cooperation, by:

WETLAND CONSERVATION PROJECT

CENTRAL ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORITY (Sri Lanka) / EUROCONSULT (Netherlands)

March 1995 This document may be reproduced in full or in part with due acknowledgement to the Central Environmental Authority

Printed at Gunaratne Offset Ltd., Colombo, Sri Lanka COLOPHON

Site surrev team: Mr H.D.V.S. Vattala (formerly: Department of Wildlife Conservation) Mr K.A.K. Jayatilake (USAID) Mr P. Illaperuma (Mahaweli Authority) Mr K.N. Manamendraarachchi (Department of Archeology) Mr W.A.R. Asoka (Department of Wildlife Conservation)

National project team: Mr J.C.J, van Zon (Euroconsult / Wetland Conservation Project) Mr W. Benthem (Euroconsult / Wetland Conservation Project) Mr I. Dissanayake (Central Environmental Authority / Wetland Conservation Project) Mr K.U. Dias (Central Environmental Authority / Wetland Conservation Project) Mr C.D.S.K. Jayawardena (Department of Wildlife Conservation / Wetland Conservation Project) Dr J.I. Samarakoon (Wetland Conservation Project)

Technical review committee: Mrs S.E. Yasaratne (Central Environmental Authority) Mr P.A. Muthukumarana (Divisional Secretary Embilipitiya) Mr S. Ravindra (Divisional Secretary Thanamalvila) Mr C.D.S.K. Jayawardena (Department of Wildlife Conservation) Mr S. Liyanage (Forest Department) Mr P.C. Senaratne (Irrigation Department) Mr A.R. Atapattu (Fisheries Department) Mr S.W. Dissanayake (Environment Mahaweli Economic Agency) Mr Chairman (Sugar Company) Dr P. de Alwis (National Aquatic Resources Agency) Mr T.W. Hoffmann (Ceylon Bird Club) Dr J. Handawela (soil scientist)

Technical support: Mr D.C. de Silva (Wetland Conservation Project) Mr B.J. Tucker (Wetland Conservation Project) Mr K.M.W. Pathmakumara (Wetland Conservation Project)

Graphics and layout: Mr O.V. Premachandra (Wetland Conservation Project) Mrs A.D.H. Muthuminithilaka (Wetland Conservation Project) Mr S.G. Manawadu (Wetland Conservation Project) Mr K.M. Akram (Wetland Conservation Project)

Photography; Mr W. Benthem

Editor: Mr W. Benthem (Euroconsult) Mr K.W. Jeanes (Euroconsult)

Wetland Conservation Project - Natural Resources Management Division, Central Environmental Authority, 1st. floor, Maligawatte Secretariat, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka, fax. +94 1 439076. Euroconsult - P.O. Box 441, 6800 AK Arnhern, Netherlands, fax. +31 85 577577. 1 [ PREFACE

Wetlands are among the most productive areas in the world, in particular those situated in the tropics. Their shallowness, high temperature, high nutrient content and profusion of light, guarantee a large biomass turnover and rich and diverse plant and animal communities. For thousands of years wetlands have provided mankind with almost inexhaustible sources of food, building and utility materials. Today, they also contain a large part of the world's biological heritage.

Many wetland ecosystems have been, and to a large extent still are, indiscriminately exploited for commercial, agricultural, residential and industrial development, and at an increasing pace, as dumping grounds for domestic, agricultural and industrial waste. In the common opinion, wetlands are wastelands and thus are considered to be reclaimable for economic benefits.

On the basis of internationally determined criteria (Ramsar Convention), an Asian Wetland Inventory project was carried out in the 1980's. Its objective was to identify wetlands of international importance in every country in Asia. The inventory resulted in the publication of the Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989), presenting brief, and often preliminary descriptions of the significance and status of 947 Asian wetlands. For Sri Lanka the Directory indicates 41 sites, while a list of an additional 35 wetlands, considered to be of national importance, was prepared locally (Anon., 1989). An appreciable amount of information is available on these wetlands, but many gaps still exist and most data lack quantification.

An increase in environmental awareness among government and non-governmental organizations has recently resulted in commitment to sustain the ecological significance of wetlands. Various activities and projects have been recently initiated concerning wetland conservation and management, the Wetland Conservation Project (WCP) is one of these initiatives. The general objectives of WCP are:

- to assist in conservation and management of Sri Lanka's wetlands in a way that safeguards the country's biological diversity and genetic and ecological heritage; - to strengthen capabilities of authorities involved in both wetland conservation and development, in conceptualizing, planning, implementing and monitoring natural resource management.

The project started in September 1991 and is carried out by the Natural Resources Management Division of the Central Environmental Authority. Technical and financial assistance is provided by the Netherlands Government, while general supervision lies in the hands of the National Wetland Steering Committee. Activities of the project include creation and updating of a national database concerning wetlands, prioritization of wetlands for conservation and management effort, preparation of conservation management plans for selected wetland areas and provision of guidance for the implementation of these plans.

WETLANDS

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters (RAMSAR-convention, 1987). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The project team wishes to express its gratitude to the CEA management, the National Wetland Steering Committee and the Netherlands Embassy, without whom the project would not have been successful. A special word of thanks is dedicated to Mr G.K. Amaratunga (Chairman/CEA), Mrs S.E. Yasaratne (Director/Natural Resources Management Division, CEA) and H.E. Mr B.R. Korner (Netherlands Ambassador).

Assistance to the survey team was gratefully received from Mr J. Chandrasoma, Mr S.L.L. Karunaratne and Mr L.K. Seneviratne.

ii CONTENTS

Colophon Preface Acknowledgement Table of contents List of figures List of tables List of annexes Abbreviations and acronyms Taxonomic note Summary

1. INTRODUCTION

2. WETLAND CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 Location and demarcation of the study area

2.2 Landscape and physical features

2.3 Geology and geomorphology

2.4 Soils

2.5 Climate

2.6 Hydrology and water quality 2.6.1 Udawalawe reservoir 2.6.2 Catchment 2.6.3 Water quality 2.6.4 Groundwater

2.7 Flora 2.7.1 General 2.7.2 Phytoplankton 2.7.3 Vegetation and habitat types of Udawalawe National Park

2.8 Fauna 2.8.1 General 2.8.2 Zooplankton 2.8.3 Invertebrate fauna 2.8.4 Fishes 2.8.5 Amphibians 2.8.6 Reptiles 2.8.7 Birds 2.8.8 Mammals 2.8.9 In conclusion

2.9 Primary production of the Udawalawe reservoir

iii CONTENTS (Continued)

INTERACTION BETWEEN MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT

3.1 History

3.2 Administrative boundaries

3.3 Human population and socio-economics 3.3.1 Population numbers 3.3.2 Ethnicity, religion, age distribution and education levels 3.3.3 Employment and income 3.3.4 Public health 3.2.5 Housing

3.4 Institutional framework and land tenure

3.5 Water resources management

3.6 Land and resource use 3.6.1 General patterns 3.6.2 Fisheries 3.6.3 Agriculture 3.6.4 Animal husbandry 3.6.5 Forest resources and catchment conservation 3.6.6 Mineral resources 3.6.7 Tourism and visitor facilities

3.7 Conservation measures taken

3.8 Research activities

3.9 Development plans

VALUATION

4.1 Comparison of wetlands

4.2 The valuation system 4.2.1 Characteristics and benefits 4.2.2 Attributes 4.2.3 Functions 4.2.4 Uses 4.2.5 Values

iv CONTENTS (Continued)

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

5.1 General

5.2 Management objectives

5.3 Threats, disturbances and recommendations 5.3.1 (Re)organization of the DWLC 5.3.2 Law enforcement 5.3.3 Land use planning and coordination 5.3.4 Monitoring programme 5.3.5 Awareness creation 5.3.6 Control of human population growth

Annexes References LIST OF FIGURES

1. Location of the Udawalawe Reservoir within the Walawe Ganga river basin 2 2. The reservoir situated within the Udawalawe National Park 4 3. Geological formations within the Walawe catchment 6 4. Soil types in and around the study area 7 5. Annual rainfall totals within Sri Lanka 9 6. Average annual rainfall distribution at Embilipitiya 9 7. Annual temperature, relative-humidity and evaporation 9 8. In and outflow and water level fluctuations in the Udawalawe Reservoir 11 9. Elevation-volume-area relationship of the Udawalawe Reservoir 11 10. Average, maximum and minimum annual water level fluctuations (per month) of the Udawalawe Reservoir as experienced prior to the Samanalawewa project 11 11. Main tributaries in the Walawe catchment area and water sampling locations 13 12. Termal profdes at Station II in the reservoir 14 13. Dissolved oxygen profiles at Station II in the reservoir 14 14. Vegetation types in the Udawalawe National Park 16 15. Seasonal variation in gross primary production and net primary production in Station I and II 20 16. Approximate administrative boundaries in and around the study area 23 17. Prominent land and resource usage in and around the reservoir area 28 18. The total fish production per hectare for the period 1973-1984, the catch/craft/month and average number of craft operating each year 29 19. Walawe River basin development and proposed Mau Ara Reservoir 34

vi LIST OF TABLES

1. Salient features of Udawalawe Reservoir and dam 5 2. Some climatic data as recorded by the Sugar Research Institute at Sevanagala 8 3. Waterflow measuring stations and discharge records within the Walawe river basin 10 4. Density of phytoplankton (unit/1) at different depth at Station I 15 5. Density of zooplankton (number/1) in different depths in Station II 17 6. Vertebrate species found in the Udawalawe National Park 20 7. Some basic population and socio-economic characteristics of the three DSD's overlapping with the western sector of the reservoir 24 8. Species composition of fish catches in the Udawalawe Reservoir for the years 1973, 1981, 1982, 1983 and 1984 29 9. Land use in the downstream lands of the Udawalawe Reservoir 30 10. Revenue from the Park in 1993 32

LIST OF ANNEXES

1. Udawalawe National Park boundaries as given in Gazette No. 14 of 30 June 1972 45 2. Water quality analysis of samples taken at 11 locations in the Walawe River basin 46 3. List of phytoplankton (Genera) present in the Udawalawe Reservoir 47 4. List of plant species identified from the Udawalawe National Park 48 5. List of zooplankton (Genera) present in the Udawalawe Reservoir 52 6. Freshwater fish species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park 53 7. Amphibian species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park 54 8. Reptile species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park 55 9. Bird species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park 57 10. Mammal species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park 64 11. Rules and regulations pertaining to a National Park as declared under the FFPO 66

vii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS asl above sea level CBC Ceylon Bird Club CEA Central Environmental Authority CEB Ceylon Electricity Board CMP Conservation Management Plan DAS Department of Agrarian Services DS Divisional Secretary DSD Divisional Secretary's Division DWLC Department of Wildlife Conservation EIA Environmental Impact Assessment FD Forest Department FFPO Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance fsl full supply level GEF Global Environmental Facility GND Grama Niladhari Division ha hectare HIRDEP Hambantota Integrated Rural Development Programme ID Irrigation Department IRDP Integrated Rural Development Programme IUCN World Conservation Union IWRB International Waterfowl Research Bureau (UK) JICA Japanese International Cooperation Agency km kilometre KOISP Kirindi Irrigation and Settlement Programme LB Left Bank LHG Low Humic Gley (soils) MASL Mahaweli Authority Sri Lanka MD Meteorology Department MEA Mahaweli Economic Agency Mm3 Million cubic metre m metre MW mega-watt NARA National Aquatic Resources Agency NGO Non-Governmental Organization NORAD Norwegian agency for development cooperation NWSC National Wetland Steering Committee ppm parts per million RB Right Bank RBE Reddish-Brown Earths RVDB River Valley Development Board SD Survey Department SRI Sugar Research Institute TRC Technical Review Committee (of the NWSC) UNDP United Nations Development Programme UWNP Udawalawe National Park USAID United States Agency for International Development WCP Wetland Conservation Project WSR Wetland Site Report

viii NOTE ON NAMES AND TAXONOMY

Geographical names given in the text stem mainly from the 1 : 50,000 and "1-inch-to-a-mile" topographical maps of the Survey Department. Scientific names given in this report stem from the following sources.

Plants: Provisional Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Ceylon (Abeywickrama, 1959) The threatened plants of Sri Lanka (Abeywickrama, 1987) A list of endemic plants of Sri Lanka (Bandaranaike & Sultanbawa, 1991).

Fish: The marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon (Munro, 1951) Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka (Pethiyagoda, 1991).

Reptiles: A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon (Deraniyagala, 1953) Snake Fauna of Sri Lanka (De Silva, 1980).

Birds:

Checklist of the Birds of Sri Lanka (Wijesinghe, 1994)

Mammals: A Checklist of the Mammals of Sri Lanka (Arudpragasam et al., 1982)

ix SUMMARY

WETLAND CHARACTERISTICS

1. Location The study area, i.e. Udawalawe Reservoir and direct environs, is located 40 km inland from the southern coast at about 80 m asl and some 30 km south of the central highlands. The reservoir lies in the Udawalawe National Park.

2. Landscape and physical features The reservoir provides irrigation water to downstream (mostly) paddy and sugar cane lands and has the potential to generate 6 MW of hydro-electricity. At full supply level, the tank covers 3,400 ha; maximum depth is then about 20 m at the dam site. It is surrounded by open scrub jungle in the north and east and cultivations in the west and south. The tank lies in the lowest peneplain. Highest point in the catchment is at Kirigalpotta (2,395 m) on Horton Plains. The uplands are thinly populated and are further characterized by montane and sub-montane wet evergreen forests, patana grasslands and tea estates on the central highland slopes and Dry Zone forests on the dissected middle plateau of V- shaped hilly plains.

3. Geology and geomorphology The reservoir is located in the Highland Series, a geological formation of Pre-Cambrian origin. This is composed of quartz-feldspar-garnet granulites, quartzites, schists and gneisses. Where rock is not exposed, the terrain is covered by thin layers of alluvial and erosional deposits.

4. Soils The dominant types are: Reddish-Brown Earths and Low-humic Gley Soils on the convex uplands, alluvial soils along rivers and streams, and rock-knob plains and erosional remnants.

5. Climate The site falls in the Intermediate (rainfall) Zone and receives on average just over 1,500 mm annually. Most rain falls in October-December and in March-May; only 15-20% of the yearly total is received during the south-west monsoon (May-September). The average temperature is 28 °C and shows very small annual and diurnal variation. Annual relative humidity and evaporation are 76% and 1,871 mm respectively.

6. Hydrology and water quality The Udawalawe Reservoir (1967) and the upstream Samanalawewa Dam (1992) are the sole major water regulatory structures within the basin. The reservoir was made to provide irrigation to 12,000 ha on the river's right bank and 20,000 ha on the left bank but agricultural and associated settlement development lagged behind. Fairly detailed flow measurements data are available but data on water quality are scarce. Groundwater resources within the basin are very limited.

7. Flora Some research done on the phytoplankton of the reservoir revealed the occurrence of green and blue- green algae but algae blooms, being indicators of high pollution and nutrient loading levels, have not been recorded. The terrestrial flora (of the Park) consists of forested lands in various stages of succession and regeneration (after intensive clearing took place in the 1960/70's) and extensive grasslands. Of the 94 plant species recorded, 3 are endemic; one is considered as threatened (i.e. mandora Hopea cordifolia).

x 5. Fauna Fairly detailed surveys conducted so far recorded 21 species of fish (1 endemic (E) and threatened (T)), 12 species of amphibian (3E+T), 18 species of snakes (2E/7T), 15 species of tetrapod reptiles (6E/10T), 184 species of birds (8E/12T) and 39 species of mammals (3E/15T). Herewith the site scores from a bio-diversity point of view very high, despite the much degraded vegetation cover.

INTERACTION BETWEEN MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT

9. History Among the very few historical or cultural features known are various ancient irrigation structures in the surrounds.

10. Administrative boundaries Apart from being part of the National Park, the reservoir lies in the Uva and Sabaragamuwa Provinces, and within these, in the Monaragala and Ratnapura Districts respectively. Each District is further divided in Divisional Secretary's Divisions of which the most relevant ones are currently the Weligepola, Embilipitiya and Tanamalwila DSD's.

11. Human population and socio-economics Data available stem mostly from Resource Profiles that are usually based on large administrative units (i.e. DSD's); information is therefore mostly of a general nature and not very site specific. In 1979, a 6,000 squatters living within the Park boundary were evicted; present estimates indicate that still over 250 families reside (illegally) within the Park, in majority on the tank's western and south­ western fringes. Families belong to the low income levels and many are food stamp recipients.

12. Institutional framework The Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC) is the main responsible agency in charge of wildlife protection and habitat management. Operation of the reservoir is handled by the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL). The Mahaweli Economic Agency (MEA) bears responsibility for the settling of farmers and promoting socio-economic development; they mainly focus on the downstream areas. The Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) controls the hydro-power generation of the dam.

13. Water resources management Due to improper water management, mono-species cropping (paddy) and general over-design of (irrigation) development schemes, there has been shortage of water in the basin and therefore only 6,000 ha of the already clear felled and bulldozed envisaged 20,000 ha on the river's left bank have been developed. This triggered the construction of the upstream Samanalawewa Dam and extension of the Udawalawe Scheme with another 7,600 ha (ongoing).

14. Land and resource use People use lands within the Park for agriculture, grazing and various domestic purposes but also fishing, illegal timber felling and gem mining is practised, however all on subsistence level. Specific information of that part of the population that uses the Park's resources and to what extent are mostly lacking and data collection is seriously hindered, among others, because of conflicts that arose between residents and the DWLC.

75. Fisheries and animal husbandry About 53 crafts operate on the reservoir, a licence for this is required and is issued by the DWLC. Data on domestic animals roaming through the Park and their owners are missing. Opening up of more lands for irrigated development (south of the reservoir) has reduced the extent of land available for grazing purposes, and this stimulates encroachment into the Park.

xi 16. Forest and mineral resources Forests have been cleared on a large scale within the Park at the time of its establishment (in 1972) and in the upstream catchment, for example in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and prior to the construction of the Samanalawewa Reservoir. The biologically very rich original forests were often replaced by mono-species cultures of Pinus and Eucalyptus with a very low bio-diversity. At present, the large-scale logging practices within the Park aire under control and the vegetation is reportedly slowly recovering. There are some but unqualified prospects for mining of mineral resources (silica, mica, calcite, gems).

17. Tourism Still substantial herds of large mammals (elephant, deer) and other wildlife attract many tourists to the Park: in 1993 there were over 4,000 tourists that brought in almost Rs 2,7 million. This income is however entirely transferred to the Treasury through which Park facilities (bungalows, camp sites) and staff motivation are not what they could be.

18. Conservation and research The Park was established to protect the immediate upstream catchment from erosion and against silting up of the reservoir, and to accommodate wildlife in particular elephants. Boundary revisions attempted to exclude illegal settlers failed due to conflicts between the latter and the main authorities (i.e. DWLC). This grossly hinders the enforcement of the set rules and regulations. Research in and around the reservoir focused on fisheries, vegetation studies, mammals surveys and bird Censes.

19. Development projects and plans Those with an (potential) impact on the reservoir and Park include the preparation of a management plan for the Park under the GEF programme (planned); construction of a second large reservoir within the Park and diversion of Mau Ara waters (planned); further development of the left bank of the Udawalawe River (ongoing); reservoir fisheries development (planned); and an UNDP rainfed farming support project (ongoing).

VALUATION

20. On the basis of the valuation system adopted, it can be concluded that the preservation values of the reservoir and surrounds score generally high to very high. Functions score moderate to high, and uses score moderate to high. This implies that there are (potential) conflicts between conservation and development orientated activities, which only can be solved by preparation and implementation of a conservation management plan in which attention is given to all groups involved.

RECOMMENDATIONS

21. Main recommendations for the management of the reservoir and surrounds include: - support to the ongoing (re)organization of the DWLC and preparation of a conservation management plan for the UWNP; - enhancement of enforcement of rules and regulations pertaining to the UWNP through a combined set actions that include a clear national policy statement on the future of the country's protected areas, strengthening of the DWLC in preparation and implementation of plans, improvement of patrolling facilities, provision of alternative income means to illegal land and resource users; - land use planning in the Walawe watershed in which ample attention is given to protected areas and wildlife migration corridors to be coordinated through a Watershed Management Board; - setting up of a monitoring programme; - creation of awareness on the values and functioning of the reservoir and surrounds; - (re)activation of programmes to stop further increase of the human population.

xii WETLAND SITE REPORT 1. INTRODUCTION

The Udawalawe Reservoir is a large storage management plan or strategy has been prepared tank situated south of the central highlands at a as yet), it appeared that a document aiming at distance of about 40 km from the southern coast' providing these data in an overviewable format It provides irrigation waters to., downstream did not exist. The aim of the present document Cultivation tracts and generates on a limited scale ('is therefore, to provide such an overview in hydro-electricity. Located within the Udawalawe which the resulting data have been translated National Park, it falls under the direct 'into the form of. a Wetland Site Report with the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife . following: contents; Conservation. Main reasons for the creation of the Park in the early 1970's were to protect the Chapter 2 v Wetland characteristics immediate upstream catchment (to reduce Chapter 3 Interaction between man and the sedimentation of the reservoir) and to provide a environment ... refuge to wildlife that was displaced by the Chapter 4 Valuation of the wetland area opening up of-land in the lower reaches of the Chapter 5 Summary of conclusions and Walawe River, in particular for resident and recommendations migratory elephants. The document serves two purposes. First, to £ Hoffmann (1982), in his Provisional Inventory, provide data to allow a revised national ranking* • Of Wetlands iii Sri Lanka, appears to be one of of wetlands (to be done at a later stage) into-1 the first authors to have emphasized the those which should be unconditionallyji'^'' \ conservation value of the site. He stated the preserved, those that should be allowed to be-'* reservoir to be "of particular importance for exploited e6nditionally-(and under what, |' waterbirds, e.g. for storks, egrets, pelicans, conditions),, and those that could be leftf open for cormorants, etc.". The reservoir was \ less constrained development. Second, to furthermore included as .-site no. "60" in a list of :prwide;a base from which priorities of action wetlands that were considered to be of national can be formulated and actions initiated 'in order importance (Anon., 1989) but that were omitted ; to; implement conservation management. from the Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989). Inclusion in the latter publication would The study has proceeded through various stages.

have led to the unofficial status of "wetland-of ; .First, published,documents, unpublished reports international importance". 'and field data were collected and discussions '< ! • were held.with local organizations such as the | ' • ' .. . involved government line agencies, local The reservoir and immediate surrounds and the - governments, local resource users. The collected associated natural resources, are increasingly / data were then presented by the contracted under threat of various developments. These, survey team as a first draft site report. ^ include encroachment by settlers, grazing by -r Subsequently, the project team followed up to domestic animals that compete with, wildlife fill in data gaps and check field data, through species, poaching, and various plans arid further site visits and interviews. The resulting existing projects .that, in potential, may reduce second draft report was then prepared and put the still very diverse plant and animal bio­ up for review by a Technical Review Committee diversity. of the National Wetland Steering Committee : Before any meaningful assessment can be made, (NWSC), whereafter the final document was of actions to be taken that should lead to revised and published. effective cppsefvation management, one first has to obtain an up-to-date data base on,- for example, the biophysical characteristics1 (including fauna and flora), patterns of resource usage, development plans and associated problem issues of the area. Although some information had been.collectedralready in this respect (i.e. on fisheries, mammals, birds; no

l: Figure 1. Location of the Udawalawe Reservoir within the Walawe Ganga river basin

2 2. WETLAND CHARACTERISTICS The reservoir is surrounded by open scrub jungle in the north and east, and by cultivation areas in the west and south. In the west these 2.1 Location and demarcation of the are partly illegal (because of their situation study area within the Park) chena plots, while in the south, below the bund, there are sugar cane plantations The Udawalawe Reservoir is situated in the and paddy fields. In the south-eastern corner of country's lowest peneplain at approximately 80 the tank there are teak plantations. Characteristic m above sea level (asl), about 40 km inland for the reservoir itself are the many dead tree from the southern coast and 30 km south of the trunks standing in the water, in particular central highlands (Figure 1). Administratively, it prominent at low water levels. They are the falls in the Sabaragamuwa and Uva Provinces remnants of the jungle that existed before the (the borderline runs through the middle of the construction of the reservoir commenced. reservoir) and within these, in the Ratnapura and Monaragala Districts respectively. Other infrastructural features in the reservoir surrounds are a network of Park tracks (all The southern and south-western limits of the untarred), bungalows, camp sites and staff reservoir almost coincide with the boundaries of quarters (Figure 2); and the Udawalawe the Udawalawe National Park (Figure 2), (Timbolketiya)-Tanamalwila road (tarred) that hereafter called the Park, that was established in runs over the dam and which forms the southern 1972. The exact Park boundaries as noted in limit of the Park. Nearest town and market is Gazette No. 14 of 30 June 1972 are given in Embilipitiya at about 20 km to the south-west of Annex 1. the reservoir.

According to the topographical 1 : 50,000 map, With respect to some catchment details, the sheet No. 82, of the Survey Department (SD, Udawalawe Reservoir sits in the Walawe River 1985), the centre of the reservoir is basin in a slightly downwards sloping plain geographically roughly located at 6° 27'N (average gradient of 2 m/km) that spreads below latitude and 80° 50'E longitude, while the Park the central highlands towards the sea. Highest itself falls between 6° 25'N and 6° 35'N and 80° points in the surrounds are Ulgala Hill (at 400 m 43'E and 81° 00'E. asl) and Galbokaya Hill (at 550 m asl), located respectively north and west at about 5 km from The present study focuses on the reservoir and the tank fsl. The highest point in the catchment immediate surrounds. However, as land use is at Kirigalpotta, Sri Lanka's second highest management issues of the wetland are closely peak at 2,395 m, located on the Horton Plains. related to the management of the Park itself and catchment of the Walawe River, it was decided The Walawe River, with a total catchment of that the study should also pay attention to these 2,442 km2 has an estimated average discharge important land units. volume of 2,165 million m3 into the sea (Survey Department, 1988) of which a 268 million m3 (JICA, 1993) can be stored as live storage in the 2.2 Landscape and physical features reservoir. This volume is used to provide the downstream Udawalawe Irrigation Project. The The multi-fingered reservoir is among the upper basin consists of two major branches. One largest man-made tanks in Sri Lanka. At full is the Weli Oya; the other is the Uda (=upper)- supply level (fsl), which is normally reached at Walawe and in its course also the the end of the main rainy season in November, Samanalawewa project is located (Figure 1). The the surface water coverage can amount up to upland plateau part of the catchment and the about 3,400 ha (8,430 ac). The reservoir serves Peak Wilderness forest are very thinly two primary purposes: it provides irrigation populated, but some parts of the reservoir's waters to downstream cultivation areas, and catchment, are full of human activities and this devices constructed in the dam have the capacity has an impact on the study site. to generate 6 MW of hydro-electricity. Some dimensions of the catchment, reservoir, dam and The Walawe catchment is rather special in power units are given in Table 1. structure and compared to other river basins in

3 I Sri Lanka. This is because the river passes over 2.3 Geology and geomorphology a short distance and almost in a straight line through all three distinctive physiographic land According to the National Atlas (Survey divisions (Dr Handawela, pers.comm.). It Department, 1988), the major part of the originates at the highest peneplain, drops down Walawe catchment, and the entire reservoir and the southern escarpment to the middle plain and environs, is located in the Highland Series from here it drops down again to the lowest (Figure 3). This series is one of the two main peneplain. These plains can often be seen from geological formations in Sri Lanka, both are of the reservoir when looking north. the Pre-Cambrian era. Most of the western

Table 1. Salient features of Udawalawe Reservoir and dam (JICA, 1993); data indicated with * are extracted from other sources

Reservoir 1) Catchment area 1,164.8 km3 2) Capacity at F.S.EL 268.76 Mm'(WL 88.39) m) 3) Capacity at DS EL 26.26 Mm3 (WL 74.98 m) 4) F.S.L WL 88.39 m 5) H.F.L WL 90.21 m 6) Coverage FSL* 3,408 ha 7) Depth at dam (FSL)* about 20 m

Dam 1) Type Rolled Earthfiii 2) Maximum Height 36.57 m 3) Length 4.9 km 4) Top elevation 90.52

Spillway 1) Radial Gated Structures i) No. and size of gates 5 nos. 18.96 m (W) x 6.60 m(H) it) Spill EL of gates 82.18m

2) Natural i) Length 366 m ii) Crest EL 88.69 m

Power unit 1) Right Bank i) Type Kaplan Vertical ii) Installed capacity* 2 MW iii) Minimum operation EL 79.4 m

2) Left Bank j) Type Kaplan Vertical it) Installed capacity* 4 MW iii) Minimum operation EL 79.4 m

5 Figure 3. Geological formations within the Walawe catchment (Survey Department, 1988)

sector of the catchment and the reservoir site feldspathic gneisses and granulite, itself classify as "undifferentiated Highland crystalline limestone, quartzite and Series" composed of a wide complex of quartz- charnockite (2nd or middle peneplain); feldspar-garnet granulites, quartzites, schists and iii) the lowland with undulating surface gneisses. The eastern sector of the catchment occasionally broken by hills of bedrock (1st belongs to the Vijayan Series (i.e. the other or lowest peneplain). main geological group), but, reasonably speaking, this series does not impact on the More recent studies (i.e. Cooray, 1984) indicate study site. that the middle peneplain is dominated by Highland Series rock dominated by garnet- Additional information on the area's geology is sillimanite schists and gneisses, which are reportedly (survey team) embodied in the sometimes called kondalites (Dr Handawela, Colombo Plan Survey report (Anon., 1960). pers. comm.). According to this source, the Walawe watershed system consist of three sectors, i.e.: Where rocks are not exposed, the terrain is largely covered by alluvial and erosional i) the upper crest-escarpment composed of deposits of holocene, pleistocene and older massive charnockites interbedded with formations. These deposits are usually a dark layers of quartzite (3rd or highest reddish-brown sandy loam, largely containing peneplain); intermittent and older basal gravel layers. It is ii) a dissected plateau of V-shaped gorges largely ferruginous in character and sometimes characterized by several rock types of the includes gem gravel and occasionally, traces of Khondalite Series, chiefly quartzo- gold (Colombo Plan Survey, 1960, and records

6 of the Geological Survey, as quoted by the residues weathered from gneiss. They also survey team). Alluvium deposits are of about 20 predominate in the valleys and on the gentler to 30 m in thickness (JICA, 1993). slopes of the upland and highland areas, where they have developed in residuum weathered As far as the mineral resources within the basin from several different rocks, including gneiss. are concerned, the National Adas shows that the Alluvial soils are those which have developed in south-western gem bearing area overlaps with material that has been transported and deposited the western part of the catchment area. Also by rivers. The largest tracks of alluvial soils lie here, in particularly near Godakewela, mica is near the mouths of the Walawe River and the present as well as small locations with Kuchigal Ara (JICA, 1993). crystalline limestone and quartzite layers. Locations with serpentinite were identified in the In the wetter parts of the Walawe basin, the upper, middle and lower reaches of the basin. soils have been formed under the influence of a climate which is rainy and fairly warm throughout the year. Therefore, leaching is 2.4 Soils continuous and the soils are almost permanently moist, even though there may be nothing in the In the Walawe basin, soils have been developed texture or structure of the soil or in the slope to from residual and alluvial materials (JICA, prevent rapid internal and external drainage. 1993). Residual soils are those developed from Because of this moisture regime, the parent material, derived by weathering in situ, sesquioxides tend to assume a hydrated form, of the bedrock beneath it. They predominate on which imparts a characteristic brown and the lowland plain, where they have developed as yellowish-red colour to the soils (JICA, 1993).

Figure 4. Soil types in and around the study area (Survey Department, 1988)

7 According to the National.• Atlas;(1988)jthejsoils 2.5 Climate in the study;area and upstream-catchment :ta'- include three main,types (Figure 4): These are-L Within the Walawe River basin there are 200: ;

as follows..: '•;>.'•?'.'• r: •::.(•'•} n-b ?mts- xxh hydrological data generating stations, but some are not operating (JICA, 1993). These stations.' i) Reddish Brown Earths (RBE) - the -well/ f' f/. areunder:mepurview of me Meteorology';: idrained-and:imperfectly-drained RBE;occur Department (MD), the Agriculture Department • oh:the convex'uplands and:mid-slopes: 'is •'••i (AD), the Irrigation Department (ID) and- : -respectively and Lo'w-hu'mic Glev Soils ' a- various estates. Tliere:is a meteorological station (LHG) - the poorly drained 'members, occur>•• at Udawalawe near-the: tahkrbund (Dr f :)•<,« in the concave valleys and bottom-lands. Handawela,vpeT,y.comm.).-: The next nearest ii) Alluvial soils -. agriculturally 'less important ? statiohris^affabout 8 km south-east of the i; alluviallsoils:are.found in some locations [;o - reservoir dam site ;(at Habaralu Wewa) and is"! :: along rivers and streamsiastnarrow strips. >: maintained by the Sugar Research Institute (SRI) They are of variable1 texture and drainage. ;1 ? at Sevanagala. Observed average values for iii)i Other ;land':units formlthe rock-knob plains some climatic parameters are given in Table 2-.\ i '•• ?and erb'sionaliremnantsf with1 variably, eroded

•J- ShallOW:SOilSV ii-'.1.'-. '>'•'•'• n-.-X' X) ifijj."-- Climatically- v the reservoir lies inthe: ': . Intermediate' (rainfall) LHG's (survey team). Drainage1 varies-here frbm rainfall)1. :Mean annual^ rainfall of the Walawe >fu poor to fair depending on the composition of river basin is 2,050 mm, while that of the subsurface layers.. Alluvial-soils occur-mainly -eatchmentsvofIthe Udawalawe-and-———

along the WalaweGahga flopd;plain and ih;the;. Samarialawewa reser^^ | reservoir bed. Texture;and drainage are highly 2,880 mmres'pectiyely'(M^aw ; variable. The terrain is usually:flat with slight Water Management Division). / . accumulation of organic matter at the surface. ' Iti .all -p^i^:Qf:d)ei4owland plain the thickness of The seasonal"distribution of rainfall, of great\ j thb resi!u)i^;mahfle^including both the soil significance for cultivations, is.given iii Figure • ^ipfA^^^^^m^^itr^i parent material 6. .As can be'seen from ihis Figure, rainfall is /: ; b^en'^^it^^sjlo^alty^es^ar^^ m; and the j hot evenly distributed: .throughout the year. Most • thickness\of the soil iprofile;itself seldom greater Vfairifalls4h 'two-distinctive periods: in October- than 1.5 ra (Colombo Plan Survey). December and in March-May. The first rainy

Table 2. Some climatic data as recorded by the Sugar Research Institute at Sevanagala (survey liiiis

Annual Mean Mean mean max. min.

Rainfall (mm) 1,411 276* 29* Temperature (°C) 28.2 32.6 23.6 Humidity (%) 75.6 82.8 69.2 Evaporation (mm) 1.872 196* 116* Sunshine (hrs.) 2,447 232* 176* Wind velocity (km/h) ^^^^^^^ 8.6 2.4

per month

8 A' Reservoir ~~~| 1000 mm

1000- 1250mm PTTfl 1250-iSOOmm ' pjnTI 1S00-2p00mm H1IQ 2000-25.00mm i 2500-UP00mm •. 4066-5000mm >5000mm

Figure 5. Annual rainfall totals within Sri Figure 6. Average annual rainfall distribution -Lanka (MeteorologyDepartment) at Embilipitiya

season overlaps with the second intermonsoonal period (October-November) and the start of the north-east monsoon (December-February). The second rainy season coincides with the first intermonsoonal period (March-April) and the 'early part of the south-west monsoon (May- | September).'Thelocation of the basin with - .respect to the main highland areas is such that ; most of it lies more open to the influence of the i north-east monsoon than that of the south-west •monsoon. Over most of it, the five south-west monsoon months,: contribute only 15-20 % of the ; yearly total (JICA, 1993). i J«n Fab MM *»r May •>•• J>l *•» Ban Oot He* Oao ; The entire Walawe basin is characterized by Ti»a > extremely small annual and diurnal ranges of — Eva-on H~ Haa>-« -*-.TM-C . j temperature. The; average annual temperature in ' the basin is about 28 °C, varying little from place to place within the basin. In general, in the lower reaches the rainfall is rather ineffective during the south-west monsoonal season, because of a combination of a low rainfall and Figure 7. Annual temperature, relative- high evapo-transpiration (JICA, 1993). humidity and evaporation Desiccating winds blow strongly throughout conditions, and is low in the months from June most of July-September. These winds accelerate to October (Figure 8). The gross storage of the evaporation and hence reduce to a significant reservoir is 269 Mm3 and the live storage is 240 degree the beneficial effects of what little M3. The elevation-volume-area relationship rainfall comes during those months. Annual (area-capacity curves) of the reservoir is given relative-humidity and evaporation at the in Figure 9. Sevanagala Station are 76% and 1,871 mm respectively. Monthly variation of these The average, maximum and minimum annual parameters are shown in Figure 7. water volume fluctuations (per month) of the Udawalawe Reservoir as experienced prior to the Samanalawewa project is shown in Figure 2.6 Hydrology and water quality 10.

2.6.1 Udawalawe Reservoir Apart from supplying irrigation schemes that were already in existence further downstream With the building of an earthen dam across the (e.g. Ridiyagama Scheme), the reservoir was Walawe River by the River Valley Development intended to irrigate 32,000 ha of new lands, Board (RVDB) in 1967, the Udawalawe both on the river's right (12,000 ha) and left Reservoir came into existence. Its main (20,000 ha) banks. The head works were functions are to provide irrigation water and to completed in 1967, but agricultural and generate hydro-electricity. Some physical settlement planning and development lagged features of the reservoir were already given in behind. Details on the current development are Section 2.2 and Table 1. given in Section 3.5.

Out of 2,442 km2 of the Walawe basin (Survey The two power plants, one on the left bank (2x Department, 1988), the Udawalawe Reservoir 2 MW) and the other on the right bank (lx 2 receives the drainage of 1,155 km2 (Table 3) MW), use the energy of sluice water at the head from the northern upper catchment, or 47% of of each sluice. The power plants were the total catchment. The average annual inflow commissioned in 1967 and the Ceylon into the reservoir is 900 Mm3, based on 31-year Electricity Board (CEB) is responsible for data from 1960 to 1990 (JICA, 1993). The management and maintenance of these. Some of inflow is directly related to the monsoonal the controlling features are given in Table 1.

Table 3. Waterflow measuring stations and discharge records within the Walawe river basin

Station Drainage Annual Discharge Basin Average (mm) (km2) (Mm3) siiiiii-isiiiiiii

Belihul Oya 90 1,839 Samanalawewa 353 591 1,675 Werugala 261 212 812 Mawigala 609 Waguregama ililliiiiiiiililllliiiWiisiica lllllliiiiiiiiiiiii Udawalawe 1,155 1,018 881 Timbolketiya 269 156 581 Embilipitiya 1,580 1,417 897 Moderawana 109 34 320 Halmilaketiya 166 llllilllllli 247 Mahagama 366 yilllllllliiiiPiillllliilOiiOr 148 Liyangastota 2,284 2,697 1,181

10 o o Inflow

S 0 N D J FMAMJJASONDJF. Months

Figure 8. In and outflow and water level fluctuations in the Udawalawe Reservoir (Chandrasoma et. al., 1986)

Volums - fill MS

Jul AuO S«P Oct N*v D*C

Figure 10. Average, maximum and minimum annual water level fluctuations (per month) of the Udawalawe Reservoir as experienced prior to the Figure 9. Elevation-volume-area relationship of Samanalawewa project the Udawalawe Reservoir

11 The hydro-power plants can operate in between the Walawe River basin were taken and analyzed 88.4 m asl (max) and 75 m asl (min). under the JICA study (JICA, 1993) in order to assess the suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. Samples were taken at 11 different 2.6.2 Catchment locations but no samples were collected from the reservoir itself (Figure 11). However, one Some catchment and climatological details were station (i.e. No 7) has been the starting point of already given in Sections 2.2 & 2.5, the LB main canal of the reservoir. Groundwater respectively. The Walawe Ganga river basin has samples from six dug wells, surface river water with 2,442 km2 the 6th largest catchment in the samples from four locations and the waste water island (Survey Department, 1988). Main of the paper mill have been examined. Annex 2 tributaries of the Walawe River are shown in presents the results of all stations. Figure 11. Flow measurements within the basin have been carried out at 13 locations by the Based on this analysis, surface river water can •Irrigation Department (JICA, 1993). These are be used for drinking and irrigation without any summarized in Table 3. treatment. Water from dug wells needs to be treated when used for drinking or irrigation. In Two of the main tributaries, the Weli Oya and the latter, electricity conductivity values are the Belihul Oya, flow from an area which has higher than the standard for irrigation water, copious rainfall, especially during the inter- 300 /iS/cm. The pH values of the samples range monsoon and north-east monsoon periods. The from 6.5 to 8.5. main stream of the Walawe River and tributaries entering it from the west also originate in an "Suspended sediment" ranges from 50 to 200 area of heavy rainfall which is concentrated mg/1, as against an allowable limit of 50 mg/1 during the inter-monsoon and south-west for fish and less than 100 mg/1 for crops. monsoon periods (JICA, 1993). Dissolved oxygen posed no threat to living organisms. Fluorine and chlorine from the dug The river has a perennial flow throughout its well samples exceeded World Health length. Nevertheless, the flow fluctuates greatly Organization (WHO) standards for drinking from season to season and from one year to the water. next. In the hill country, a combination of steep slopes and high rainfall results in rapid rates of Another study undertaken on the Udawalawe runoff and large volumes of water in the rivers, Reservoir gives more specific details which is contrary to the lowland plain with its (Chandrasoma et. al., 1986). This study was milder rainfall and slopes (JICA, 1993). : conducted at two locations (Station I and II) which are also marked on Figure 11. A thermal Within the basin, two major reservoirs have profile for Station II is given in Figure 12. , been constructed. The first and core focus of the Highest water temperature at surface and bottom current study, is the Udawalawe Reservoir, and levels was 31.6 °C (St. I; May 1984) and 28.5 the second the recently completed (1992) °C (St. II; February 1985) respectively. The Samanalawewa Reservoir (Figure 1). Until the lowest were 28.0 °C (St. I; December 1984) and building of Samanalawewa Dam (catchment 25.0 °C (St. I; March 1984) respectively. The area: 340 km2), there was no other main water lowest and highest temperature difference regulating structure in the catchment than the between the surface and the bottom were 1.5 °C Udawalawe Reservoir. The Samanalawewa (St. II; February 1985) and 5.6 °C (St. I; May Reservoir (storage: 270 Mm3) releases water 1984) respectively. Except for December 1984 after generating power back into the Walawe and February 1984, temperature difference River and flows then into Udawalawe Reservoir. between the surface and the bottom varied between 3.5 °C to 5.6 °C. In view of the above, thermal stratification has been a regular feature 2.6.3 Wafer quality in Udawalawe Reservoir even at the inflow point of the river. At times, the difference between Inflow into the reservoir is received directly the surface and bottom layers was as much as 5 °C over a depth of 18 m. Monthly shifts in from rain and runoff and indirectly from various thermocline occurred. upstream storage sources. Water samples within

12 13 0 -|

4 •

/ /^\Dec.'83

8 - e. /\ Nov. '83 o. ai u- | «

16'

JJan. '84 20. 4 0 2 4 6 8 10 temperature (°C) (mg/1)

Figure 12. Termed profiles at Station 11 in the Figure 13. Dissolved oxygen profiles at Station reservoir (Chandrasoma et. al, 11 in the reservoir (Chandrasoma et. 1986) al, 1986)

In accordance with the same study, dissolved ppm. Highest values reached were 95 ppm and oxygen profiles at Station II are given in Figure 93 ppm for Station I and II respectively, with 13. Surface dissolved oxygen varied from 6.0 lowest values reached in both stations of 50 mg/1 (February 1985) to 9.6 mg/1 (December ppm. Absence of free carbondioxide in the 1983). Significant differences in dissolved surface waters indicates a high phytoplankton oxygen with the depth can be seen for both density and a high photosynthesis activity. stations. In Station I, well oxygenated conditions along the entire water column were found almost Highest and the lowest pH values observed at throughout the study period. The depth-dissolved the surface were 9.1 and 7.3 respectively. oxygen curve for Station II indicates that, except Lowest pH value at the bottom was 7.1. for the months July, October and December, all Stratification of pH was a significant feature. other months well oxygenated conditions were Gradients of 1.1 - 2.0 were noted between the noted at the top 6-8 meters of the water column surface and the bottom on most occasions. and that below this depth, severe oxygen deficits Considerable gradients in pH indicate biological occurred. activity. According to Verduin (1960), a change in pH value reflects the productivity of waters, Free carbondioxide was absent in the surface and a pH change is used to measure relative waters for most of the time. Phenolphthalein productivity of waters. A change in pH of 1 unit 3 alkalinity values were very low and maximum represents approximately removal of 2 g C/m from the HC0 in water (Verduin, 1975). values noted were 4.8 ppm (November 1984) 3 and 5.3 ppm (December 1984) for Station I and II respectively. Highest total alkalinity values recorded were 105 ppm (September 1983) for 2.6.4 Groundwater Station I and 104.3 ppm (September 1983) for Station II. Lowest recorded total alkalinity No major groundwater basins or aquifers have values were 53.0 ppm (January 1984) and 51.1 been identified in the whole of the Walawe basin ppm (March 1984) for Station I and II (Survey Department, 1988). Groundwater is respectively. Two peaks in total alkalinity could generally scarce. In the southern sector of the be observed in September-October 1983 and basin, it is often saline. The limited groundwater October 1984. For the major part of the study stocks do not hold much promise as a source for period, hardness ranged between 50 and 70 irrigation and drinking (JICA, 1993). Geological

14 studies indicate that the basin has hard fractured Lowland Plain, rock with limited, localized groundwater iii) The National Park surrounding the resources. Most areas consist of crystalline rock reservoir. that is impervious and non-porous. However, these rocks are traversed by discontinuities like These three major habitat types fall into two joints and foliation where some water is found, distinguished eco-systems, i.e. the lake and groundwater yield from these fractures is (reservoir) eco-system and vegetation types of somewhat reliable. the UWNP.

2.7 Flora 2.7.2 Phytoplankton

2.7.1 General The phytoplankton species recorded from the Udawalawe Reservoir by Chandrasoma et. al. Within the Walawe Ganga basin, five distinct (1986) are given in Annex 3. These species were natural regions have been distinguished, each identified from water samples collected from having its own characteristic pattern of land use, Stations I and II (Figure 11). The recorded fauna and flora (Colombo Plan Survey Report, densities of phytoplanktons at Station I are given 1960). With respect to the reservoir area under in Table 4. study, the regions with the most relevance to the sustainability of the Udawalawe Reservoir are The study revealed the permanent occurrence of the Central Highlands region (which forms the green algae (especially Pediastrum sp. and upper watershed), the Upland Platform region Scenedesmus sp.) and blue-green algae (in which the Samanalawewa Reservoir sits), (especially Microcystis sp.). However, a dense and the Udawalawe National Park (which lies in bloom of these algae, as reported in polluted the Intermediate Lowland region). These form waters in other countries (e.g. India: Ganapati, the environs and catchment area of the reservoir. 1960; Sreenivasan, 1964), was not noted from the reservoir. There are three major habitat types surrounding the Udawalawe Reservoir. These are: 2.7.3 Vegetation and habitat types of the i) The reservoir waters and immediate marshy Udawalawe National Park fringes. ii) The Walawe Ganga and major tributaries The Park includes forested land in various stages within the Park and lower reaches within the of succession, along with extensive grasslands.

Table 4. Density of phytoplankton (unit/1) at different depth at Station I (Chandrasoma et. at,

Depth Aug. 1984 Oct. 1984 Dec. 1984 Feb. 1985

Surface 18,199 20,058 8,900 8,120

I tn 22,856 23,022 9,880 14,218

2 m 22,000 24,850 9,624 9,658

3 m 24,160 22,184 9,800 9,100 4 m 19,856 16,470 6,920 8,710

5 m 18,658 11,426 6,875 3,460 Mean density 20,954 19,668 8,666 8,877

15 The forested lands have largely been clearedJn places.; Open areas can-also provide a pathway .; 1960's, prior to the declaration of UWNP. The for invader plantspecies such as Urena lobata... grassland communities appear to be largely- (Appala) and Illuk to; invade and dominate an anthropogenic, and are the result of past slash- entire ecosystem. n and-burn (chena) cultivation.The dominant species in most of these area are the grasses.- Woodlands and grasslands in the Park provide • : Panicum maximum and Imperata cylindrica suitable habitat for a number of wild herbivores, (Illuk). The latter is of low nutritional value and : in particular elephants, but also to large herds of largely palatable only in its early growth stages. domestic animals such a cattle and buffalo. The grass is consumed by herbivores, including These, together with the periodical man-induced elephants, wild buffalo and deer, although these fires, keep most of the grassland over: the years species would select more palatable and without much change. The Forest Department nutritious grasses, if these would be available. embarked on a tree plantation programme (teak), before the Park was gazetted in 1972. The grassland areas form an extensive; network between the reservoir proper and more dense ; In 1992, a study was?done to identify vegetation vegetation types. Such a network is generally types and land use categories in the Park ; . : supportive to more diverse and abundant wildlife (Vattala & Dhanapala,' 1992). The study • -n i."- populations, in particular to the elephant identified 22 land use and^vegetation categories; population which is attracted to it. However too but the unpublished DWLC report could not be<; much of open grassland eliminates important traced back entirely; in'particular the map- - " habitat requirements (more exposure to prey remained missing.- A generalized vegetation' :•• H, grounds used by carnivores and poachers), and pattern within the'Park, as-given by Laurie & '\ri may reduce animal species variety on such Miththapala (1994) is shown in Figure 14. : '>i

HUMAN HABTATltfM * ACTil/inEi • /

SMfAR CAK/e PWMfATIOlJ / B»IVI6A«/\

ASAWDONtP Tea* :' v A

PRY MetfSooN F«(t£ST

TTEUIH MEST

Riv/ed

RoAp

PA.IU 801ANPACV

fAfcK fcNr«A«t£

RAMC,fc/8tAf OfPite

PARK 8Mrt<;Au)vJ To IAAIAIVI/

J MM 4.

Figure 14. Vegetation types in the Udawalawe National Park (from: Laurie & Miththapala, 1994)

16 A full list of plant species recorded from the available with different sources. The Ceylon Park is given in Annex 4. Bird Club (CBC) carries out an annual mid­ winter waterfowl census, in collaboration with According to this Annex, of the total of 94 International Waterfowl Research Bureau species recorded from the Park, 3 are endemic. (IWRB), UK. Additional observations have been These are: mandora Hopea cordifolia, done by Park officials, Karunaratne (1990) and Memecylon petiolatum and Jasminum the current survey team (in 1993). angustifolium. Mandora is also the only species in the Annex that is considered threatened (IUCN, 1993); it is confined in its distribution 2.8.2 Zooplankton to the riverine forests of the Park (Vattala, pers.comm.). As for the other two endemic Samples collected from the reservoir by species, both are not confined to their Chandrasoma et.al. (1986) revealed the distribution to the Park area but details on zooplankton population consisting of rotifers, abundance of these species in Sri Lanka are not cladocerans, copopods and ostracods (Annex 5). available. In general, the most abundant taxonomic group formed the rotifers. The numerical contribution of rotifers in the zooplankton samples ranged 2.8* Fauna from 65% to 97%. Among the rotifers the most abundant were the Brachionus, Keratella, 2.8.1 General Euchlanis, Diurella and Asplanchna species in almost all samples. Diaptomus and Cyclops Udawalawe National Park is popular among dominated among the copepods, while Daphnia visitors since elephants can usually be observed, was dominant among cladocerans. Most even at mid-day. It is estimated that a 350 significant feature in the seasonal variation of elephants roam in the Park, both resident and zooplankton is the presence of large numbers of migratory (elephant census, 1993). Availability colonial rotifers (Conochilus sp.) in the samples of water in the reservoir, even during the driest collected in July and August 1984. In these periods, provides good habitat for these animals. months, 90% of the zooplankton consisted of Conochilus sp.. Table 5 shows the densities of Most of the information available on the fauna zooplankton at different depths for the months of the Park stems from Department of Wildlife August, October and December 1984 and Conservation (DWLC) records. A specific study February 1985. Mean density of zooplankton in was done on small mammals (Karunaratne, the top 5 meters of the water column varied 1990). Detailed information on the avifauna is from 60 to 1,032 per litre.

Table 5. Density of zooplankton (number/1) in different depths in Station II

Depth Aug. 1984 Oct. 1984 Dec. 1984 Feb. 1985 Surface 450 800 128 44

1 m 252 800 60 28 2 m 320 1,500 30 llijilll 3 m 240 880 96 106 4 m 224 1,400 IIIIJIIJIIIIIJ^^I 58 5 m BlilllillllSSlilBilllll 816 68 56 Mean density 259 1,032 75 60

17 2.8.3 Invertebrate fauna Kukri Snake); Chrysopelea ornata (Flying Snake); Melanochelys trijuga (Hard-shelled No information was found to be available on Terrapin); Testudo elegans (Star Tortoise); invertebrate fauna of the reservoir, nor the Park Lissemys punctata (Soft-shelled Terrapin), and area (survey team). A rich Hemiptera fauna was the Crocodylus palustris (Marsh Crocodile). The noted in the reservoir (Mr Liyanage, Python is listed in the IUCN Red Data Book as pers. comm.). globally threatened (IUCN, 1988). Due to inconsistencies in reptile species taxonomy, some more species found in the Park might 2.8.4 Fishes classify as threatened.

Annex 6 lists the 21 species of fishes that were recorded from the Park (Karunaratne, 1990). 2.8.7 Birds Only one species is endemic: the Stone Sucker Garra ceylonensis. It is recorded from the At least 184 bird species have been recorded Walawe River within the Park boundaries. This from the Park (Annex 8). Eight of these are species is also listed in the National Status endemic and at least 12 are regarded as Report (IUCN, 1993) as threatened. Details of threatened. The latter include: Galloperdix the fishery are discussed in Section 3.6.2. Five bicalcarata (Sri Lanka Spurfowl), Gallus species occurring are introduced. lafayetti (Sri Lanka Junglefowl), Ocyceros gingalensis (Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill), Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus (Red-faced 2.8.5 Amphibians Malkoha), Loriculus beryllinus (Lorikeet), and Zoothera spiloptera (Spotted-winged Thrush). Twelve amphibian species have been recorded However, the status of some of these bird from the Park (Annex 7), of which three species species is disputed (pers.comm. Mr Hoffmann, are endemic: the Atukorale's Dwarf Toad Bufo Ceylon Bird Club). Status determination is atukoralei, Philautus hypomelas and the furthermore hindered for some species by the Burrowing Frog Tomopterna breviceps; they are inconsistency of taxonomic spelling in the also listed as threatened (IUCN, 1993). No various sources consulted. information is available on their abundance and distribution, in the Park, nor the island. The One endemic species recorded is Pellorneum toad has been recorded close to small fuscocapillum (Brown-capped Babbler). It is fragmented water holes, especially along the fairly common and widely distributed in the Walawe River. country. According to the National Status Report (IUCN, 1993) one species is included in the Red Data Book: the Red-faced Malkoha 2.8.6 Reptiles Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus.

In total 33 reptile species have been recorded During the IWRB waterfowl census 1988-1992, from the Park: 18 serpentoid reptiles (snakes) a 33 migrant species were recorded from the and 15 tetrapod reptiles (Annex 8). Two of the Park. This census is conducted by the Ceylon former and six of the latter are endemic Bird Club around December each year, and including: Rhinophis oxyrhynchus (Schneider's coincides with the bird migratory season. Earth Snake), Trimeresurus trigonocephaly (Green Pit Viper), Hemidactylus triedrus (Termite Hill Gecko), Calotes ceylonensis (Red- 2.8.8 Mammals lipped Lizard), Otocryptis wiegmanni (Earless Lizard), and the Lankascincus fallax (Brown As noted earlier, the Park harbours herds of Skink). Lankascincus is an endemic genus. All 8 Elephant, while populations of Sambar, Spotted endemic species and 9 others from Annex 8 are Deer and Wild Boar are reportedly gradually re­ listed in the National Status Report as establishing themselves (survey team). However, threatened. The latter include: Python molurus statistical data to prove this are mostly lacking. (Python); Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Green Other species recorded include the Toque Keel-back); Oligodon taeniolatus (Varigated Macaque, Grey Langur, Sloth Bear, Palm Cat

18 (Civet), Leopard, Black-naped Hare, Golden During drought periods, the Udawalawe Palm Civet, and four species of mongoose. A Reservoir provides good habitat for elephants. full list of recorded mammal species in the Park When the water level goes down, new grass in is given in Annex 10. Other studies undertaken the inundation area attract all types of than general listing of mammal species occurring herbivores. Therefore, variation of the water within the Park include a study on habitat level is very important for grazing animals and preferences on small mammals (Karunaratne, it keeps the animals congregated to the wetland 1990) and the IUCN/conservation review project area. of the Forest Department, that is currently being conducted. 2.8.9 In conclusion Three endemic mammals are recorded from the Park, namely the Macaca sinica (Toque Although a major part of the vegetation in the Monkey), the Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Golden Park is secondary, it supports 21 species of fish, Palm Civet) and the Mus fernandoni (Spiny 12 species of amphibians, 18 species of snakes, Mouse). Threatened species listed in the 15 species of tetrapod reptiles, at least 184 National Status Report include Kerivoula picta species of birds and 39 species of mammals (Painted Bat), Loris tardigradus (Slender Loris), (Table 6). This is high considering the total of Melursus ursinus (Sloth Bear), Lutra lutra 108 species of fishes, 48 species of amphibians, (Otter), Herpestes vitticollis (Striped-neck 87 species of snakes, 75 species of tetrapod Mongoose), Felis rubiginosa (Rusty-spotted reptiles, 429 species of birds and 89 species of Cat), Felis viverrina (Fishing Cat), Panthera mammals that have been recorded in Sri Lanka. pardus (Leopard) and the Elephas maximus The 23 endemics and 48 threatened vertebrate (Elephant). Among these, the Sloth Bear, Rusty- species (IUCN, 1993) found, show its spotted Cat, Leopard and Elephant are listed in importance in relation to the bio-diversity of the the IUCN Red Data Book as globally threatened. country. Furthermore, 6 species among them are listed in the IUCN Red Data Book as globally The Udawalawe National Park was established threatened. Survival of these species is thus at in 1972 for two immediate objectives: least partly dependent on the Udawalawe Reservoir, which is the only perennial to protect the immediate catchment of the waterbody during peak drought, i.e. July and Udawalawe Reservoir; and August, in the region. to accommodate about 150 resident elephants in the area and also to provide habitats for about 200 migrant elephants in 2.9 Primary production of the the region. Udawalawe Reservoir

One of the main problems arising from the Seasonal variation in gross primary production Udawalawe Scheme was severe elephant damage and net primary production in Station I and II imposed over the years to the Sevanagala 12,000 are shown in Figure 15. Gross primary 2 ha (30,000 acres) sugar plantation. This project production ranged from 3.5 g 02/m /day 2 started in 1981 but no planning was done to (February 1984) to 10.55 g 02/m /day prevent elephant damage that was likely to (December 1983) and from 3.75 (October 1984) occur. The boundary between the sugar to 10.90 (December 1983) in Station I and II plantation and the Park was the main road from respectively. Average gross productivity values Udawalawe to Tanamalwila. Some 150 elephants for Stations I and II were 5.96 and 6.3 g 2 from the Park were reportedly (survey team) 02/m /day respectively. Net primary daily raiding and destroying the sugar cane productivity values were 2.99 and 4.0 g 2 fields and causing large losses for the 02/m /day for Station I and II respectively. The corporation. Both the DWLC and the sugar mean gross primary productivity and the mean company were unable to successfully protect the net primary productivity of the reservoir 2 sugar plantation, until electric fencing was recorded were 6.14 and 3,49 g 02/m /day established along the main road in 1990. Not respectively. known is in how far this device has proved to be effective.

19 Table 6. Vertebrates species found in the Udawalawe National Park

Class Total Number No. of Threatened IUCN Red Data list Endemics Fish I^BIIIIlllIB IIIIIIH iilHilllllilB Amphibians ll^BBIBllll^^^BIliillBI l IIIIIll^ Serp. Reptiles iiiil^^ |||H||^B B^BjIlllilSllil Tetra. Reptiles H^^llll! ^llllll ^Jlllll Birds ^BlHlI^HllllI BSS11IH llllillil Mammals illllllilil Illllllilil IlillS^^^B

Total 289 illlliliiiii 48 l^^^Blllll

* * Gross pp Station I ,0\ x- x Net pp Station I

10- o o Gross pp Station II ' / \\ o o Net PP Station II

/' / i \ ,°v / \ pp = primary production ^-"\ I ' • i / >\ / \ <*~~' \ i' \ V / IN o « 6- _> »' ' » / / \ W / / \

o3 "O \ / \/ / A, \ H / .^/. / \ o w ;.- ,-• A ?! ° / / * / \ \ >» 6 *C / \ / \ If "\ /

2_ X

< i I i • I i i i 1 III 1 "1 T" I 0 ONDJFMAMJJASONDJF Month

Figure 15. Seasonal variation in gross primary production and net primary production in Station I and II (Chandrasoma, et.al, 1986)

20 The mean gross primary productivity was 6.14 g

02/m7day or 23.02 kg C/ha/day which is similar to that recorded in Parakrama Samudra, Sri Lanka (Dokulil et.al., 1983). This may be considered to be a fairly high rate for a water body which is continuously being "flushed". This would be equivalent to 8,404 kg C/ha/annum (Chandrasoma, 1986). According to Waldicbuk (1958), dry weight of plankton biomass is 19,093 kg/ha/annum. The average water area for the period 1981-1984 was 2,560 ha. Considering this as an average annual water area, the dry weight of plankton biomass would therefore be 48,891 tons per annum. Even if 1% of the primary production could be converted into fish, an annual yield of 488 tons of fish could be obtained. The average annual fish production of the reservoir is 411 tons (based on catch statistics for the period 1973-1976 and 1980-1984). This indicates a fairly good condition of the fisheries (Chandrasoma, et.al., 1986) in the time that the reservoir was managed by the inland fishery section of the Fisheries Ministry.

21 3. INTERACTION BETWEEN MAN One of the major development schemes of the AND THE ENVIRONMENT early 1960's focused on the resources of the Walawe Ganga basin. A large part of the Udawalawe Scheme - in which the Udawalawe 3.1 History Reservoir plays a major role - was completed in 1967 by the River Valley Development Board No "pre-historic" data and very little pre- (RVDB). The Asian Development Bank funded independence information pertaining to the this programme which aimed at developing immediate surrounds of the reservoir or the approximately 12,000 ha of irrigable land on the Walawe Ganga basin were traced down by the Walawe River right bank and 20,000 ha on the survey team. Judging from the abundant, mostly left bank. However, due to shortcoming in the small (and often abandoned) irrigation tanks in anticipated performances, a new programme was the basin (as indicated on the one-inch-to-a-mile launched in 1986: the Walawe Irrigation maps of the Survey Department), it is likely that Improvement Project. Its objectives were to human habitation in the surrounds of the rehabilitate and improve irrigation facilities. reservoir occurred already for many ages, as it did in so many other basins in the country. The left bank area of the Walawe scheme remained so far quite undeveloped. Of the Mention was made by the survey team of the production potential of 20,000 ha, only 6,000 ha Kaltota Irrigation Scheme, where water is drawn has actually been brought under irrigation. from an anicut built across the Walawe River below Samanalawewa Dam. Here, a 9 km ("five Before the Udawalawe Scheme came into being, miles") channel along the trace of an ancient the area was extensively covered with natural water course, is reported to feed 320 ha (800 ac) vegetation and was one of the richest wildlife of paddy fields. A section of this channel was habitats in Sri Lanka, especially as it lies on the restored in 1890 (Brohier, 1934). Other border of the Wet Zone and because the basin indications of a past history in irrigation was traversed by the by then still perennial development is associated with the Udawalawe River (Mr Hoffmann, pers.comm.). Hambegamuwa Tank in the Walawe upper This vegetation was to a large extent cleared by catchment. Notes on the topographical surveys the above mentioned development programmes. of 1902 describe Hambegamuwa as "an ancient Further degradation took place in the remaining tank recently restored". It covers an area of 160 "untouched" areas in recent times because of ha (400 ac) and is filled by the head waters of shifting cultivation. Some conservation measures the Mau Ara. The importance of Hambegamuwa were adopted in the Udawalawe Reservoir and in ancient times, and the evidence of a large its surrounding area. The Udawalawe National population living close to it, is evidenced by the Park (UWNP) was declared in 1972 in order to ruins at Arambe-kema (Brohier, 1934), meet two main objectives. One was to protect reportedly (survey team) located 3 km east of the immediate catchment of the reservoir and the the tank. Many more of such ancient irrigation other was to accommodate about 350 elephants structures must exist within the Walawe River and other wildlife. basin. At the time of declaring the UWNP, there were Since independence, various national strategies a 35 families living in the village of for socio-economic development were adopted. Panahaduwa, situated between the western Some received more emphasis than others, boundary of the Park (i.e. the CP. De Silva depending on the political situation. The major Mawatha) and the Udawalawe Reservoir. Merely thrust in the past has been towards irrigation due to this reason (according to the law, no development and Dry Zone colonization. As far settlement can exist within a National Park), the as agriculture development is concerned, prime DWLC planned to revise the boundary in 1985. attention was given to self-sufficiency in rice and However, no further action was taken with secondary attention to cultivation of annual respect to control of unwanted human crops, agriculture reform and industrialization. , settlement, or at least not in this sector of the Social infrastructure development also received Park. Settlers at Mau-ara and Sinuggala had attention. been relocated in the downstream area before

22 1990. The issue was taken up again by DWLC Monaragala District. Each district is further sub­ in 1992. A detailed survey was conducted to divided in a number of Divisional Secretary's find out how many people resided within the Divisions (DSD), and these further in a number Park, and this revealed a figure of 264 families of Grama Niladhari Divisions (GND). Of prime living within the boundaries, mainly surrounding importance to the management of the reservoir Panahaduwa. Although residing within the Park and its immediate surrounds, is of course the boundary is prohibited, the DWLC has so far boundary of the National Park. been unable to enforce their law to prevent this situation. The issue is one of the major problems for the DWLC in its attempts to manage the area 3.3 Human population and socio­ as a National Park (see also Section 3.7). economics

3.3.1 Population numbers 3.2 Administrative boundaries Socio-economic data presented in this Section The most relevant administrative boundaries in stem from interviews, existing literature and around the Udawalawe Reservoir are given (Resource Profiles of Divisional Secretary's in Figure 16. As already noted in Section 2.1, Divisions and the IRDP office, Ratnapura) and the reservoir lies in two provinces: Uva (roughly personal observations of the survey team. the eastern half) and Sabaragamuwa (the western half); the border line runs almost through the Human settlements are found only along the middle of the reservoir. The western part of the western and south-western fringe of the reservoir falls within the Ratnapura District, reservoir, and most of these are thus located while the eastern sector is situated in the within the Park. The eastern and northern

BADULLA DISTRICT ' .

5 llf" / „ Ratnamira District Badulla District 1. Ratnapura 3. Hapulale 2. Imbulpe 4. Welimada I 9. Embilipiliya 5. Haldumulla ^ 12 / 10. Godakawela* SABARAGAMUWA PROVINCE / 11. Weligepola Hambantota District 7. Hambantota Monaragala 'District 8. Ambalantota \ (':•:•• 'NATIONAL PARK %i UVA PROVINCE 6. Tanamalwila RATNAPURA DISTRICT K;::,. s MONARAGALA DISTRICT

now largely part of Embilipitiya DSD

LEGEND

Road

+ + + -I- + Province boundary

District boundary

DSD boundary

Catchment boundary

km 5 National Park boundary

Figure 16. Approximate administrative boundaries in and around the study area (old situation)

23 boundaries of the reservoir are free from human Weligepola DSD settlement. Lands along the southern Within the 65 km2 area coverage of this reservoir/Park boundary are occupied by DSD, there are 30 GND's that enclose 133 downstream users of the Walawe Irrigation villages. A total of 19,587 people lived Scheme. As several small streams flow from the within the DSD in 1991 and these belonged west into the reservoir (e.g. Kadawel Ara, Kuda to 6,366 families (IRDP, Resource Profile, Oya, Kiulla Ara), human activities may impact Ratnapura, 1991). on the study area, for example by means of inflow of agricultural effluent and sediments. - Godakawela DSD Villagers use in particular the western bank of The DSD spreads over about 170 km2 and the reservoir for agriculture, drinking and other supports 13,031 families. The total domestic purposes. Their main sources of population of the division is 76,285. The income in this area are from annual crops like division has 44 GND's. Of these, chilly, banana and vegetables. But they also Thambagamuwa-East and Mahagama-East depend on other income generating activities at lie close to the western boundary of the subsistence level such as fisheries, minor forest Udawalawe Reservoir. Estimated is that 260 product collection, (illegal) timber felling and and 168 families live in these two GND's. gem mining. There are also few records of cannabis (Cannabis sativa) cultivation. Further Embilipitiya DSD details on agriculture are given in Section 3.6.3. This division has 92 GND's, with 20,209 families (population 101,452), spread over The western sectors of the reservoir fell before 223 km2. Direct impact on the reservoir december 1992 (when the administrative occurs from the Udawalawe and boundaries were nationally revised) all within Panahaduwa GND's. The latter has six three DSD's, i.e. from north to south: villages while the former has only one large Weligepola, Godakawela and Embilipitiya settlement. (Figure 16). Thereafter, Godakawela has largely merged with the Embilipitiya DSD. Some Some basic population and socio-economic relevant human population details on each of the characteristics of the three DSD's are presented old DSD's are given below. in the Table 7.

Table 7. Some basic population and socio-economic characteristics of the three DSD's overlapping with the western sector of the reservoir (IRDP. Resorce profile Ratnapura IIIB^

Weligepola DSD Godakawela DSD Embilipitiya DSD

No. of families 6.366 13.031 20,209

Population 19,587 76.285 101.452 (M: 9,672) (M: 38,383) (M: 55,683) (F: 9,915) (F: 37.902) (F: 45,769)

Unemployment of 13% about 3% 8% total population

No. of schools 16 48 38

Medical facilities 2 hospitals 4; private 10 3

No. of NGO's 11 42 22

24 3.3.2 Ethnicity, religion, age distribution Godakawela DSD ,j ^((^{907-9 " ^ C and education levels The main income generating'activities-are- / associated to agriculture\ah&r)lantations. y All three fore mentioned DSD's have a mixed Tea (1,224 ha), rubber (520 Ka^and_ci)c

25 characteristics. One is that very few proper office of the Walawe Special Area is located in latrines are in use. The other is that very few the Embilipitiya township. Water management people in the area boil water before they drink it and dam security sub-offices and a Mahaweli (JICA, 1993). An anti-malaria campaign is circuit bungalow are located in Udawalawe town ongoing in the area. (Ratharawa or Timbolketiya on SD toposheets) close to the dam, along the Udawalawe- Tanamalwila road. 3.3.5 Housing The MEA introduced a new concept in A considerable number of the houses in the settlement project management, where three settlement area were constructed by the geographical units, i.e. project, block and unit Udawalawe Scheme. Each settler family was fall under the responsibility of the Resident given a nucleus house consisting of one room, Project Manager, Block Manager and Unit which could gradually be expanded upon. Manager respectively, for integrated Houses within the Sevenagala Sugar Scheme are development and management. Settlers families similar to this type but the construction of these number 10,000-15,000, 2,000 and 400 for the was supported by the Sugar Corporation. Most project, block and unit areas respectively. of the houses within the southern Park boundary are kachang huts. In very few cement and bricks A number of government institutions is engaged were used for construction. in providing services required by the farmers and settlers. Some of the services are provided by government line departments, but others are 3.4 Institutional framework and land made available by the MEA, particularly in the tenure agricultural and animal husbandry fields. CEB is controlling the hydropower generation of the Since the study area is declared a National Park, turbines installed at left and right banks. the DWLC is the main responsible agency in charge of wildlife and habitat protection and There has been no involvement of the Fisheries management. The head office is at the 7th mile Department associated with the Udawalawe post of the Tanamalwila road. Permits for Reservoir since 1990, but very recently (i.e. visitors and visitation supporting services are February 1995) the new government also provided here. The residences of the Park administration decided to revive the fish wardens and the office are located near breeding in the Udawalawe Reservoir. The Udawalawe town; it is the club house of the Government decision to close down the Inland earlier River Valley Development Board, which Fisheries Division of this department was a was the responsible organization for the major drawback in this respect. Some of the fish construction and maintenance of the Udawalawe species that are capable to reproduce in the Reservoir, before this was handed over to the reservoir are still being caught by the present MASL. There are five beat stations, i.e. at crafts that are engaged in fishing (DWLC, Diyawinna, Galpaya, Weheragasmankada, 7th 1993). But not any regulation in terms of mesh mile post (now the main entrance) and sizes of gill nets and other fishing methods is in Hambegamuwa. There are 40 DWLC staff force. engaged in conservation and management of the Park. Details on land tenure were not collected by the survey team. Operation and maintenance of the The Walawe basin was declared as a "Special reservoir falls under the jurisdiction of MEA; Area" under the Mahaweli Act of 1979. It is the National Park under that of the DWLC. administered by the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL). The Mahaweli Economic Agency (MEA), being a component of MASL, 3.5 Water resources management bears responsibility for settling farmers and promoting socio-economic development. MEA As noted in Section 2.6, apart from the activities focused mainly on the downstream area Udawalawe and Samanalawewa Reservoirs, no of the Udawalawe Reservoir. The administrative other major regulating reservoirs are present in

26 the Walawe catchment, and no major upstream catchment are obviously of groundwater basins or aquifers have been importance. In the upper catchment, where land identified. However, a large number of small slopes and rainfall are favourable, the landscape village irrigation tanks with small capacities are is dominated by mountains, forests and as a scattered all over the basin in nearly all flat secondary element by tea plantations. Chemicals areas. These tanks come under the authority of used in these plantations and eroded soil end up the Department of Agrarian Services (DAS). in the reservoirs. Furthermore, settlements in There are several irrigation schemes within the the catchment, including the relatively large basin. Examples are the Udawalawe Scheme and Balangoda town, do not treat their domestic the Kaltota Scheme. For the latter, water is effluent and this also ends up in the reservoirs. drawn from an anicut built across the Walawe Details on surface and groundwater quality are River below the Samanalawewa Dam. It is under scanty (Section 2.6). However, present effluent the authority of the Irrigation Department. loading does not seem to effect the water quality Operation of Udawalawe Reservoir is handled in the reservoir, likely as a result of high by the MASL, while that of Samanalawewa dilution levels. With the so far ever increase of Dam is handled by the CEB. human activities, this might however change.

After impounding of the Udawalawe Reservoir As for industries in the upper catchment, in the late 1960's, the development of irrigation gemming is reported to be the single most works continued until water shortages were environmentally damaging industry in the area experienced in 1986 due to water over-usage by (EIA report, Samanalawewa). Other than bad operational practices and crop management. domestic water supply schemes that would be At this stage, the full envisaged extent of 12,000 implemented to cater for increasing urban ha under the Right Bank (RB) had been demands, one other major water resource achieved, but only 6,000 out of the 20,000 ha development projects is envisaged in the basin: that had been cleared and bulldozed in the diversion of Mau Ara waters (Section 3.9). meantime under the Left Bank (LB) had been developed. Any further development stopped. 3.6 Land and resource use In a recent study undertaken under the Japanese development assistance programme (JICA, 3.6.1 General patterns 1993), it was concluded that there was still scope for further left bank development with Following the Park's establishment in 1972, another 7,600 ha. This however, would only be there has been extensive human encroachment feasible with improved water management and this has resulted in destroying of about 70% practices, diversified cropping patterns (switch of the forest cover within the Park boundary, from paddy to other annual crops and sugar) and largely due to shifting cultivation. In 1979, with the additional benefit of regulation at the about 6,000 squatters were evicted and since Samanalawewa Reservoir. In the study, a then, there has reportedly been an appreciable simulation model was developed for the recovery of the vegetation and faunal population. operation of Udawalawe Reservoir and other It remains to be decided what should be done relevant structures within the Walawe basin for a with the extensive teak and eucalyptus 20 year period starting from 1970. In fact, the plantations inside the Park once the trees recorded hydrological data since 1970 were used mature. and adjusted to show the pattern of reservoir level fluctuation that would have occurred if Other major land uses around the Park are the management was improved as per the expanded sugar plantation, more or less adjacent to the scheme. Releases from the Samanalawewa Park's southern boundary along the Tanamalwila Reservoir were obtained from a separate road, and lands allocated to colonists by the simulation study done by the CEB covering the government on the boundary of the Park for same period. cultivation and as grazing lands. These lands are generally of a poor quality and after exhaustion, With respect to water quality and sediment this has lead to further encroachment into the inflow into the reservoir, activities in the Park.

27 Small-scale timber felling Tourist accommodation (3 bungalows)

Poaching Feeding, breeding and resting places for wildlife

Chena farming ATIONAL PARK Bird monitoring (CBC)

UNDP rainfed farming project Gem mining

Illegal rainfed farming \UdawaIawe Reservoir Wildlife habitat

Illegal settlement 1 '^Y-Sf^l^ Proposed located for Mau Ara reservoir/dam

Illegal grazing by livestock Storage for downstream irrigation /

Subsistence level fishing (about 53 craft) Teak plantation Sugar cane plantation

Generation of 6 MW of hydro-electricity

Figure 17. Prominent land and resource usage in and around the reservoir area

The most prominent land and resource usages in species composition of fish catches for the years and around the reservoir are depicted in Figure 1973, 1981, 1982, 1983 and 1984. TUapia 17. The most relevant usages are further rendalli (between 1976-1979), O. niloticus expanded upon in the following sections. (1982), Labio rohita (1983) and Labeo dussumeiri (1983) had been introduced in the year indicated in the Table and by 1984 these 3.6.2 Fisheries contributed 6.62%. 5.29%, 4.53% and 2% respectively to the total fish catch. Various studies have been conducted on the fisheries in the Udawalawe Reservoir (e.g. With the government decision to terminate the Chandrasoma et.al., 1986). The total fish support to the inland fisheries in 1989, the field production per hectare for the period 1973-1984, station at Udawalawe was gradually closed the catch/craft/month and average number of down. At the moment, there are about 53 crafts craft operating each year are given in Figure 18. still engaged in fishing. The DWLC issues The total annual production ranged from 215 permits on a monthly basis to fishermen holding tons (1982) to 757 tons (1975). The production identity cards given by the Fisheries Department per hectare ranged from 63 kg to 224 kg. The at the rate of Rs 5 per month per permit. This catch/craft/year was high during the 1973-1976 permit system was especially introduced to avoid period (1.46 - 2.33 tons) when compared to the illegal activities in the Park. Wildlife officers are 1980-1984 period (0.32 - 0.91 tons). Also, the supposed to take necessary action against number of craft operating during the 1973-1975 fishermen who can not show the required period was low (15 - 27) when compared with documents. Very little information is available that for 1980-1984 (34 - 53). Table 8 shows the on the current fisheries in the reservoir. Most

28 Table 8. Species composition of fish catches in the Udawalawe Reservoir for the years 1973, 1981, 1982, 1983 and 1984 (Chandrasoma et.al., 1986)

Year S. moss T. rend O.nilo E.sura L. rohi L.duss other sp. 1973 97.0 — 0.7 — - 2.2 1981 69.3 16.7 10.0 — - 4.0 1982 68.3 11.0 — 11.9 — - 8.8 1983 82.0 5.7 1.4 7.6 - 3.3 - 1984 68.0 6.6 5.3 8.3 4.5 2.0 5.3

S. moss = Saratherodon mossamblcuss E. sura = Etroplus suratensis T. rend = Tdapia rendalli L. rohi = Labeo rohita O. nilo = Oreochromis niloticus L.duss = Labeo dussumieri

Total catch/ha

Production/ha

(tons) 600 -,

400 4

200 4

0 J

73 74 75 76 80 82 84

Figure 18. The total fish production per hectare for the period 1973-1984, the catch/craft/month and average number of craft operating each year (Chandrasoma et.al, 1986)

29 fishermen seem to be engaged in fishing at comprising 0.75 ha of irrigated sugar cane, 0.25 subsistence level only. Some of them live inside ha of irrigated paddy, and 0.15 ha of homestead. the Park. Their main livelihood is rainfed Gross annual income of farmers in the MEA farming. area was Rs 47,000 and 54,000 (JICA, 1993). The Sevenagala sugar area consists of about As noted earlier, the new administration decided 1,500 ha of irrigated sugar cane fields and to revive the fisheries breeding in the reservoir, paddy fields (Table 9). The unit yield of sugar but further details on extent and timing were not cane was constantly higher than other areas. The available or provided by the survey team. MEA-managed area on the left bank covers 2,900 ha (and 12,000 ha on the right bank) of irrigated land comprising of 2,540 ha of paddy 3.6.3 Agriculture field and 360 ha of upland crops. Statistics show that the Walawe project area produces yield Agriculture is the primary income generating levels well above other districts in the country. activity of the population living close to the Crop diversification is progressing gradually and reservoir. Some details on the extent and it was accelerated in 1992 due to the limited agricultural practices upstream of the reservoir supply of irrigation water (JICA, 1993). were described under Section 3.3.3.

Downstream of the reservoir there is a mixture 3.6.4 Animal husbandry of agricultural activities. On the right bank of the Walawe River approximately 12,000 ha have Although there is not much pasture land been developed since 1969, and on the left bank available in the Udawalawe project area, 6,000 ha out of the envisaged and cleared livestock farming is widely practised. The 20,000 ha. The current land use in these areas Mahaweli authority has assisted livestock consist - apart from grazing (Section 3.6.4) - of development activities since 1990, but details on three main cultivation types, i.e. sugar cane, numbers and extent of assistance were not found paddy (rice) and homestead cultivation. Paddy is by the survey team. The Kirindi Oya Irrigation the dominant crop on the Walawe right bank. Settlement Project (KOISP), located further east Paddy is cultivated both in Yala and Maha along the Kirindi River near Hambantota, has seasons. Other field crops include banana, assisted in a programme to introduce a concept chilies, onion, green legumes and vegetables. that farmers can better have one high-breed animal than five low-quality cattle. The latter The average landholding size in the downstream type however, is currently still the most MEA area is 1.2 ha consisting of 1.0 ha of common type found, and it is characterised by irrigated land and 0.2 ha of homestead. In the low weight and a poor milk yield. Various sugar cane area the average holding is 1.15 ha, farmers in the downstream area maintain

Table 9. Land use in the downstream lands of the Udawalawe Reservoir (survey team)

Area Existing area Area to be Total developed

Old area a) Sevenagala sugar area 1,490 1,260 2,750 b) MEA area 2,900 1,040 3.940

Extension area ^^^^^^^^ 5,340 5,340

Total 4.300 7,640 12,030

30 reportedly large herds of cattle often exceeding survey concluded that more than 40% of this 300 heads. These graze freely, for example on area consisted of savanna forest. Intermediate the cleared but undeveloped left bank area. and Dry Zone forest occupied the lower slopes Grazing pressure has considerably increased and valleys. According to the 1959 aerial here since lands in the current KOISP area, survey, there were two large forest patches in where herds used to feed, became unaccessible this region, i.e. the Rajawaka Proposed Reserve through development of the scheme. Due to the and a sector to the north-west of Uggal Kaltota. inadequacy of grazing lands in the surrounds of Since pressure on the vegetation has generally the Park, herdsmen are frequently directed by increased tremendously in the recent decades, it local authorities (e.g. Divisional Secretaries) to is to be expected that the information collected demand grazing land from the Park area. during the 1959 survey is largely outdated. It is Grazing of livestock within the Park is likely that the forest cover has been considerably commonly practised. reduced in the 35 years that past since the publication of the report. The survey team did Thus, developing of land for -irrigated- not come across any more recent information on cultivation purposes, such as done in the under the vegetation cover in the catchment. the Udawalawe and KOISP schemes, and declaring lands as protected areas - e.g. As noted by the TRC-team (Mr Hoffmann, Udawalawe National Park, proposed pers.comm.), in the 1970's and 1980's extensive Lunugamwehera National Park, Madunagala parts of the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary forest Sanctuary, Nimalawa Sanctuary where livestock above the Balangoda Group were logged by the grazing is readily incompatible with wildlife Timber Corporation, which after that were management - has resulted in a considerable replanted by biologically non-diverse mono- reduction in lands available for traditional land species cultures of Pinus and Eucalyptus use practises, such as livestock grazing and plantations. Further extensive official clear chena cultivation. This has created conflicts felling took place prior to the impounding of the between the generally unorganized local Samanalawewa Reservoir. traditional farmers and those supported by the large development schemes. If conservation Reduced vegetation cover due to upland goals are to be achieved in the long run, than cultivation, home garden farming and shifting the interests of all involved groups have to be cultivation (chena) are likely to cause erosion taken care of. and downstream sedimentation, especially in the Udawalawe Reservoir. Apart from the water quality data collected under the JICA study 3.6.5 Forest resources and catchment (1993), there seem to be no other records that conservation provide insight in the sedimentation process within the reservoir. The upper catchment of the reservoir, i.e. the southern sector of the central highlands, was, Concern about life shortening due to and to a large extent still is, characterised by sedimentation of large and expensive to be built montane and sub-montane wet evergreen forests, reservoirs has been one of the main reasons why patana grasslands and tea estates. According to the Udawalawe National Park was established. the aerial photographic survey of the Colombo Establishing of a protected area has, when Plan Survey Project (1960), 38% of the effectively managed, various advantages. It watershed was extensively covered with natural assists in protection of the catchment above forest, particularly the upper slopes of the west dams and reservoirs, increases the production of and central parts of the escarpment, in the late timber and improves habitat for wildlife. 1950's. About 20% of the area was covered by patana grassland, which was especially extensive in the central part of the escarpment. 3.6.6 Mineral resources

Below this, the upland platform region of the Some information on existing mineral resources Walawe basin in which the Samanalawewa in the Walawe basin was already given in Reservoir is situated, the above mentioned Section 2.4. In the vicinity of the reservoir there

31 are prospects for extraction of silica quartz of Three Park bungalows were constructed in the export grade, possibly mica, calcite and period 1990-1992 at Weheragolla, Sinukgala and gemniferous gravel (JICA, 1993). Gems have Thimbiriyagasmankada (Figure 2). Circuit been found in and close to the river bed and in bungalows belonging to the Sugar Corporation, gravel deposits of geologically recent origin. Fisheries Corporation and MASL are nearby. Garnets are common whilst precious stones, The Wildlife and Nature Protection Society also such as ruby and sapphire, can also be found, has a bungalow near the bund just outside the but good specimen are rare. As reported earlier Park. Two camp sites are available for visitors in this report, the gem mining industry is the at Weheramankada and Pransadara, on the side most environmentally damaging industry in the of the Walawe River. There are few small hotels area as it leads to serious erosion and at Embilipitiya, about 20 minutes by road from sedimentation. the Park.

3.6.7 Tourism and visitor facilities 3.7 Conservation measures taken

Tourism is closely associated with the UWNP, Because of its location in the Udawalawe especially due to the usually good chances of National Park, the reservoir is given, in theory, seeing elephants. Visitors require a permit, total protection under the Fauna and Flora obtainable from the Park's main entrance at the Protection Ordinance (FFPO). The Park was 7th mile post along the Udawalawe-Tanamalwila declared on 30 June 1972 (Government Gazette road. Accompany of a guide is compulsory. No. 14) in order to give protection to the Table 10 shows the revenue collected for the immediate catchment of the reservoir and to year 1993. This income was Rs 2,835,033.- but accommodate wildlife in the area. In 1972, it all revenue has to be transferred to the Treasury. was reported that timber was extracted by This could imply that any motivation of the contractors licensed by the Forest Department DWLC to improve Park facilities and but without the consent of the DWLC being the possibilities for wildlife viewing to obtain more legal custodian of the area (Hoffmann, 1972). "income" is undermined. This practice has since been stopped.

Since its declaration, the Park faces encroachment and other illegal problems especially in the western sector. During the last Table 10. Revenue from the Park 23 years the DWLC tried to adjust the western in 1993 (DWLC) Park boundary two times (i.e. in 1985 and 1992) but both attempts failed since the new boundary Month Local Foreign Revenue was not gazetted. When the Park was declared, (1993) Visitors Visitors at gate there were 35 families living in Panahaduwa village, within the Park boundary. A DWLC January 961 226 213,780 survey conducted in 1992 along the western February 894 234 206,564 boundary revealed that this number had March 543 285 212,415 increased to 264 during a 20 year period. As a April 948 225 261,384 result of this development, a new boundary was May 334 114 79,964 proposed in order to solve the conflict. June 412 227 134.512 However, due to a tragic incident in which a local poacher was shot dead in the Park by July 452 475 164,934 August 2,632 407 380,784 DWLC officers, the plan could not be implemented. September 1,171 432 227.748 October 876 456 269,534 November 529 467 262,700 Enforcement of regulations is normally the main December 427 486 271,714 responsibility of the DWLC officers; Annex 11 summarizes the main rules and regulations that Total 10,179 4,034 2,686,033 pertain to a National Park declared under the FFPO. The most common violations in the Park

32 are poaching, gemming, cattle grazing, wild training programmes for guards need fires and small-scale timber felling (including strengthening; teak felling). With the conflicting situation along effects of the local people on protected area the western boundary, DWLC has lost their resources is inadequately controlled; authority to certain extent in enforcing the involvement of local people in protected FFPO, in particularly along the western areas is insufficient; boundary. In other parts of the Park, the DWLC visitor facilities are inadequate; officers are reasonably well able to perform public awareness programmes are their duties considering the minimum facilities inadequate. given to them. These include two, but totally insufficient, 4WD vehicles with limited fuel Recommendations to overcome these identified allocation. Fishermen and gem miners regularly constraints are provided in Laurie & set fire to grasslands, thereby suppressing forest Miththapala's report. regeneration. This is a common problem, especially during the dry season (July - August). As far as conservation in the upper catchment of Lack of staff for patrolling, support services for the reservoir is concerned, the hill slopes of the increasing visitation demand are major Horton Plains form part of the Peak Wilderness constraints faced by the Park administration Sanctuary, that comes under the jurisdiction of (survey team). the DWLC. A plea for the protection of the Samanalawewa area was made by Hoffmann Mention must also be made of a recent - (Hoffmann, 1990), in a foreword to P.B. unpublished - report of two consultants to the Karunaratne's Report on the fauna of the DWLC (Laurie & Miththapala, 1994). In the Samanalawewa Area, published by the Wildlife framework of the GEF-programme, they and Nature Protection Society. This plea was reviewed the status of management of the made because of the "wild, rugged, inaccessible DWLC in general, and that of six protected and almost unhabited land with 60% under patna areas falling under the FFPO in the southern and savanna grasslands, scrub and forest" with a part of the country, the Udawalawe National very rich and diverse flora and fauna Park being one of these. Their main composition. As far as is known, since then no observations with respect to the management of further conservation action has been taken yet. the department and the concerned areas included: 3.8 Research activities lack of integration of protected area management with management of During the time that the Inland Fisheries surrounding areas; Division was active, considerable research had non-existence of a management plan for been done on the fishery of the Udawalawe most areas, including the UWNP; Reservoir (e.g. Chandrasoma, et.al., 1986). pre-mature declaration of protected areas; Vegetation studies in the Park have been carried roads in protected areas are not given out by using aerial photos such as by sufficient attention; Balasubramanium (1978), and by Vattala & boundary surveys are not up-to-date; Dhanapala (1992). Elephant censes were done in Buffer Zones are not clearly defined nor the Park in 1993 by the DWLC. Waterfowl demarcated; censes are done annually by the Ceylon Bird management orientated, research and Club in collaboration with the IWRB since 1987. research plans are needed; Habitat preferences of small mammals in UWNP collaboration with universities and NGO's is were investigated by Karunaratne (1990). inadequate; During the latter study also a bird checklist was living and working conditions for field staff prepared. In the framework of the Forest are inadequate; Department/IUCN Conservation Review Project, deployment of field staff is unbalanced; an inventory was made of the fauna and flora of a review is needed of duties of staff; the UWNP. Under the Five Year Development deployment and use of vehicles is Project of the DWLC, which is funded by uncoordinated and not efficient; Global Environmental Facility (GEF), it is

33 envisaged to carry out a comprehensive fauna Rainfed farming project and flora inventory of the Park. Reportedly (Handawela, pers.comm.), a UNDP- funded project of stabilization of rainfed farming is underway at various (largely unreadable; ed.) 3.9 Development plans locations on the north-eastern and south-eastern boundaries of the Park, but no further details There are several development programmes or were made available. proposals pertaining to the area. These are as follows.

Management planning UWNP The above mentioned GEF input should ultimately lead to the preparation of a management plan for the Park. Current status unknown.

Diversion of Mau Ara waters The Irrigation Department has proposed to divert Mau Ara water to the Malala Oya (in the south-east) in order to irrigate more land. For this a dam/reservoir is required, to be situated right within the UWNP (Figure 19). The involved donor agency, the HIRDEP/ Hambantota (NORAD sponsored) insisted on an Environmental Impact Assessment of this intervention which has been executed in the mean time. This EIA was however not done in accordance with the currently adopted prescriptions. Deliberations between the most involved organizations (e.g. ID, DWLC, CEA, etc.) are ongoing.

Walawe Left Bank development Some details of this programme that is executed with Japanese assistance were already given in the previous sections (see also Figure 19). To this can be added that the project envisages to (JICA, 1993): uplift the living standards of farmers in the old irrigated area by upgrading of the irrigation infrastructure; provide irrigation water to the proposed extension area, thereby benefitting thousands of people during the two farming seasons; use small old tanks in a cascade system to optimize water use; provide potable water, fuelwood, health care, education, roads, electricity, communication, marketing and other services.

Reservoir fisheries development See Section 3.6.2: details awaited.

35 4. VALUATION general lack of detailed information), but it will serve the project's purposes well. 4.1 Comparison of wetlands

In the framework of the Wetland Conservation 4.2 The valuation system Project, valuation (assessment) of wedands has to be carried out for planning purposes, for 4.2.1 Characteristics and benefits example to be able to decide: Any valuation system should be based upon whether environmental losses resulting from information that can be checked by others. On ongoing or planned activities will be most of the Sri Lankan wetlands "stories" and acceptable; other oral information are available, but for the whether a certain wetland should maintain in purpose of valuation only written information is or should be included in the country's used. This information is compiled in the nature reserve system; present Wetland Site Report and in the how to manage a certain wetland. References provided therein. This information comprises wetland characteristics and wetland In these cases it will generally be necessary to benefits. compare the values of a certain wetland with those from other wetlands, or with those from the same wetland at different times (e.g. to CHARACTERISTICS of a wetland are evaluate the effect of ongoing or lacking those properties which describe the area in management actions). the simplest and most objective possible terms. Formulation of a set of criteria to compare wetland areas might seem simple, but it proves not to be so. A large amount of literature exists on the issue that can however be characterized Examples of characteristics of a wetland are by "lack of consistency" in the applied size, shape, depth, climate, soils, the species terminology. The main reason for this is that an present, the vegetation structure, biomass almost infinite amount of information can be production, land use, and the natural processes collected and assembled on any environment (physical and biological) that are occurring. from different points of view. A situation leading to great difficulty for making an aggregate assessment and in keeping that BENEFITS of a wetland are the attributes, assessment objective. Without some system for functions and uses that derive from its classifying and ranking this information, the single or combined characteristics. process of assessing the conservation significance of an area becomes very confusing. Such a system should express the values of a wetland area in a way that it provides a Examples of benefits of a wetland are biological reference point for making comparisons and diversity, wildlife habitat, flood control, water assessments. storage, significance for research, plant or animal production, and many others. Many A systematic approach to expressing and benefits maybe potential (available to be realized comparing the values of Indonesian wetlands in the future) rather than existing at present. was designed by the Asian Wetland Bureau (Claridge, 1990). This approach was strongly For valuation of a wetland the characteristics are based upon criteria developed by the Australian of less importance: they are objective Heritage'Commission (AHC, 1990), as well as descriptions only. But the benefits, based upon on advantages and shortcomings of a series of the characteristics, are essential. As stated in the earlier proposed systems. The system that will definition above, benefits comprise attributes. be used in the Wetland Conservation Project is functions, and uses. strongly based upon that of the Asian Wetland Bureau. It had to be simplified somewhat (due to

36 4.2.2 Attributes control; aquifer recharge; Water quality regulation: absorption or retention of pollutants or sediment; nutrient An ATTRIBUTE of a wetland is a export (e.g. from mangrove areas); combination of characteristics which is Habitat for "fish": breeding, nursing or valued by a group in the society, but which feeding area for marine (lagoons) or riverine does not directly provide them economic (floodplains, villu's) aquatic species; advantage. Habitat for wildlife: feeding, drinking, resting, roosting, etc. area for amphibians, reptiles, birds or mammals.

Attributes are what economists call "non-use values" or "preservation values" of an area 4.2.4 Uses (Barbier, 1989). Wetland attributes used in the valuation system are: A USE of a wetland is the direct utilization Biological diversity: richness of flora, fauna of one or more of its characteristics. or natural processes; significant gene pool; Scenic/landscape beauty: high-rated aesthetic qualities; wilderness; Historical or cultural value: site of Uses are what economists call "direct use significance in the history of Sri Lanka; values" of an area: benefits that are gained by presence of distinctive ways of life, people through some actual physical use of a techniques, or product use patterns; wetland. Wetland uses distinguished in the symbolic, educational, social or spiritual valuation system are: place for a community; Scientific value: reference or monitoring Plant production: any extraction of plant site; evolutionary significance; potential products; source of information on processes or Animal production: any extraction of natural systems; terrestrial or aquatic animal products; Uniqueness: presence of rare, endangered or Mineral production: any extraction of non­ endemic species, ecosystems, or wetland living products (gems, sand, clay, salt, types. coral,*etc.); Water storage or supply: energy: source of irrigation water, drinking water, industrial 4.2.3 Functions water; generation of electricity; Tourism/recreation: actual and potential use of the wetland and its direct surroundings; A FUNCTION of a wetland is a Research/education: actual and potential use combination of characteristics that supports of the wetland and its physical and or protects a human activity or human biological resources; property without being used directly. Waste(water) disposal: discharge of drainage water; discharge of domestic or industrial effluents; dumping of solid wastes; Land development: any legal and illegal Functions are what economists call "indirect use activities that occupy parts of the wetland values" of an area: properties of the area that area in a more or less definitive way. provide benefits outside the area itself (people gain from the wetland without having to go there). Wetland functions used in the valuation 4.2.5 Values system are: Attributes, functions and uses can be assigned Water quantity regulation: flood control values. The value of a benefit may be affected (protection of downstream human activities by one or more characteristics of a wetland. For or properties); flow regulation; erosion instance, a wetland may have a water storage

37 function, but the value of this may not be high high rating of these benefits of the wetland may because there are no population centers close by. be offset by moderate or low values for other benefits; a resultant "total score" would in no way reflect the uniqueness and economic A VALUE of an attribute, function or use significance of the rare species which depends of a wetland is an expression of the worth on the wetland. placed by the society on that particular benefit. Although the scale of values is meant to be used as an adjunct to the detailed statement of the nature of the benefits (expressed in the previous chapter of this Wetland Site Report), it can give Values can be expressed in different ways, and a quick indication of relative values of benefits, one of the most difficult tasks in assessment of especially when comparing wetlands. To allow wetlands is to determine the value of any easy comparison, the valuation is presented in a particular benefit in a way which is meaningful standardized way. In a one-page format the in respect of other benefits of the same wetland, various benefits (attributes, functions and uses) or the same benefit in other wetlands. are displayed, each with an easily visible indication of their value on the 5-step scale. A In the present valuation system, that will be used short description of each benefit is added, to rate the conservation importance of Sri providing easy reference to the relevant Lanka's wetlands, values are expressed in terms paragraphs of the Wetland Site Report. of regional, national and international significance of the benefit. The following scale Apart from providing a valuable tool for rating is applied: the relative importance of Sri Lankan wetlands or for assessment of effects of management Level 5: Very High Importance: the wetland is measures in a wetland over time, the present highly significant for this benefit at a system does also allow policy planning, as national or international level; demonstrated in the matrix presented on the Level 4: High Importance: the wetland is following page. highly significant for this benefit at a regional level and has some On the basis of the valuation presented on page importance at a national level; 40, it can be concluded that attributes score high Level 3: Medium Importance or Importance to very high with the exception of the historical Not Known: the wetland is highly value which is insignificant. Functions of the significant for this benefit at the local Udawalawe Reservoir score moderate to high level and has some significance at the (with the exception of fish habitat values) and regional level, or, available data on uses score moderate to high. This implies that the characteristics of this wetland do there are conflicts between conservation and not allow definite valuation; development orientated activities, which only Level 2: Low Importance: the wetland has can be solved by preparation and implementation moderate or low local significance for of a conservation management plan in which this benefit; attention is given to all groups involved. Level 1: Insignificant: the benefit is very insignificant or absent.

The scale provides an expression of the value of different benefits. Extreme caution should be exercised in any attempt to combine the values on this scale to produce some sort of "overall" value rating of the wetland. A total score is not meaningful, and may be dangerously misleading. As an example: a wetland may have the last surviving population of a certain species, that, moreover, possesses beneficial gene stocks to a related economically important species. Very

38 attributes/ general value level

1 2 3 4 5 uses B

NO MEASURES CONSERVATION OF THE REQUIRED WETLAND REQUIRED

general D value * level MANAGEMENT CONSERVATION OF THE USED URGENTLY REQUIRED; RESOURCES MANAGEMENT HAS TO REQUIRED BE ADAPTED

5

39 Valuation of: UDAWALAWE RESERVOIR

1 ATTRIBUTES (non-use values; preservation values)

1A BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 1 2 3 4 (high floral and faunal richness despite clearing and encroachment) I* IB SCENIC/LANDSCAPE BEAUTY 1 2 3 4 (situated in National Park; magnificent view of mountains) *

IC HISTORICAL OR CULTURAL VALUE 1 2 3 4 5 (no significance reported)

ID SCIENTIFIC VALUE 1 2 3 5 ' (baseline data established; significance for monitoring high)

IE UNIQUENESS 1 2 3 4 5 (endemic, rare and threatened birds, mammals and reptiles)

2 FUNCTIONS (indirect use values)

2A WATER QUANTITY REGULATION 1 2 3 4 5 (flood buffer for downstream areas)

2B WATER QUALITY REGULATION 1 2 3 4 5 (data mostly lacking)

2C HABITAT FOR "FISH" 1 2 3 4 5 (restricted connection with sea; low species diversity)

2D HABITAT FOR WILDLIFE 1 2 3 4 5 (considerable numbers of birds and mammals use the wetland)

3 USES (direct use values)

3A PLANT PRODUCTION 1 2 3 4 5 (wood extraction; cattle feed)

3B ANIMAL PRODUCTION 1 2 3 4 5 (cattle; some fisheries) 3C MINERAL PRODUCTION 1 2 3 4 5 (potential for mining)

3D WATER STORAGE OR SUPPLY; ENERGY 1 2 3 4 5 (main uses are storage and some hydro-energy generation)

3E TOURISM/RECREATION 1 2 3 4 5 (frequent visitors to National Park; elephants) 3F RESEARCH/EDUCATION 1 2 3 4 5 (studies done; census work is carried out)

3G WASTEWATER) DISPOSAL 1 2 3 4 5 (drainage water inflow; largely unknown)

3H LAND DEVELOPMENT 1 2 3 4 5 (illegal cultivation within the Park; various dev. proposals)

40 5. CONCLUSIONS AND remaining more natural lands, including RECOMMENDATIONS FOR "protected areas". MANAGEMENT Tourists are attracted to the National Park, but facilities are limited. 5.1 General

On the basis of the site data and valuation 5.2 Management objectives presented in the previous chapters of this report, for the current local land and resource use of the Conservation management of the reservoir can Udawalawe Reservoir and surrounds the best be done as an integral component of the following can be concluded. management of the Udawalawe National Park. The latter should be based on the following Main uses of the reservoir: general objectives:

Stored water is used for irrigation of some preserving and wherever possible enhancing 18,000 ha in the downstream area and for the still very rich bio-diversity of the Park, generation of 6 MW of hydro-electricity. especially as habitats for birds, elephants and other wildlife and flora; Birds, elephants and other wildlife are improving and enforcing control against provided with feeding, breeding and resting illegal and undesirable land and resource places. use; improving the public awareness on the Fishing is practised by a relatively small nature values of the Park with the general group of the population, purely on a public as well as with local residents and subsistence level. The new adminstration those involved in decision making, and has recently decided to revive fish stocking, creating interest for resource and bio­ that was abandoned since 1990. diversity conservation; improving facilities for active and passive Main uses in the reservoir surrounds: forms of nature enjoyment, eco-tourism and nature education activities; The immediate surrounds are meant to improving regional coordination and provide elephants and other wildlife species planning of development and conservation refuge in a wider environment that is activities especially with regard to characterised by increasing pressure of the agricultural and hydrological programmes; human population and reduced grazing considering local participation in the possibilities for domestic animals. conservation and wise use management of the Park. Largely unqualified forest clearing, cultivation and other human induced activities in the upper catchment result in 5.3 Threats, disturbances and inflow of nutrients, residues of agro- recommendations chemicals and sediments into the reservoir, but levels to which this occurs are largely Main threats and disturbances to the current unknown. conservation values of the Park have been grouped as indicated below. For every "issue" Large-scale agricultural development the main problems have been summarized and programmes in the region (e.g. Udawalawe these are followed by recommendations for Scheme and Extension, KOISP) and action and improvement. generally human population increase, have considerably reduced wildlife habitat which is further put under great pressure by 5.3.1 (Reorganization of the DWLC traditional "farming" techniques of free- ranging cattle and shifting - chena - The poor functioning of the Department of cultivation that are practised on the Wildlife Conservation is highlighted in Section

41 3.7 of this document and more in detail, for are rather straight forward, it appears thus example, in Laurie & Miththapala (1994). Major difficult to efficiently enforce these. The causes constraints lie in the limited manpower, of this problem are complex and relate back to equipment and funding available within the the general already mentioned weak performance DWLC and lack of modern management of the DWLC, insufficient manpower and expertise. Furthermore, there is lack of clearly equipment and transportation means, outdated thought out and stated objectives and there is no management perceptions, but also to the management plan for the Park. This implies that increased pressure and demands of the human the "management" becomes a series of population that surrounds the Park (Section unconnected responses to events and neglect of 3.5.6). And, last but not least to the apparently needs of wildlife, staff, visitors and local people, weak national policy on what to do with the rather than implementation of a programme with country's protected areas. The fact that clear - long-term! - objectives for the future. construction of an additional reservoir is considered right within the UWNP is seen as a It is understood and expected that under the clear indication of this. current GEF programme (that aims at strengthening of the DWLC) a management plan Enhancement of enforcement of rules and will be prepared for the Udawalawe National regulations could thus be achieved through a Park. The current report could well serve as a combined set of actions. These would include: base document for such a plan, although it is felt that still more site-specific data have to be a clear national policy statement on the collected and detailed and accurate maps have to future of the country's protected areas (and be prepared. This material can then be utilized interconnecting wildlife corridors!) in which to prepare and implement a plan that should consideration is given to minimal land clearly spell out, for example: coverage of such areas and migration routes (wild animal species require a clearly a detailed listing of all management defined minimum area for survival, in problems; particular the larger mammals such as a clear set of management objectives that Elephant and Leopard, and genetic material have in principle the consent of the most has to be exchanged for maintaining healthy involved organizations (e.g. MEA, CEB, wildlife populations). Such a statement Local Government) and user groups; should be based on the feasibility of a worked-out management structure for each protected areas anyway (no human problem; population, restricted use), and responsibilities for all management issues; consideration should be given to (foreign) allowable and non-allowable resource use in currency such areas could generate, and the protected area; demands for recreation and nature education a summary of the relevant legislation; of the expanding and developing national measures to be taken by whom and in human population; cooperation with whom and a costing - strengthening of the DWLC in planning and estimate and an implementation schedule. implementation of conservation management (for example through the ongoing GEF programme); 5.3.2 Law enforcement improvement and where necessary expanding of the patrolling facilities for Poaching of wildlife (reportedly not seldomly Park personnel (vehicles, maps, training); done by government officials and other provision of alternative income means for influential persons), illegal settlement and those that are accustomed to illegally utilize farming (encroachment), illegal forest product lands and resources of the Park at present collection and grazing, are all activities that are (for some, employment might even be found prohibited in a National Park, but unfortunately in the management of the Park, e.g. as these all can commonly be observed. nature guides); creating awareness among the local human Although the set rules and regulations for access population of the values of the Park and its in and use of a National Park under the FFPO resources.

42 5.3.3 Land use planning and coordination situation of protected areas and wildlife migration corridors; Human encroachment by means of settlement, catchment protection measures such as cultivation and grazing within the Park is re/afforestation to be done by the Forest common. These activities initiate forest fires that Department. impede the restoration of vegetation types that support a wide variety of wildlife species. It With respect to latter aspects, it is recommended disturbs wildlife and disrupts the natural to investigate the feasibility and desirability of vegetation cover, and thus negatively affects establishing a protected area in the so far little habitats and bio-diversity. Reportedly, local developed and thinly populated but biologically government authorities often direct to demand very rich second (middle) peneplain, in which lands from the Park. also the Samanalawewa Dam is located.

Although the individual causes for these As far as the proposed Mau Ara diversion is activities are difficult to assess, it is likely that at concerned, construction of a reservoir within the least part of these are triggered by lack of or Park would at least have the following negative improper land use planning in the Park consequences: surrounds. As noted in the previous Chapters of this report, vast extents of land that previously disturbance to wildlife during construction; were used in a traditional way for farming and loss of wildlife habitat (= feeding, breeding shifting cultivation have been clear-felled and and resting/hiding locations); an additional have - successfully or not - been converted into large water body within the Park is expected irrigated paddy or sugar cane lands. This has to reduce the bio-diversity; thus resulted in loss of available chena and easier access into the Park, also for grazing land in the surrounds, in particular south poachers; of the Park. Further reduction of habitats that attraction of more free ranging livestock; are suitable for wildlife species is expected to further reduction of grazing and chena lands result from the planned Mau Ara diversion (i.e. outside the Park, i.e. on those lands that construction of a reservoir within the Park). will be irrigated. Furthermore, bad agricultural practices in the catchment of the reservoir, such as chena Furthermore, no data were available to the cultivation and use of agro-chemicals, cause project team whether the proposed intervention sedimentation and may deteriorate the water would be economically feasible. Construction quality. Illegal gem mining also contributes should not be done before an EIA acceptable to considerably to sedimentation. all parties involved has been carried out.

These conflicting interests among government Regular coordinating meetings have to be authorities (e.g. local governments vs DWLC) organized so that all involved organizations are and resource users (e.g. farmers and herdsmen kept informed on development activities and vs wildlife) need to be resolved through an constraints. A valuable option might be to integrated exercise at macro level for which establish a Watershed Management Board in preparation and implementation of a watershed which at least the DWLC, Mahaweli Authority, management plan might be the best solution. Irrigation Department, local authorities and the Such a plan should include among others: CEA are represented.

current land and resource use based on up- to-date maps compiled from recent aerial 5.3.4 Monitoring programme photographs and/or satellite imagery, complemented by field verification: Some monitoring in the basin is already ongoing current and planned development plans and such as monitoring of birds (by the Ceylon Bird their positive and negative impacts; Club in the Udawalawe Reservoir). Added to determination of boundaries and this should be land use, in particular irrigated identification of responsibilities; lands, grazing lands, chena's, and matters such desired (future) land and resoure uses in the as water quality, pollution, erosion and siltation basin; of tanks. Monitoring activities should be

43 coordinated through the suggested Watershed Management Board.

5.3.5 Awareness creation

All protection effort given to the reservoir, the Park and the basin as a whole should be combined with awareness creation among organizations involved and the public on the area's values and functioning. This could for example be done by:

distribution of this report; production and distribution of leaflets; extension programmes; development and promotion of low-intensity eco-tourism.

5.3.6 Control of human population growth

Carrying out of each of the above mentioned measures could contribute to a more sustainable use of the reservoir and the Park. One issue however, has got little attention in this report, and that is the so far ever increasing human population and its pressing demand for more land, food and other natural resources. If no appropriate actions can be taken to limit, or even better, to stop this expansion, then it is to be feared that in the long-term most, if not all, of the still present natural values of the Park (and beyond) will disappear. Such a major effort can obviously not be expected from the suggested Watershed Management Board, but should be a task for the Sri Lankan Government.

44 ANNEXES

REFERENCES Annex 1. Udawalawe National Park boundaries as given in Gazette No. 14 of 30 June 1972

[Extract from tho "Cuzotte of the Republic of Sri Lanka (Ceylon)" No. 14 of Juuo 30,

Ii. D.-JB. 83/37.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA PROTECTION ORDWANCE ORDER mada by the Miniiter of Shipping and Tourism sub-section (1) of section 2 of the Fauna and Flora Protecttoa Ordinance (Chapter 469).

P. B. O. Eu-ouaua, Miniiter of Shipping and Touriau.. Colombo, 20.6.1972. Order 1. Tha urea of land belonging to tha Republic specified in the Schedule hereto, in hereby declared to be a National Reserve lor the purposes of tha fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (Chapter 4G9).

2. The whole area of the aforesaid National Reserve is hereby declared to be a National Park for the purpooos of the Aforesaid Ordinance. BCHUDULB ODA-WAIaWli MATIOHiA »JU AJI that urea of land belonging to the Republic situated partly iu Kaudawcl Paltu. Tambegam. Puttu and Xongele Bintcuno Kurale iu the Rutnapura and Mouerugale Districts in the 1'roviucus of Eubarugaiuuwe aud Ova containing in extent 119 square miles and bounded as follows:— North: By a line drawn from the point where Kuillinda Ara meets Katupat Oya along tha common boundary of P.T.P. 9 and F.V.P. 873, eastwards along Zatupal Oya passing Diyawini Oya till it meets Walawa Ganga, thence northwards along tha Walawa Ganga till it meets Pokunutenna Ara, thence eastwards along Pokunutanna Aru till it meets Pokunutenna Wewa;

East: From tha last-mentioned point, by a straight Una south* ward* to tha intersection of Kandueliye Ara- and the foot path from Hambegamuwa to Sinuggaia, thence along Kandueliya Ara till it meets Mau Ara, thence by a straight line eastwards till it meets Bingala Rock, thence by a straight line eastwards till it meets Wehcra. gulu Rock, thence southwards by a straight line till it muds Warapelessa Trig point, thence southwards by a straight liuu acnes Nikaara Ara till it meets new road fruui Saugapala (Walawe) to T*uauu.lvil» at the 15} mile yosl; South i From the last-mentioned point by a line westwards, along the Suugepalu, (Walawe) to Tunuuialvile new road tu a distance of 10J mil us approximately thence north* wo..ward, to a distance of 40 chains approximately uluug the eastern boundry of tho land proposed to bo leased to the Wild Life Protection Society of Ceylon till it meets the eastern bank of Dde-Walawa Reservoir, thence south-westwards along tha said bank of tha said reservoir till it meets the road at the 4} mile poet (approximately), thence westwards alone the said rood across Walawe Ganga till it meets tho junction of road* from Timbolkettya and tha road leading from tha 96th mile stone along the Madampa-Ambalautou road, thence north-westwards up to a distance of -i miles approxi­ mately along the road, leading from the said junction, to iu intersection with tha Maskaliya/kalaragama power line;

West: From the lust-mentioned point by a straight line nonh- .wurds, up to Reminikote, Trig point and thence north- wustwurds by a straight line till it meets Bambaragala Trig point and thence north-eastwards by a straight lino across Yatipusgatnuwa Ara to a distance of Si uuloa approximately, till it meets Kuilliuda Ara, thence north* . eastwards along the said Ara till it meets the •ttrting point of tim northera- boundary of the (arc*,.

GOVT. WlXSS, £HI LANKA 78 Prloe: 10 wots. Postage: 18 saute.]

45 Sample No. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Wl lO Source Well Well Well Well Well Well Well Well Well Well Well Standard

T. Air 34.5 35.0 36.5 33.5 33.0 30.0 30.0 34.0 30.0 33.0 33.0 - T. Water •c 29.5 30.0- 31.0 30.0 29.0 26.0 26.5 26.5 29.0 27.0 32.0 pll 7.4 7.9 8.0 8.3 8.5 8.1 7.1 7.5 7.6 7.3 6.0 6.5-9.2 EC uS/cm 1,360 1,973 738 1.039 1,045 395 115 178 207 236 589 - S.S. mg/1 54.00 99.00 101.00 53.00 139.00 132.00 73.00 138.00 128.00 100.00 190.00 500.00 D.O. mg/1 56.8 70.9 76.9 70.0 50.2 47.7 107.3 105.4 100.4 101.6 35.5 - N03-N mg/1 0.362 0.196 0.195 1.172 0.375 0.647 0.481 0.332 0.572 0.512 0.812 45.000 MC03- mg/1 739 650 484 696 681 264 80 126 135 150 193 - Cl- mg/1 115 342 69 46 60 14 7 9 12 15 90 200 F- mg/1 1.50 1.80 0.85 6.90 3.10 0.29 0.23 0.31 0.34 0.37 0.13 1.50 Ca2+ mg/1 95 116 64 46 44 57 17 27 34 4 32 - Mg2+ mg/1 16 28 90 47 24 262 330 44 28 60 8 - Na+ mg/1 153 146 44 150 145 25 4 14 17 19 89 ON 500 Total Hardness 303 405 530 309 209 1,221 1,400 249 200 332 113 S.A.R.* 3.79 3.18 0.87 3.69 4.38 0.29 0.05 0.38 0.50 0.44 3.71 - Classification of Irrigation Water C3-S1 C3-SI C2-SI C3-S1 C3-S1 C2-S1 Cl-Sl Cl-Sl Cl-Sl Cl-Sl C2-S1 -

Note: * : Sodium absorpiion ratio **: Classification of irrigation waters defined by ihc elcctgric conductivity and the S.A.R. Annex 3. List of phytoplankton (Genera) present in the Udawalawe Reservoir (Chandrasoma et.al., 1986)

ORDER / Genera

CHLOROPHYCEAE (Green algae) Anktistrodesmus Coelastrum Cruciginella Pediastrum Richterella Scenedesmus Selanastrum Spirogyra Tretraedon Treubaria Ulothrix Zygnema

CYNOPHYCEAE (Blue-green algae) Anabaena Lyngbyia Microcystis Merismopedia Oscillatoria

BACILLARIOPHYCEAE Frustulia Melosira Synedra

47 Annex 4. List of plant species identified from the Udawalawe National Park (based on the IUCN/Conservation review project of the Forest Department and survey team data)

+ = nationally threatened species (IUCN, 1993) E = endemic species (Bandaranaike & Sultanbawa, 1991)

TamihlSpecies Sinhala name Status

Acanthaceae Stenosiphonium cordifolium

Annonaceae Miliusa indica Polyalthia korinti

Apocynaceae Carissa spinarum

BOraginaceae Carmona microphylla Cordia domestica kunumella Carmona retusa Cordia monoica

Celastraceae Elaedendron glaucum neralu Gymnosporia emarginata Pleurostylia opposita

Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna kumbuk

Compositae Eupatorium odoratum

Connarraceae Connarus monocarpos

Dipterocarpaceae Hopea cordifolia mandora E +

Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum kaluwara Diospyros ferrea Diospyros malabarica timbiri Diospyros montana Diospyros ovalifolia

Euphorbiaceae Croton laccifer Dimorphocalyx glabellas velivanna Drypetes sepiaria weera Euphorbia antiquorum Mallotus philippensis Phyllanthus polyphyllus

48 Annnex 4. (continued)

Family/Species Sinhala name Status

Flacourtiaceae Casearia elliptica

Guttiferae Garcinia spicata

Gramineae Chrysopogon aciculatus tuthiri Cymbopogon citratus seru Cymbopogon confertiflorus Imperata cylindrica illuk Panicum maximum Pennisetum olystachyon

Hippocrateaceae Salacia reticulata

Leguminosae Bauhinia racemosa myla Bauhinia tomentosa Cassia auriculata Cassia fistula ehela Crotolaria retusa korakaha Derris uliginosa Desmodium triquetrum baloliya Mimosa pudica nidikumba Tephrosia purpurea katipila

Liliaceae Asparagus falcatus

Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum ingini

Malvaceae Hibiscus eriocarpus Sida rhombifolia

Melastomataceae Memecylon angustifolium lolu Memecylon arnottianum kooratiya Memecylon petiolatum

Meliaceae Aglaia roxburghiana Melia dubia Walsura piscidia kirikone

Moraceae Ficus benghalensis

49 Annnex 4. (continued)

Family•!'Species Sinhala name Status

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus sp. Eugenia wildenowii Syzygium cumini

Oleaceae Jasminum angustifolium E Jasminum auriculatum

Rhamnaceae Scutia myrtina Ventilago maderaspatana Zizyphus napeca eraminiya Zizyphus oenoplia

Rhizophoraceae Cassipourea ceylanica

Rubiaceae Adina cordifolia kolon Canthium coromandelcium Canthium puberulum Cqffea wightiana Ixora arborea Mitragyna parvifolia helamba Randia malabarica Tarenna asiatica

Rutaceae Atalantia ceylanica Chloroxylon swietenia burutha Glycosmis angustifol Glycosmis mauritiana Glycosmis pentaphylla

Salvadoraceae Azima tetracantha

Sapindaceae Sapindus trifoliatus kahapenela Schleichera oleosa

Sapotaceae Miduka longifolia mee Manilkara hexandra

Sterculiaceae Melochia corchorifolia galkera

50 Annnex 4. (continued)

Family/Species Sinhala name Status

Tiliaceae Berrya cordifolia Grewia polygama Grewia tiliaefolia

Verbenaceae Lantana camara gandapana Premna tomentosa Tectona grandis (teak) Vitex altissima nulla

Vitaceae Catunaregam spinosa Cissus quadrangularis Limonia acidissima

51 Annex 5. List of zooplankton (Genera) present in the Udawalawe Reservoir (Chandrasoma et.al., 1986)

ORDER / Genera

ROTIFERS Asplanchna Brachionus Conochilus Diurella Euchlanis Keratella Lecane Notholca Platyias Terichocerca

CLADOCERANS Daphnia Diaphanosoma Macrothrix Moina

COPEPODS Canthocamptus Cyclops Diaptomus' •

OSTRACODS Cypris Nauplii larvae

52 Annex 6. Freshwater fish species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park (survey team)

+ + = globally threatened species (IUCN, 1988) + = nationally threatened species (IUCN, 1993) E = endemic species (Pethiyagoda, 1991; IUCN, 1993) I = introduced species (Pethiyagoda, 1991)

Family/Species English name Sinhala name Status

Anguillidae Anguilla bicolor Level-finned Eel Kalu aandha

Cyprinidae Ctenopharyngodon idella Grass Carp I Cyprinus carpio Common Carp Rata Pethiy I Garra ceylonensis Stone Sucker Gal Pandi E + Puntius dorsalis Long-snouted Barb Katu Kureya Puntius filamentosus Filamented Barb Pethiya Puntius sarana Olive Barb Mas Pethiy?. Rasbora daniconius Striped Rasbora Dandiya Tor khudree Mahseer Lehella

Bagridae Mystus keletius Yellow Catfish Path Ankutta Mystus vittatus Striped Dwarf Catfish Iri Ankutta

Siluridae Ompok bimaculatus Butter Catfish Walapoththa Wallago attu Shark Catfish Walaya

Cichlidae Etroplus suratensis Pearl Spot Koraliya Saratherodon mossambicus Tilapia Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Tilapia Tilapia

Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris Bar-eyed Goby Weligouva

Anabantidae Anabus testudineus Climbing Perch Kavaiya

Osphronemidae Osphronemus goramy Giant Gourami Seppali

Channidae Channa marulius Giant Snakehead Ara Channa striata Murrel Loola

53 Annex 7. Amphibian species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park (Kanunaratne, 1990)

+ + = globally threatened species (IUCN, 1988) + = nationally threatened species (IUCN, 1993) E = endemic species (IUCN, 1993)

¥ami\\I Species English name Sinhala name Status

Bufonidae Bufo atukoralei Atukorale's Dwarf Toad Atukoralage Miti Gemba E+ Bufo melanostictus Common Toad Goda Gemba Bufo microtympanum Small-eared Toad Kuda Kan Gemba

Microhylidae Kaloula pulchra Red Banded Kaloula Rathu vichithra-gemba Microhyla ornata Ornate Narrow-mouthed Frog Vairan Kuru-gemba

Rhacophoridae Philautus hypomelas Kiri Panduru-gemba E+ Polypedates maculatus Common Tree-frog Podu Gas-gemba

Ranidae Rana crassa Kuda Halle Madiya Rana cyanophlyctis Water Skipper Atikiththa Rana limnocharis Indian Reed Frog Indiyanu Pan Madiya Rana temporalis Torrent Wood Frog Sada Wana Madiya Tomopterna breviceps Burrowing Frog Iri Gembi-madiya E+

54 Annex 8. Reptile species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park (Karunaratne, 1990)

+ + = globally threatened species (IUCN, 1988) + = nationally threatened species (IUCN, 1993) E = endemic species (IUCN, 1993)

FamilyISpecies English name Sinhala name Status

SNAKES

Typhlopidae Ramphotyphlops braminus Russell's Blind Snake Dumuta Kanaulla

Uropeltidae Rhinophis oxyrhynchus Schneider's Earth Snake Ulthudulla E +

Boidae Python molurus Python Pimbura + +

Colubridae Macropisthodon plumbicolor Green Keelback Palabariya + Oligodon taeniolatus Varigated Kukri Snake Wairidathkatiya + Oligodon arnensis Common Kukri Snake Aranidathkatiya Boiga forsteni Forsten's Cat Snake Le Mapila Boiga trigonata Indian Cat Snake Ran Mapila Boiga ceylonensis Sri Lanka Cat Snake Nidi Mapila Dendrelaphis tristis Seba's Bronze-back Tura Haldanda Ahaetulla nasutus Green Whip Snake Ahatulla Chrysopelea ornata Flying Snake Pol mal Karawala + Amphiesma stolata Buff-striped Keel-back Ahara Kukka Xenochrophis piscator Checkered Keel-back Diya Naya/Polonga

Elapidae Naja naja Cobra Naya

Viperidae Vipera russelli Russel's Viper Tith Polanga + Hypnale hypnale Merrem's Hump-nosed Viper Kunukatuwa Trimeresurus trigonocephalus Green-pit Viper Pala Polonga E +

TETRAPODS

Emydidae Melanochelys trijuga Hard-shelled Terrapin Gal Ibba +

Testunidae Testudo elegans Star Tortoise Tharaka Ibba +

Trionychidae Lissemys punctata Soft-shelled Terrapin Kiri Ibba

Crocodilida Crocodylus palustris Marsh Crocodile Hala Kimbula

55 Annex 8. (continued)

FamilyISpecies English name Sinhala name

Gekkonidae Hemidactylus leschenaulti Crocodile Gecko Kimbul Huna Hemidactylus triedrus Termite Hill Gecko Humbas Huna

Agamidae Calotes calotes Green Garden Lizard Pala Katussa Calotes ceylonensis Red-lipped Lizard Thol-rathu Katussa Calotes versicolor Common Agamid Lizard Gara Katussa Otocryptis wiegmanni Earless Lizard Pinum Katussa

Scincidae Mabuya carinata Common Skink Garandi Hikanela Mabuya macularia Spotted Skink Pulli Hikanela Lankascincus fallax Brown Skink Dunburu Hikanela

Varanidae Varanus salvator Water Monitor Kabaragoya Varanus cepedianus Land Monitor Thalagoya

56 Annex 9. Bird species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park (Karunaratne, 1990; CBC Notes, 1994 & 1995)

+ = nationally threatened species (IUCN, 1993) E = endemic species (IUCN, 1993) M = migratory species R = resident Aq = aquatic r = rare

Family ISpecies English name Sinhala name Status

Podicipedidae

Tachybabtus rujicollis Little Grebe Heen Gembithuruwa R/Aq

Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant Punchi Diyakava R/Aq Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Indian Shag Hadapalu Diyakava R/Aq Anhingidae

Anhinga melanogaster Indian Darter Ahikava R/Aq

Pelecanidae

Pelecanus philippensis Spot-billed Pelican Alu Pasthuduwa R/Aq

Ardeidae Egretta garzetta Little Egret Kuda Ali-koka R/Aq Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Alu Koka R/Aq Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Karaval Koka R/Aq Casmerodius albus Large Egret Maha Sudu-koka R/Aq Mesophoyax intermedia Median Egret Sudu Madi-koka R/Aq Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Gava-koka R/Aq Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron Kana-koka R/Aq Nycticorax nycticorax Night Heron Ra-koka R/Aq Gorsachius melanolophus Malay Bittern Malayanu Thamba-koka M/Aq Dupetor flavicollis Black Bittern Kalu-koka R/Aq Ciconiidae Mycteria leucocephala Painted Stork Lathuvakiya R/Aq Anastomus oscitans Openbill Vivara-thuduwa R/Aq Ciconia episcopus White-necked Stork Padili Manawa R/Aq Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant Bahuru- manawa R/Aq Threskiornithidae Threskiornis melanocephalus White Ibis Sudu Da-thuduwa R/Aq Platalea leucorodia Spoonbill Handi Alawa R/Aq

Anatidae

Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistling Teal Maha Thumba-seruwa R/Aq

Accipitridae Elanus caeruleus Black-winged Kite Pathanakussa R Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite Bamunu Piyakussa R Haliaeetus leucogaster White-bellied Sea Eagle Sethodara Mudu Rajaliya R Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus Grey-headed Fish Eagle Waw Masukussa R Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle Sarapukussa R

57 Annex 9. (continued)

Familv/Spgries English name Sinhala name Status

Accipitridae (continued) Circus aeruginosus Marsh Harrier Waguru Harikussa M Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier Sudumali Harikussa M Circus pygargus Montagu's Harrier Montegu Harikussa M Accipiter badius Shikra Kurulugoya R Accipiter virgatus Besra Sparrowhawk Besra Kurulugoya R Buteo buteo Common Buzzard Podu Lassikussa R Ictinaetus malayensis Black Eagle Kalukussa R Hieraaetus kienerii Rufous-bellied Hawk Eagle Rathodara Rajaliya R Spizaetus cirrhatus Crested Hawk Eagle Kondakussa R Spizaetus nipalensis Mountain Hawk Eagle Kandukara Kondakussa R+

Pandionidae Pandion haliaetus Osprey Uthuru Kuralaya M

Falconidae Falco tinnunculus Kestrel Parisarikussa M/R Falco peregrinus Shahin/Peregrine Falcon Peradiga M/R

Phasianidae Coturnix chinensis Blue-breasted Quail Laya Nil Watuwa R Perdicula asiatica Jungle Bush Quail Panduru-watuwa R Galloperdix bicalcarata Sri Lanka Spurfowl Lanka Haban Kukula R/E+ Gallus lafayettii Sri Lanka Junglefowl Lanka Wali Kukula R/E + Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl Monara/Sebeda R

Turnicidae Turnix suscitator Barred Bustard-Quail Bola Watuwa

Rallidae Amaurornis phoenicurus White-breasted Waterhen Laya Sudu Korawakka R/Aq

Jacanidae Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana Savulpenda Diyasana R/Aq

Recurvirostridae Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt Piyapath Kalu Ipilpava R/Aq

Burhinidae Esacus recurvirostris Great Stone Plover Maha Golu-kirala R/Aq

Charadriidae Pluvialis fulva Asiatic Golden Plover Ran Maha-oleviya M/Aq Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover Heen Mala Oleviya M/R/Aq Charadrius alexandrinus Kentish Plover Kentiya Oleviya M/R/Aq Vanellus malabaricus Yellow-wattled Lapwing Kaha Karamal Kirala M/Aq Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing Rath Karamal Kirala M/Aq

Scolopacidae Gallinago stenura Pintail Snipe Penda Ul Kas-watuwa M/Aq Tringa totanus Redshank Rathpa Silibilla M/Aq Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper Waguru Silibilla M/Aq Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper Kola Silibilla M/Aq

58 Annex 9. (continued)

Family I Species English name Sinhala name Status

Scolopacidae (continued) Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Wana-silibilla M/Aq Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Podu-silibilla M/Aq

Sternidae

Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern Kangul-lihiniya M/Aq

Columbidae Columba livia (Feral) Rock Pigeon Galp Paraviya R Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove Alu Kobeyiya R Chalcophaps indica Emerald Dove Neela Kobeyiya R Treron bicincta Orange-breasted Green Pigeon Laya Ran Bata-goya R Treron pompadora Pompadour Green Pigeon Pompadura Bata-goya R Ducula aenea Green Imperial Pigeon Maha Neela-goya R Psittacidae Loriculus beryllinus Sri Lanka Lorikeet Lanka Giramalitha R/E + Psittacula eupatria Alexandrine Parakeet Labu Girawa R Psittacula kramerii Rose-ringed Parakeet Rana Girawa R Psittacula cyanocephala Blossom-headed Parakeet Pandu Girawa R

Cuculidae Oxylophus jacobinus Pied Crested Cuckoo Gomara Konda-koha R Clamator coromandus Red-winged crested Cuckoo Path Rathu Konda-koha M Cuculus micropterus Indian Cuckoo Indiyanu Kokilaya M/R Cacomantis sonneratii Bay-banded Cuckoo Vayira Pingu-koha R Cacomantis passerinus Indian Plantive Cuckoo Lathoni Pingu-koha M Surniculus lugubris Drongo-Cuckoo Kavudu-koha R Eudynamys scolopacea Koei Koha R Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii Sirkeer Pathan Ati-kukula R Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus Red-faced Malkoha Watha Rathu Malkoha R/E + + Phaenicophaeus viridirostris Blue-faced Malkoha Watha Nil Wal-koha R Centropus sinensis Common Coucal Ati-kukula R

Strigidae Otus sunia Little Scops Owl Singithi Bassa R + Bubo nipalensis Forest Eagle Owl Ulama R + Ketupa zeylonensis Brown Fish Owl Dumburu Kevul-bakkamuna R Glaucidium radiatum Jungle Owlet Wayira Wana-bassa R Ninox scutulata Brown Hawk Owl Dumburu Ukusu-bassa R

Capri rnulgidae Batrachostomus moniliger Frogmouth Madi Muhuna R Caprimulgus asiaticus Common Nightjar Podi Bimbassa R

Hemiprocnidae

Hemiprocne coronata Crested Tree-Swift Silu Ruk-thurithaya R

Apodidae Collocalia unicolor Indian Edible-nest Swift Indiyanu Kadal-thurithaya R Cypsiurus balasiensis Palm Swift Thai Thurithaya R

59 Annex 9. (continued)

Family ISpecies English name Sinhala name Status

Alcedinidae Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Podu Mal-pilihuduwa R/Aq Pelargopsis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher Manathudu Maha-pilihuduwa R Halcyon smyrnensis White-breasted Kingfisher Laya Sudu Pilihuduwa R Halcyon pileata Black-capped Purple Kingfisher Hisa Kalu Dam-pilihuduwa rM + Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher Gomara Kalapu-pilihuduwa R

Meropidae Merops orientalis Little Green Bee-eater Palavan Binguharaya R Merops philippinus Blue-tailed Bee-eater Pendanil Binguharaya M Merops leschenaulti Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Pinguhis Binguharaya R

Coraciidae Coracias bengalensis Indian Roller Dumbonna R

Upupidae Upupa epops Hoopoe Poroluva R

Bucerotidae Ocyceros gingalensis Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill Alu Kandaththa R/E+ Anthracoceros coronatus Malabar Pied Hornbill Poru Kandaththa R

Capitonidae Megalaima zeylanica Brown-headed Barbet Polos Kottoruwa R Megalaima rubricapilla Sri Lanka Small Barbet Oluwa Rathu Kottoruwa R/E + Megalaima haemacephala Crimson-breasted Barbet Botuwa Rathu Kottoruwa R

Picidae Dendrocopus mahrattensis Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker Pithagra Gomara-kerala R Celeus brachyurus Rufous Woodpecker Rathudumburu Koda-kerala R Dinopium benghalense Red-backed Woodpecker Pita Rathu/Ran Rath-kerala R Chrysocolaptes festivus Black-backed Yellow Woodpecker Pita Kaha Maha-kerala R+

Pittidae Pitta brachyura Indian Pitta Avichchiya M

Alaudidae Mirafra assamica Rufous-winged Bushlark Akul Thulikava R Eremopterix grisea Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark Kalu Udura Salika-thulikava R

Hirundinidae Hirundo rustica Common Swallow Wahi-lihiniya M Hirundo daurica Red-rumped Swallow Rathu Kati Wahi-lihiniya R

Motacillidae Anthus rufulus Indian Pipit Indiyanu Varatichcha R Dendronanthus indicus Forest Wagtail Kala Halapenda M Motacilla alba White Wagtail Sudu Halapenda M Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail Kaha halapenda M Motacilla cinerea Grey Wagtail Alu halapenda M

60 Annex 9. (continued)

FamilyISpecies English name Sinhala name Status

Campephagidae Tephrodornis pondicerianus Common Wood-shrike Wana-saratittha R Coracina macei Large Cuckoo-shrike Maha Kovul Saratittha R Coracina melanoptera Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike Hisa Kalu Kovul-Saratittha R Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Little Minivet Kuda Minivittha R Hemipus picatus Pied Shrike Gomara Kalu-saratittha R

Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus melanicterus Black-capped Bulbul Hisa Kalu Kondaya R Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul Kondaya R Pycnonotus luteolus White-browed Bulbul Bama Sudu Kondaya R Hypsipetes leucocephalus Black Bulbul Kalu-kondaya R

Chloropseidae Chloropsis cochinchinensis Jerdon's Chloropsis Jerdonge Kolarisiya R Chloropsis aurifrons Gold-fronted Chloropsis Ran Alika Kolarisiya R Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Iorava R

Turdidae Copsychus saularis Magpie Robin Polkichcha R Copsychus malabaricus White-rumped Shama Vana Polkichcha R Saxicoloides fulicata Black Robin Kalukichcha R Zoothera citrina Orange-headed Ground Thrush Hisa Thambili Thirasikaya M Zoothera spiloptera Spotted-winged Thrush Lanka Thithpiya Thirasikaya R/E +

Sylviidae Prinia hodgsonii Franklin's Prinia Frankalinge Priniya R Prinia sylvatica Large Prinia Maha Priniya R Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia Alupaha Priniya R Prinia inornata White-browed Prinia Bama Sudu Priniya R Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird Battichcha R Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth's Reed Warbler Blythge Pan-raviya M Sylvia curruca Lesser Whitethroat Sulu Gelasudda M Sylvia althaea Hume's Whitethroat Humge Gelasudda M Phylloscopus nitidus Green Leaf Warbler Kola Gas-raviya M Phylloscopus magnirostris Large-billed Leaf Warbler Thuda Loku Gas-raviya M

Muscicapidae Cyornis tickelliae Tickell's Blue Flycatcher Laya Thambilivan Nil Masimara R Muscicapa daurica Brown Flycatcher Dumburu Masimara M

Rhipiduridae Rhipidura aureola White-browed Fantail Sudu Avenpendamara R

Monarchidae Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Flycatcher Nil Radamara R Terpsiphone paradisi Paradise Flycatcher Rahanmara M/R

61 Annex 9. (continued)

Family/Species English name Sinhala name Status

Timaliidae Pellorneum fuscocapillum Brown-capped Babbler Mudun Bora-demalichcha E Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Scimitar Babbler Da-demalichcha R Dumetia hyperythra White-throated Babbler Gela sudu Lahdu-demalichcha R Rhopochichla atriceps Black-fronted Babbler Hisa Kalu panduru-demalichcha R Chrysomma sinense Yellow-eyed Babbler Pithakshi Thana-demalichcha R Turdoides qffinis Common Babbler Demalichcha R

Paridae Parus major Grey Tit Alu Tikirittha R

Sittidae Sittajrontalis Velvet-fronted Nuthatch Viluda Alika Yatikurittha

Nectariniidae Nectarinia zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird Damkati Sutikka R Nectarinia lotenia Loten's Sunbird Lotenge Sutikka R Nectarinia asiatica Purple Sunbird Dam Sutikka R

Dicaeidae Dicaeum agile Thick-billed Flowerpecker Thuda Mahath Pilalichcha R Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Small Flowerpecker Kuda Pilalichcha R

Zosteropidae Zosterops palpebrosa Small White Eye Kuda Sithasiya R

Oriolidae Oriolus xanthornus Black-headed Oriole Hisa Kalu Kahakurulla

Laniidae Lanius cristatus Brown/Philippine Shrike Dumburu/pilipina Sabarittha M

Dicruridae Dicrurus leucophaeus Grey Drongo Alu paha Kauda M Dicrurus caerulescens White-vented Drongo Podu Kauda R Dicrurus paradiseus Crested/Racket-tailed Drongo Kalu Silu/Pithipenda Kauda R

Artamidae Artamus fuscus Ashy Swallow-shrike Alu Sabara-lihiniya R

Corvidae Corvus macrorhynchos Black Crow Kalu kaputa

Sturnidae Acridotheres tristis Common Mynah Myna R Gracula religiosa Common Hill-Mynah Podu salalihiniy R

Passeridae Passer domesticus House Sparrow Ge Kurulla/Chatakaya R

62 Annex 9. (continued)

FamilyISpecies English name Sinhala name Status

Ploceidae Ploceus manyar Striated Weaver Pan Wadu-kurulla R Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver Ruk Wadu-kurulla R

Estrildidae Lonchura malabarica White-throated Munia Gela Sudu Wee-kurulla R Lonchura striata White-backed Munia Pita Sudu Wee-kurulla R Lonchura punctulata Spotted Munia Thith Wee-kurulla R Lonchura malacca Black-headed Munia Hisa Kalu Wee-kurulla R

63 Annex 10. Mammal species recorded from the Udawalawe National Park (Karunaratne, 1990)

+ + globally threatened species (IUCN, 1988) + nationally threatened species (IUCN, 1993) E endemic species (IUCN, 1993) r = rare

Familv/Spgq'es English name Sinhala name

Soricidae Suncus murinus Musk Shrew Podu Hikmiya

Pteropodidae Pteropus giganteus Flying Fox Ma Wawula

Rhinolophidae Hipposideros lankadiva Great Leaf-nosed Bat Maha Pathra Naswawula

Vespertilionidae Kerivoula picta Painted Bat Vichithra Wawula

Lorisidae Loris tardigradus Slender Loris Unahapuluwa

Cercopithecidae Macaco, sinica Toque Monkey Rilawa Semnopithecus entellus Grey Langur Alu Wandura

Canidae Canis aures Jackal Nariya/Hiwala

Ursidae Melursus ursinus Sloth Bear Walaha

Mustelidae Lutra lutra Otter Diyaballa

Viverridae Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Palm Cat Kalawadda Paradoxurus zeylonensis Golden Palm Cat Ran Hothambaya Viverricula ituiica Ring-tailed Civet Urulawa

Herpestidae Herpestes edwardsi Grey Mongoose Alu Mugatiya Herpestes brachyurus Brown Mongoose Dumburu Mugatiya Herpestes smithii Black-tipped Mongoose Rathdumburu Mugatiya Herpestes vitticollis Striped-neck Mongoose Maha Mugatiya

Felidae Felis chaus Jungle Cat Wal Balala Felis rubiginosa Rusty-spotted Cat Balal Diviya Felis viverrina Fishing Cat Handun/Kola Diviya Panthera pardus Leopard Diviya/Kotiya

64 Annex 10. (continued)

FamilyISpecies English name Sinhala name Status

Elephantidae Elephas maximus Elephant Aliya/Atha + +

Suidae Sus scrofa Wild Boar Wal Ura

Tragulidae Moschiola meminna Mouse Deer Meminna +

Bovidae Bubalus bubalus Buffalo Kulu Haraka/Mee Haraka

Cervidae Axis axis Spotted Deer Thith Muva Cervus unicolor Sambur Gona Muntiacus muntjak Barking Deer Olu Muva

Manidae Manis crassicaudata Pangolin Kaballawa

Sciuridae Funambulus palmarum Palm Squirrel Iri Lena Funambulus sublineatus Dusky-stripped Jungle Squirrel Pulutu Lena + Petaurista petaurista Grey Flying Squirrel Maha Hambawa + Ratufa macroura Giant Squirrel Dandu Lena

Cricetidae Tatera indica Antelope Rat Muwa Miya

Muridae Bandicota indica Malabar Bandicoot Uru Miya Golunda ellioti Bush Rat Panduru Miya Mus cervicolor Field Mouse Kshethra Miya Mus masculus Indian House Mouse Indiyanu Ge Miya Mus fernandoni Sri Lanka Spiny Mouse Lanka Katu Miya E + Rattus rattus Common Rat Ge Miya Millardia gleadowi Soft-furred Field Rat Sinidu Miya

Hystricidae Hystrix indica Porcupine Iththava

Leporidae Lepus nigricollis Black-naped Hare Hava

65 Annex 11. Rules and regulations pertaining to a National Park as declared under the FFPO

1. The permit-holder/permit-holders shall be accompanied throughout his/their stay in the National Park by an officer nominated for that purpose by the Game Ranger or the officer- in-charge of the National Park. The permit- holder/permit-holders shall give the officer so nominated accommodation, free of charge, in the vehicle used by him/them.

2. Where two or more persons are named as the permit-holders each such person shall be jointly and severally responsible for the due and proper observance of the Ordinance, the regulations made thereunder and these conditions.

3. The permit-holder/permit-holders, shall, before entering the National Park, insert in the space provided for the purpose in the permit, the name of every person to be introduced by him/them under the authority of this permit as a guide chauffeur, carter, servant or labourer. Any such person found within the National Park shall, if his name has not already been entered on the permit, be liable to be ordered to leave the National Park by any officer of the Department of Wild Life.

4. The permit-holder/permit-holders and the persons and animals authorized to be introduced by him/them shall not enter the National Park before 5 a.m. or after 6 p.m. on the first date or remain therein after 6.30 p.m. on the second date specified on the face of this permit. Where this permit is valid for one day only, the afforced persons and animals shall not enter the National Park before 5 a.m. or after 6 p.m. or remain therein after 6.30 p.m. on that date.

5. The permit-holder/permit-holders shall not take any automatic military firearms, any rifle of less than .30 bore, any shot gun of less than 16 bore, or any air gun or air rifle into the National Park.

6. The permit-holder/permit-holders or any person mentioned in this permit shall not travel in the National Park, on foot or by vehicle between the hours 6.30 p.m. and 5 a.m.

7. The permit-holder/permit-holders or any person mentioned in this permit shall not while travelling within the National Park or on foot or by vehicle, discharge any firearm, play any musical instrument, sing, shout, clap or make any noise which is likely to disturb the fauna therein, or throw any missile at or pursue, any animal or do any act which is likely to disturb any animal.

8. The permit-holder/permit-holders and the persons and animals authorized to be introduced by him/them under this permit shall not enter any part of the National Park which has been closed on the orders of the warden.

9. The permit-holder/permit-holders shall not, without the previous approval of the warden, remove from the National Park any part of any animal or any object of geological, prehistoric, archeological, historical or other scientific interest.

10. The permit-holder/permit-holders shall not camp at night in the National Park under tents or shelters or in the open except of the written approval of the warden. If the permit-holder/permit-holders has/have not obtained such written approval or has/have not been allotted accommodation for one or more nights at a Circuit Bungalow within the National Park, this permit shall be valid for one day only and he/they, the persons and animals authorized to be introduced by him/them shall not remain in the National Park after 6.30 p.m. on that day.

11. The permit-holder/permit-holders or any person mentioned in this permit shall not while travelling along any road, track or path in the National Park on foot or by vehicle, use any artificial light for any purpose other than that of illuminating such road, track or path and such lights shall not be used except between the hours of 5 a.m. and 6 a.m and 6 p.m. and 6.30 p.m.

12. The permit-holder/permit-holders and the persons mentioned in the permit shall obey such directions given to him/them by any officer of the Department of Wild Life as may be considered necessary or desirable by that officer for the safety of visitors or in the interests of the fauna.

13. The permit-holder/permit-holders shall produce this permit whenever called upon to do so by any officer of the Wild Life.

14. In the event of this permit being revoked under section 54 of the ordinance and on the permit-holder or any one of the permit holders being informed of such revocation, he/they shall return this permit to the warden or the officer who issued it and shall not remain within the National Park longer than is reasonably necessary for making preparation for his/their departure and for departing outside the limits of the National Park.

66 REFERENCES

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Anon., 1989. Unpublished list of 35 wetlands that were omitted from the Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989).

Arudpragasam, K.D., I. Kotalawala and S.W. Kotagama, 1982. A checklist of the mammals of Sri Lanka.

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Claridge, G., 1990. A systematic approach to expressing and comparing the values of Indonesian wetlands. Proc. 2nd Asian School on Conservation Biology, Bogor, Indonesia.

Cooray, P.G., 1984. An introduction to the geology of Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. National Museum' Publication.

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Hoffmann, T.W., 1972. The new Udawalawe National Park. Loris Vol. XII, No. 6.

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Hoffmann, T.W., 1982. Provisional inventory of wetlands in Sri Lanka. Loris, Vol. XVI, pp 94-96.

Hoffmann, T.W., 1990. The unique Samanalawewa area - a plea for its protection. Loris, Vol. IXX, No. 1.

IUCN, 1988. Red List of Threatened Animals.

IUCN, 1993. Biological conservation in Sri Lanka: a national status report (revised edition). Compiled by L.C.A. de S. Wijesinghe, I.A.U.N. Gunatilleke, S.D.G. Jayawardana, S.W. Kotagama and C.V.S. Gunatilleke.

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Wijesinghe, D.P., 1994. Checklist of the Birds of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Bird Club. OTHER STUDIES UNDERTAKEN IN SRI LANKAN WETLANDS BY) WETLAND CONSERVATION PROJECT INCLUDE: 1

No* Area Report** Status (March 19951 • -\. - - • 13 Handapan & Bendiya Villu's WSR completed (March 1995) J 14 Minneriya Reservoir WSR/CMP completed (September 1993) 19 Senanayake Samudra Reservoir WSR completed (December 1993) 24 Palatupana Maha Lewaya WSR completed (March 1994) 25 Wirawila Sanctuary and Yoda Wewa WSR/CMP completed (August 1994) 26 Bundala Wetlands WSR/CMP completed (November 1993) 27 Karagan Lewaya WSR completed (March 1994) 28 Kalametiya & Lunama Kalapuwa's WSR/CMP completed (February 1995) 30 Bellanwila-Attidya Marsh WSR/CMP completed (October 1993) 31/32 Muthurajawela/Negombo Lagoon CMP completed (October 1994) 33 Mundel Lake + Corridor Channel WSR/CMP completed (November 1994) 34 Puttalam Estuary WSR completed (April 1994) 36 Nachchaduwa Tank WSR completed (December 1994) 66 Koggala Lake WSR/CMP completed (February 1995) 71 Bentota Estuary \ WSR completed (February 1994) 73 Chilaw Estuary WSR completed (May 1994) 75 Tabbowa Reservoir WSR completed (December 1993) 79 Annaiwilundawa Tanks WSR/CMP completed (July 1994) 81 Waturana Swamp Forest WSR completed (February 1994) 82 Anuradhapura Tanks WSR completed (June 1994) 83 Mi Oya River Basin WSR completed (September 1994) 84 Colombo Flood Detention Areas WSR/CMP completed (January 1995)

* Numbers refer to a list of Sri Lankan wetlands as prepared by the WCP (Progress Report 3, April 1992) ** WSR = Wetland Site Report CMP = Conservation Management Plan

TECHNICAL REPORTS PREPARED BY THE WETLAND CONSERVATION PROJECT INCLUDE:

1. Guidelines for Conservation Management of Wetlands in Sri Lanka (November 1991) 2. Institutional Aspects of Wetland Conservation in Sri Lanka (June 1992) 3. Proceedings of the Workshop on Conservation of Wetlands in Sri Lanka (March 1993) 4. Draft Institutional Action Plan for Wetland Conservation in Sri Lanka (September 1993) 5. Manual and Strategy for Wetland Conservation and Development in Sri Lanka (October 1994) 6. Evaluation of WCP's implementation programme (February 1995)