1 Introduction: Fiction for the Working Lad

Notes

1 Introduction: Fiction for the working lad

1. George Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell: Vol. I: An Age Like This (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), 505–31, quotation from 530. 2. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, 516. 3. Ibid. 4. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’ originally appeared in Cyril Connolly’s literary magazine Horizon, no.3 (March 1940), 346–55. One month later a reply appeared from popular story paper author Frank Richards (the pen name of Charles Hamilton). The controversy about Orwell’s article still raged on forty years later in issues of Story Paper Collector’s Digest, a monthly magazine for collectors and enthusiasts; see letters from Ernest Holman, Simon Garrett and Brian Sayer in nos. 477–9 (1986). Richards’ ‘Reply to George Orwell’, is included in Orwell and Angus, eds, Collected Essays, 531–40. 5. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, 529. 6. This is a burgeoning ﬁeld, but see Peter Stearns, Be a Man! Males in Modern Society (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979; revised 1990); J. A. Mangan and James Walvin, eds, Manliness and Morality (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh, eds, Manful Assertions: Masculinities in England since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); Graham Dawson, Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire and the Imaginings of Masculinity (London: Routledge, 1994); Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men’s Bodies, Britain and the Great War (London: Reaktion, 1996); Angus Maclaren, The Trials of Masculinity: Polic- ing Sexual Boundaries, 1870–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); and John Tosh, A Man’s Place: Masculinity and the Middle-Class Home in Victorian England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a fuller discussion of the literature on the history of masculinity see Kelly Boyd, ‘“Wait Till I’m a Man!”: Manliness in the English Boys’ Story Paper, 1855–1940’ (PhD thesis, Rutgers Uni- versity, 1991), chap.1. 7. See, for example, James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Manhood (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); David Alderson, Mansex Fine: Religion, Manliness and Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century British Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); Diana Barsham, Arthur Conan Doyle and the Meanings of Masculinity (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000); and Andrew Bradstock, Sean Gill, Anne Hogan and Sue Morgan, eds, Masculinity and Spiritu- ality in Victorian Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave [Macmillan] 2000). 8. James Greenwood, ‘The Penny Awfuls’, St Paul’s Magazine 12 (1873), 161–8; Alexander Strahan, ‘Bad Literature for the Young’, Contemporary Review 26 (1875), 981–91; Francis Hitchman, ‘The Penny Press’, MacMillan’s Magazine 43 (1881), 385–98; Edward Salmon, ‘What Boys Read’, Fortnightly Review n.s.39 (1886), 248–59; Bennett G. Johns, ‘Literature of the Streets’, Edinburgh Review 165 (1887), 40–65; and Edward Lyttleton, ‘Penny Fiction’, Quarterly Review 171 (1890), 150–71.

181 182 Notes to Chapter 1

9. John R. Gillis, ‘The Evolution of Juvenile Delinquency in England, 1890–1914’, Past and Present no.67 (May 1975), 96–126. 10. Hamilton’s work will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Biographical information is from W. O. G. Lofts and Derek Adley, The Men Behind Boys’ Fiction (London: Howard Baker, 1970), 168–71; Charles Hamilton, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London: Charles Skilton, 1952); and Mary Cadogan, Frank Richards: The Chap Behind the Chums (London: Viking, 1988). 11. Richards, ‘Reply to George Orwell’, 538; the emphasis is Richards’. 12. Ibid., 535 13. This paragraph is largely derived from John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), see esp. chs 1 and 2. 14. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, Romance, 38. 15. Janice Radway, Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy and Popular Literature (London: Verso, 1987 [1984]); Tania Modleski, Loving with a Vengeance (London: Methuen, 1984); and jay Dixon, The Romance Fiction of Mills and Boon, 1909–1990s (London: UCL Press, 1999). 16. Michael Denning, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America (London: Verso, 1987). 17. Thomas Frost, Forty Years’ Recollections: Literary and Political (London: Sampson Low, 1880), 90. 18. See Jane P. Tompkins, ed., Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post- Structuralism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Susan Suleiman and Inge Crosman, eds, The Reader in the Text: Essays on Audience Interpretation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981); and Stanley Fish, Is There a Text in this Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), for extensive discussions of the theory. For a good treatment of reader-response criticism in the context of modern literary criticism, see Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), 74–88. A precise deﬁnition of different types of readers is found in Robert Crosman, ‘Four Types of Reader’, Reader: A Newsletter of Reader-Oriented Criticism and Teaching no.5 (October 1978), 3–9. For an early exploration of the uses of reader/response criticism, see Susan Suleiman, ‘What is Reader-Oriented Criti- cism?’ Reader: A Newsletter no.4 (1978), 3–6. 19. Janice A. Radway, ‘Women Read the Romance: The Interaction of Text and Context’, Feminist Studies 9 (1983), 53–78; Radway, Reading the Romance; and Leslie W. Rabine, ‘Romance in the Age of Electronics: Harlequin Enterprises’, Feminist Studies 9 (1985), 39–60. 20. The use of the soubriquet was not uncommon in working-class culture; see Edward Royle, Chartism (London: Longman, 1986), 46, for the use of names like ‘Queen Victoria’ and the ‘Duke of Wellington’ on Chartist petitions; and Rohan McWilliam, ‘Radicalism and Popular Culture: The Tichborne Case and the Politics of Fair Play, 1867–1886’ in Alastair Reid and Eugenio Biagini, eds, Currents of Radicalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 55–6. 21. Richards, ‘Reply to George Orwell’, 537. 22. Peter Biskind, Seeing is Believing: How America Learned to Stop Living and Love the Cinema (New York: Pantheon, 1983). 23. Denning, Mechanic Accents, 4. 24. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160. Notes to Chapters 1–2 183

25. Jack Cox, Take a Cold Tub, Sir! The Story of the Boy’s Own Paper (Guildford, Surrey: Lutterworth Press, 1982), 70–2. 26. On his death Brett left a personal estate valued at £76,538; ‘Wills and Bequests: Brett’, Illustrated London News (8 February 1896), 186. For the general (un)prof- itability of Victorian boys’ magazines, see John Springhall, ‘“Disseminating Unpure Literature”: The “Penny Dreadful” Publishing Business since 1860’, Economic History Review 47 (1994), 567–84. 27. Stuart Hall, ‘Notes on Deconstructing ‘the Popular’,’ in Raphael Samuel, ed., People’s History and Socialist Theory (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), 227–39. 28. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al (London: Penguin, 1976 [1948]). 29. Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies 17 (1973), 89–99; Patrick Dunae, ‘Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, The Private Library 9 (1976), 123–58; ‘Boys’ Literature and the Idea of Race, 1870–1900’, Wascana Review (1977), 84–107; ‘Making Good: the Canadian West in Boys’ Lit- erature’, Prairie Forum 4 (1979), 165–81; ‘Penny Dreadfuls: Late Nineteenth- Century Boys’ Literature and Crime’, Victorian Studies 22 (1979), 133–50; ‘Boys’ Literature’, Victorian Studies 24 (1980), 105–21; and ‘A New Grub Street for Boys’, in Jeffrey Richards, ed., Imperialism and Juvenile Literature (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), 12–33; John O. Springhall, ‘Healthy Papers for Manly Boys: Imperialism and Race in Harmsworth’s Halfpenny Boys’ Papers of the 1880s and 1890s’, in Richards, Juvenile Literature and Imperialism, 107–25; ‘“A Life Story for the People”? Edwin J. Brett and the London Low-Life Penny Dreadfuls of the 1860s’, Victorian Studies 33 (1990), 223–46; and Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta-Rap, 1830–1996 (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1999). 30. Kathryn Castle, Britannia’s Children: Reading Colonialism Through Children’s Books and Magazines (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996); Robert H. MacDonald, ‘Reproducing the Middle-Class Boys: From Purity to Patriotism in the Boys’ Magazines, 1892–1914’, Journal of Contemporary History 24 (1989), 519– 39; and The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880–1918 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994); Claudia Nelson, Boys Will Be Girls: the Feminine Ethic and British Children’s Fiction, 1857–1917 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991); ‘Mixed Messages: Authoring and Authority in British Boys’ Magazines’, The Lion and the Unicorn 21 (1997), 1–19; and ‘David and Jonathan – and Saul – Revisted: Homodomestic Patterns in British Boys’ Magazine Fiction, 1880–1915’, Children’s Literature Association Quarterly 15 (1990), 17–21. 31. This genre is too large to enumerate here, but for a good roundup see Robert J. Kirkpatrick with Michael Rupert Taylor, Victorian School Stories in Books and Periodicals (Oxford: privately published, 2001) and Robert J. Kirkpatrick, The Encyclopaedia of Boys’ School Stories (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001). Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: The Public School in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester Uni- versity Press, 1988) and Mary Cadogan, You’re a Brick Angela: a New Look at Girls’ Fiction from 1839 to 1975 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1975). 2 Boys’ lives: Boys’ education, work and leisure, 1855–1940

1. In 1837 boys aged 10–14 comprised 5.37 per cent of the population; by 1891 this ﬁgure had risen to 5.5 per cent, declining slowly to 4.05 per cent by 1931. 184 Notes to Chapter 2

Calculated from B. R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 15. 2. John R. Gillis, Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations, 1770–Present (New York: Academic Press, 1974), ch.4. Frank Musgrove, Youth and the Social Order (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964), ch.2, argues the change happened much earlier, around 1765, but the discussions he describes were mostly theoretical, or concerned chiefly with the upper classes. A wide- spread change had to wait until the mid-nineteenth century. See also the discussion of the idea of adolescence in John O. Springhall, Coming of Age: Adolescence in Britain, 1860–1960 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1986), ch.1; Jeffrey Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society (London: Longman, 1981), 48–52. 3. Springhall, Coming of Age, 38; Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, 15. 4. D. L. Lemahieu, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communications and the Cultivated Mind in Britain Between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 8. 5. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale Univer- sity Press, 1992), ch.4. 6. John Chandos, Boys Together: English Public Schools, 1800–1864 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984); John R. de S. Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Develop- ment of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977); Barbara English, ‘The Education of the Landed Elite in England, c.1815–c.1870’, Journal of Edu- cational Administration and History 23 (1991), 15–32; Christine Heward, Making a Man of Him: Parents and their Sons’ Education at an English Public School, 1929–1950 (London: Routledge, 1988). 7. Colin Shrosbree, Public Schools and Private Education: The Clarendon Commission, 1861–64, and the Public Schools Acts (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988). 8. J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emer- gence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000 [1981]). 9. Stefan Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 91–118. 10. Donald Leinster-Mackay, The Rise of the English Prep School (London: Falmer, 1984); R. D. Pearce, ‘The Prep School and Imperialism: The Example of Orwell’s St Cyprian’, Journal of Educational Administration and History 23 (1991), 42–53. 11. Heward, Making a Man of Him. 12. Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: The Public School in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988). 13. Evelyn Waugh illustrates the influence of attendance at a public school vividly with the character of Captain Grimes in Decline and Fall (1928). W. D. Rubinstein’s investigation of elites and education focused on origins of the elite, but his argument does not contradict the heavy attendance of members of the elite at public schools, even if these were not of the first rank or the boys did not emerge from the social elite: ‘Education and the Social Origins of British Elites, 1880–1970’, in his Elites and the Wealthy in Modern British History (Brighton: Harvester, 1987), 172–221. For the influence of non-Oxbridge university attendance, see Carol Dyhouse, ‘Family Patterns of Social Mobility through Higher Education in England in the 1930s’, Journal of Social History 34 (2001), 817–42. 14. Edward Heath remembers this fear when he went up to Oxford in 1935, but credits the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Balliol with circumventing it. Never- theless, he recounts how the senior scholar of his year found it overwhelming: Notes to Chapter 2 185

The Course of My Life: An Autobiography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1998), 23–5. The problem of how to treat men temporarily elevated during the Great War was a social problem in the 1920s. See Martin Petter, ‘“Temporary Gentle- men” in the Aftermath of the Great War: Rank, Status and the Ex-Ofﬁcer Problem’, Historical Journal 37 (1994), 127–52. 15. Philippe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood (London: Cape, 1962); Steve Humphries, Joanna Mack and Robert Perks, A Century of Childhood (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1988); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860–1918 (London: Routledge, 1991); Hugh Cunningham, The Children of the Poor: Representations of Children since the Seventeenth Century (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991); Hugh Cunningham, Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Harry Hendrick, Children, Childhood and English Society, 1880–1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), are just a few of the books which have dealt with this topic. 16. James Walvin, A Child’s World: A Social History of English Childhood, 1800–1914 (Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1982), 61–72; Springhall, Coming of Age, 65–89; Ivy Pinchbeck and Margaret Hewitt, Children in English Society. Volume II: From the Eighteenth Century to the Children Act 1948 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), 387–413, focus on the earlier period; Geoffrey Best, Mid-Victorian Britain, 1851–1878 (London: Panther, 1973 [1971]), 129–36; Elizabeth Roberts, ‘The Family’, in John Benson, ed., The Working Class in England, 1875–1914 (London: Croom Helm, 1985), 1–35; F. M. L. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (London: Fontana, 1988), 131; Michael J. Childs, Labour’s Apprentices: Working-Class Lads in Late Victorian and Edwardian England (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992), 78–9; Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870–1914 (London: Rivers Oram, 1996), 170–1. 17. Thompson, Rise, 135–44; Roberts, ‘The Family’, 21–5; Phillip McCann, Popular Education and Socialization in the Nineteenth Century (London: Methuen, 1977); Brian Simon, Studies in the History of Education: Education and the Labour Move- ment, 1870–1920 (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1965); P. W. Musgrave, Society and Education in England since 1800 (London: Methuen, 1969); John Sequin Hurt, Elementary Schooling and the Working Class, 1860–1914 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), ch.7; James Murphy, The Education Act 1870 (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1973); Childs, Labour’s Apprentices, ch.2; Davin, Growing Up Poor, ch.7. 18. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (4 vols; New York: Dover, 1968), 3: 370. Edward Jacobs, ‘Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, ‘Industrial Literacy’, and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England’, Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995), 321–47, explores this in depth. 19. Robert K. Webb, ‘Working Class Readers in Early Victorian England’, English His- torical Review 65 (1950), 333–51; David Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture: England, 1750–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 226. 20. W. B. Stephens, Education, Literacy and Society, 1830–70: The Geography of Diver- sity in Provincial England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), 18–19. 21. Thomas Laqueur, Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working-Class Culture, 1780–1850 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976). 22. John R. Gillis, A World of Their Own Making: A History of Myth and Ritual in Family Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 109–29 and Leonore Davidoff, 186 Notes to Chapter 2

Megan Doolittle, Janet Fink, and Katherine Holden, The Family Story: Blood, Contract and Intimacy, 1830–1960 (London: Longman, 1999), 116–23 and 215–20. 23. Constance Rollett and Julia Parker, ‘Population and Family’, in A. H. Halsey, ed., Trends in British Society since 1900, London: Macmillan, 1972, 20–63. It is by no means clear why or by what method families came to be smaller, but by the inter-war years even working-class families had reduced themselves in size. For various suggestions as to the reasons see J. A. Banks, Prosperity and Parenthood (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954); J. A. and Olive Banks, Feminism and Family Planning (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1964); Angus Maclaren, Birth Control in Nineteenth-Century England (London: Croom Helm, 1978); Joseph Ambrose Banks, Victorian Values: Secularism and the Size of Families (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981); and Diana Gittins, Fair Sex: Family Size and Structure, 1900–1939 (London: Hutchinson, 1982). 24. Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870–1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 148–58. 25. Flora Thompson, Lark Rise to Candleford (London: Oxford University Press, 1945), 149. 26. Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud: Sutton, 1997), 2; Davin, Growing Up Poor, ch.4. 27. Mayhew, London Labour and London Poor 4: 231–2, discusses the phenomenon of child stripping, where old ladies lure children away with sweets, divest them of their clothes on a pretext and disappear. See Richard Altick, ‘Victorian Readers and the Sense of the Present’, Midway 10 (1970), 118. 28. Ross, Love and Toil, 158–62; Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 264–90. 29. David Vincent, Bread, Knowledge and Freedom: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working Class Autobiography (London: Europa, 1981), 94–105. 30. Davin, Growing Up Poor, 137. 31. Jonathan Rose, The Intellectual Life of the Working Class (London: Yale University Press, 2001), 146–86. 32. Ross, Love and Toil, 162; Hopkins, Childhood Transformed, 219–63. 33. T. E. Harvey, A London Boy’s Saturday (Birmingham: St George’s Press, 1906), estimates that over four-ﬁfths of boys had at least part-time Saturday jobs by age 10. 34. Davin, Growing Up Poor, 179–80. 35. Kelly Boyd, ‘“Wait Till I’m a Man”: Manliness in the English Boys’ Story Paper, 1855–1940’ (PhD thesis, Rutgers University, 1991), ch.3; Claudia Nelson, ‘Mixed Messages: Authoring and Authority in British Boys’ Magazines’, The Lion and the Unicorn 21 (1997), 1–19. 36. Geoffrey Crossick, ‘The Emergence of the Lower Middle Class in Britain: A Dis- cussion’, in Geoffrey Crossick, ed., The Lower Middle Class in Britain, 1870–1914 (London: Croom Helm, 1977), 11–60; Hugh McLeod, ‘White Collar Values and the Role of Religion’, in Crossick, ed., Lower Middle Class in Britain, 71–2; Pat Thane, ‘Social History, 1860–1914’, in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds, The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1981), 2:224–6. 37. Gregory Anderson, Victorian Clerks (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976), 1–8. For a discussion of clerks which extends beyond the Victorian era, Notes to Chapter 2 187

see David Lockwood, The Blackcoated Worker: A Study in Class Consciousness (London: Unwin, 1958), 41–68. 38. Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 2, 52. 39. Ibid., 52–6; he further argues that by the later decades of the century clerking had lost most opportunities for upward mobility, 20–7. 40. Ibid., 9–11, gives stark detail of the accommodation provided for most clerks. 41. Childs, Labour’s Apprentices, ch.4; David Fowler, The First Teenagers: The Lifestyle of Young Wage-Earners in Interwar Britain (London: Woburn, 1994), 25–7. 42. Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class, and the Male Youth Problem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), treats this in depth. 43. William McGillicuddy Eagar and H. A. Secretan, Unemployment Among Boys (London: J. M. Dent, 1925), 76, analysed the problem in depth. They saw the tendency of starting work early in dead-end jobs as particularly pernicious and claimed that besides making boys slack and untidy, it could transform some of them into ‘Bolsheviks’. See also E. Llewelyn Lewis, The Children of the Unskilled: An Economic and Social Study (London: P. S. King, 1924); and Ethelwyn Rolfe, The Soul of a Slum Child (London: Ernest Benn, 1929). Another method of combating the problem can be seen in the growth of the Vocational Guidance movement. See B. Muscio, Vocational Guidance: A Review of the Literature (London: Medical Research Council, Report of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Pamphlet No.12, 1921) and Three Studies in Vocational Selection (London: Medical Research Council, Report of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Pamphlet No.16, 1921); Cyril Burt, Study in Vocational Guidance (London: Medical Research Council, Report of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Pamphlet No.33, 1926); S. Nugent, Vocations for School Leavers (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1926); F. M. Earle, Methods of Choosing a Career: A Descrip- tion of an Experiment in Vocational Guidance Conducted on Twelve Hundred London Elementary School Children (London: George G. Harrap, 1931); Angus Macrae, The Case for Vocational Guidance (London: Pitman, 1934); and M. D. N. Dickson, Child Guidance (London: Sands, 1938). 44. Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 76, 80–2, 97–104. 45. John Springhall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883–1940 (London: Croom Helm, 1977). 46. Edward F. Herdman and Barry Ono both created their own circulating libraries, renting out copies to their friends. Erdman was 12 in 1873 when he created his library, while Ono was operating at the turn of the century. See Edward F. Herdman, ‘An Early Penny Dreadful Circulating Library’, Vanity Fair no.19 (February 1926), 81; Interview by Collector’s Miscellany, ‘Barry Ono of “Penny Dreadful” Fame’, Collector’s Miscellany 3rd series no.8 (February-March-April 1934), 29; and Jim Wolveridge, ‘Ain’t It Grand!’ (or ‘This Was Stepney’), (London: Journeyman, 1981), 29–34. 47. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160–1. The demise of print culture is eloquently discussed in Rose, Intellectual Life. 48. John R. Gillis, Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations, 1770–present (London: Academic Press, 1974); Stephen Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), and Springhall, Coming of Age are recent book-length works which contain extended treatments of the inter-war years. 188 Notes to Chapters 2–3

49. These acts included the Education Act of 1902 (Balfour Act), Elementary Code of 1904, Regulations for Secondary Schools (1904), the Acland Report (1911), the Lewis Report (1917), the Education Act of 1918 (Fisher Act), the Hadow Reports of 1926 and 1931, and the Spens Report (1938). Gillian Sutherland, ‘Education’, in Thompson, ed., Cambridge Social History, 3:119–70; W. A. G. Armytage, Four Hundred Years of English Education (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1970); S. J. Curtis, History of Education in Great Britain (London: University Tutorial Press, 1967). For a more focused exploration of policies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries see Brian Simon, Studies in the History of Education, 1780–1880 (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1960); and Brian Simon, Studies in the History of Education: Education and the Labour Movement. On rural education, see Pamela Horn, Education in Rural England, 1800–1914 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1978). 50. W. R. Garside, ‘Juvenile Unemployment and Public Policy between the Wars’, Economic History Review 30 (1977), 322–39. 51. Frederick E. Johnson, The Right Start: A Book for British Parents (London: Methuen, 1923). 52. John R. Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 289; Musgrove, Youth and Social Order, 180–5. 53. Andrew Davies, Leisure, Gender and Poverty: Working-Class Culture in Salford and Manchester, 1900–1939 (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992). 54. Fowler, First Teenagers. 55. J. H. Engledow and William Farr, The Reading and Other Interests of School Chil- dren in Saint Pancras (London: Passmore Edwards Research Series, No. 2, 1933), 12. 56. A. J. Jenkinson, What Do Boys and Girls Read? (London: Methuen, 1940), ch.4.

3 Publishers and strategies: From family ﬁrms to mass marketing

1. Patricia Anderson, The Printed Image and the Transformation of Popular Culture, 1790–1860 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 1. 2. Alan J. Lee, The Origins of the Popular Press in England, 1855–1914 (London: Croom Helm, 1976). Lee discusses the decline of the liberal press in England in great detail. The third chapter deals with the transformation of conditions, both legal and technological, which made the cheap press a reality. See also Raymond Williams, ‘The Press and Popular Culture: An Historical Perspective’; Ivan Asquith, ‘The Structure, Ownership and Control of the Press, 1780–1855’; Alan Lee, ‘The Structure, Ownership and Control of the Press, 1855–1914’; Virginia Berridge, ‘Popular Sunday Papers and Mid-Victorian Society’, in George Boyce, James Curran and Pamela Wingate, eds, Newspaper History from the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day (London: Constable, 1978), 41–50, 98–116, 117–29 and 247–64; Patricia Hollis, The Pauper Press: a Study in Working-Class Radicalism of the 1830s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970); Lucy Brown, Victorian News and Newspapers (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); and Colin Clair, A History of Printing in England (London: Cassell, 1969), ch.9. 3. For a detailed discussion of this, see Kirsten Drotner, English Children and Their Magazines, 1751–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 17–27, 49–60. Notes to Chapter 3 189

See also, Gillian Avery, Childhood’s Pattern: a Study of the Heroes and Heroines of Children’s Fiction, 1770–1950 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1975), 13–24, 52–70; Alec Ellis, A History of Children’s Reading and Literature (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963); Jacqueline S. Bratton, The Impact of Victorian Children’s Fiction (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 31–62, and Mary V. Jackson, Engines of Instruc- tion, Mischief and Magic: Children’s Literature in England from its Beginning to 1839 (London: Scolar), 1989. 4. The full title was The Lilliputian Magazine: or the Young Gentleman and Lady’s Golden Library, being An Attempt to Mend the World, to render the Society of Man More Amiable, and to establish the Plainness, Simplicity, Virtue and Wisdom of the Golden Age, so much Celebrated by the Poets and Historians. 5. Drotner, English Children, 50. 6. Ibid., 60; Judith Rowbotham, Good Girls Make Good Wives: Guidance for Girls in Victorian Fiction (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 53–98. 7. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1975 [1948]), 19–37. 8. Louis James, Fiction for the Working Man, 1830–1850: A Study of the Literature Produced for the Working Classes in Early Victorian Urban England (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), 51–134, discusses this genre in great detail. 9. William Arthur Johnson Archbold, ‘Edward Lloyd’, Dictionary of National Biog- raphy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), 21:1298; James, Fiction, 32–3; Victor E. Neuburg, Popular Literature: A History and Guide (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), 170–4; A Glimpse into Paper Making and Journalism (London: Edward Lloyd, Limited, c.1895) describes the paper-making side of the business; John Medcraft, A Bibliography of the Penny Bloods of Edward Lloyd (Dundee: privately printed, 1945), lists over two hundred titles. 10. James Ramsay MacDonald, ‘G. W. M. Reynolds’, Dictionary of National Biography 16, 929–31; Neuburg, Popular Literature, 156–62; James, Fiction, 40–2; Gertrude Himmelfarb, The Idea of Poverty: England in the Industrial Age (London: Faber and Faber, 1984), 435–52; Rohan McWilliam, ‘The Mysteries of G. W. M. Reynolds: Radicalism and Melodrama in Victorian Britain’, in Malcolm Chase and Ian Dyck, eds, Living and Learning: Essays in Honour of J. F. C. Harrison (Aldershot: Scolar, 1996), 182–98; and Ian Haywood, ‘George W. M. Reynolds and the Radicalization of Victorian Serial Fiction’, Media History 4 (1998), 121–40. 11. James, Fiction, 167–70. 12. For a very full coverage of the wider debate over the penny dreadful, see John Springhall, ‘“Pernicious Reading”? “The Penny Dreadful” as Scapegoat for Late-Victorian Juvenile Crime’, Victorian Periodicals Review 27 (1994), 326–49; Springhall, Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panics, 38–97; and Patrick Dunae, ‘Penny Dreadfuls: Late Nineteenth-Century Boys’ Literature and Crime’, Victorian Studies 22 (1979), 133–50. 13. Further Elementary Education Acts were passed in 1873, 1876, 1880, 1891, 1893, 1897, 1899, 1901 and 1902. They slowly extended educational opportunity to rural and pauper children, granted powers to enforce attendance and tried, not completely successfully, to standardize the age of school-leaving. 14. H. Montgomery Hyde, Mr. and Mrs. Beeton (London: G. G. Harrap, 1951), 50–4; Sarah Freeman, Isabella and Sam: The Story of Mrs Beeton (New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1977), 85–90. 15. Boy’s Own Magazine 9 (February 1867), 115. 190 Notes to Chapter 3

16. Hyde, Mr. and Mrs. Beeton, 50. 17. Boy’s Own Magazine 1 (1855), preface, italics in the original. 18. The Boy’s Own Magazine continued to be published for many years, first under Beeton’s imprint and by Ward, Lock after his financial ruin through a stock market crash in 1866. He continued as editor through most of this period, although his efforts at editorial independence finally resulted in Ward, Lock suing him to restrict his use of the Beeton name, except under their imprint. See Thomas W. Beach, ‘Ward vs. Beeton’, Law Reports Equity Cases 19 (1874–75), 207–22. Beeton died in 1877, a broken man, but the Boy’s Own Magazine outlasted him for many years as a Ward, Lock publication. 19. Beeton had sold the rights to use his name as an imprint on books. For years following he witnessed several different Beeton’s products being published and sold over which he had no control. 20. Patrick Dunae, ‘The Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, Private Library 9 (1976), 123–58. 21. Joseph A. McAleer, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain, 1914–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 215–19. 22. Ralph Rollington [John W. Allingham], A Brief History of Boys’ Journals (Leicester: H. Simpson, 1913), 100. This is an invaluable memoir of the Victorian writers penned by a member of the inner circle at the turn of the century and not published until much later. It is stronger on anecdote than on fact but instructive as to the circle of men who dominated the emerging industry. Rollington’s death was noted in Vanity Fair: An Amateur Magazine 2/17 (Decem- ber 1925), 58, as having taken place in London on 24 August 1924, at the age of 81. They note: ‘His end was peaceful and typical of the old bohemian spirit, as he asked for, and smoked a cigar just before passing away’. 23. Rollington, Brief History, 5. 24. Ibid. Both Louis James and John Springhall’s estimates predict a very small profit margin for the average periodical. A story-paper had to be immensely popular to allow a 12 per cent return; most survived on tiny margins. See James, Fiction, 30–1; John Springhall, ‘“A Life Story for the People”?: Edwin J. Brett and the London “Low-Life” Penny Dreadfuls of the 1860s’, Victorian Studies 33 (1990), 232–3. 25. Springhall, ‘A Life Story’, 76. 26. Boys’ Champion Paper 1/11 (5 December 1885), 176. 27. W. O. G. Lofts and Derek Adley, The Men Behind Boys’ Fiction (London: Howard Baker, 1970), 71–2. Most biographical information about publishers, editors and authors is taken from this extensive dictionary. 28. Brett’s early career is outlined in Springhall, ‘“A Life Story”’, 223–46. 29. John Springhall, Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta Rap, 1830–1996 (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1998), 54–7. 30. These figures are highly suspect according to Joseph A. McAleer’s research which suggests that paid circulation was much lower: Popular Reading and Publishing, 215–19. 31. Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Chil- dren from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983): Brett figures, 15; Boy’s Own Magazine figures, 45; Union Jack figures, 45; Boy’s Own Paper figures, 46. 32. S. H. Steinberg, Five Hundred Years of Printing (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977 [1955]), 275–391. Notes to Chapter 3 191

33. Geoffrey Dawson, ‘Alfred Charles William Harmsworth, Viscount Northcliffe’, Dictionary of National Biography 1922–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937), 397–403; Tom Clarke, Northcliffe in History: An Intimate Study of Press Power (London: Hutchinson, 1950); Paul Ferris, The House of Northcliffe: the Harmsworths of Fleet Street (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971). 34. By the beginning of 1893 Answers had reached a weekly circulation of 389,000, but by 1909 it had begun to slip in terms of circulation. See British Library, Department of Manuscripts, Additional Manuscripts, Northcliffe Papers [here- after BL Add. MSS] 62381, p.4, Northcliffe Diary 7 January 1893; BL Add MSS 62183, pp.47–64, March 1909, Northcliffe Papers, ‘Reports from News Agents’. There was little agreement on the reasons for decline or its solution. 35. BL Add MSS 62481, Diary for 1893; circulation figures from 11 November and 30 December. 36. BL Add. MSS 62383, Diary for 1895; circulation figures from 30/31 January. 37. Harmsworth’s interest waxed and waned. He could impose his criticisms with little notice, which sometimes proved a strain on the organization. See BL Add. MSS 62182B, to trace the deteriorating relationship between Harmsworth and managing director and editor, Hamilton Edwards between 1910 and Edwards’ departure in 1912. 38. BL Add. MSS 62182A, p.128, Hamilton Edwards to Lord Northcliffe, 16 Novem- ber 1910. 39. BL Add. MSS 62182A, p.76, Hamilton Edwards to W. H. Back, 2 March 1909. Some editors were less lucky. Arthur Mee, head of the educational department in the early part of the century, requested a share in the profits on the Children’s Encyclopedia, a part publication which he described as ‘the chief work of my life’. (BL Add. MSS 62183, pp.100–1, Arthur H. Mee to Lord Northcliffe, 26 May 1908). Whether his wish was granted is not known, but two years later Mee was still complaining of financial pressures. (BL Add. MSS 62183, pp.129–32, Arthur H. Mee to Lord Northcliffe, 30 October 1910). Northcliffe responded by gently suggesting that Mee should learn to accept his position in life and be glad he had the great opportunity to influence thousands as editor of various works. (BL Add. MSS 62183, pp.133–4, Lord Northcliffe to Arthur H. Mee, 1 November 1910). 40. In fact, the Marvel was originally entitled Halfpenny Marvel, the title only changing when the price was increased a decade later. It was a frequent tactic of the Amalgamated Press to use the price in the title of a new offering. 41. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160–1; and Ben Winskill, ‘The Penny Dreadful Offices’, Vanity Fair: An Amateur Illustrated Magazine no.17 (Christmas 1925), 47. Many autobiographers recall their consumption of boys’ story papers, some with more affection than others; few explore their own interaction with these texts. See Noel Coward, Autobiography (London: Methuen, 1986), 12–13; Sir Compton Mackenzie, My Life and Time. Octave One, 1883–1891 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1963), 240; Edward Ezard, Battersea Boy (London: William Kimber, 1979), 98. 42. ‘The Editor Speaks’, Halfpenny Marvel no.1 (30 September 1893), 16. 43. This debate was typical of several moral panics of the Victorian era that displaced worries about the state of society onto other targets and the rise of a fear of juvenile delinquency identified by John Gillis, ‘The Evolution of Juvenile Delinquency in England, 1890–1914’, Past and Present no.67 (May 1975), 96–126. See also Jennifer Davis, ‘The London Garotting Panic of 1862: 192 Notes to Chapters 3–4

A Moral Panic and the Question of the Criminal Class in mid-Victorian England’, in V. A. C. Gatrell, Bruce Lenman and Geoffrey Parker, eds, Crime and the Law: the Social History of Crime in Western Europe (London: Europa, 1980), 190–213; Judith R. Walkowitz, ‘Jack the Ripper and the Myth of Male Violence’, Feminist Studies 8 (1982), 542–74; Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late Victorian London (London: Virago, 1992), ch.7; and R. Sindall, ‘The London Garotting Panics of 1856 and 1862’, Social History 12 (1987), 351–9. 44. Union Jack Library of High-Class Fiction, no.1 (5 May 1894), 16. 45. George Rosie, ‘The Warlocks of British Publishing’, in Paul Harris, ed., The D. C. Thomson Bumper Fun Book (Edinburgh: Paul Harris, 1977), 11. 46. Claudia Nelson suggests that these locutions are ‘maternalist’ and illustrate a new relationship between editors and readers, see ‘Mixed Messages: Authoring and Authority in British Boys’ Magazines’, Lion and the Unicorn 21 (1997), 1–19. 47. P. J. Hangar, ‘Thomson Papers Were for Boys’, Story Paper Collector’s Digest 16, (April 1962), 6–7. Both Modern Boy and Boys’ Cinema were Amalgamated Press publications. 48. Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls, 58 for the Amalgamated Press data; 65, for the Thomson ﬁgures. 49. Hangar, ‘Thomson Papers Were for Boys’, 7. 50. Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–1. 51. Thomas Burke, The Wind and the Rain: A Book of Confessions (Maidstone: Londinium Press, 1979), 23; John Edwin, I’m Going – What Then? (London: New Horizon, 1978), 8–9; Jack Overhill, ‘Sixty Years Ago’, Story Paper Collector’s Digest 31 (April 1977), 31–2; Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–1; C. H. Rolph [Cecil Rolph Hewitt], London Particulars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 59–61; George Richmond Samways, The Road to Greyfriars (London: Howard Baker, 1984), 33. 52. Derek Adley and Bill Lofts, ‘Dixon Hawke – and the Thomson Papers’, Story Paper Collector’s Digest 15 (September 1961), 5. 53. Paul West, I, Said the Sparrow (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 80. See also Jim Wolveridge, ‘Ain’t It Grand!’ (Or ‘This Was Stepney’) (London: Journeyman, 1981), 29; Vernon Scannell, Tiger and the Rose: an Autobiography (London: Robson, 1983), 71. 54. Additional biographical information from John Burnett, David Vincent and David Mayall, eds, The Autobiography of the Working Class (Brighton: Harvester, 1987), 2, no.814. 55. West, I, Said the Sparrow, 79. 56. J. H. Engledow and William Farr, The Reading and Other Interests of School Chil- dren in Saint Pancras (London: Passmore Edwards Research Series, no. 2, 1933); A. J. Jenkinson, What do Boys and Girls Read? (London: Methuen, 1940).

4 Victorian manliness, upper-class heroes and the ideal of character, 1855–1900

1. R. A. H. Goodyear, ‘My Open-Air Reading Room’, Vanity Fair 3/25 (September 1926), 11. Goodyear was born in Yorkshire, attended grammar school, and became an ofﬁce boy in a solicitor’s ofﬁce with a view to a career in the law, but began writing and by 1895 had published in the Boys’ Friend; he abandoned the Notes to Chapter 4 193

law for a successful literary career. Brian Doyle, entry on ‘R. A. H. Goodyear’, Robert J. Kirkpatrick, ed., The Encyclopaedia of Boys’ School Stories (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), 136–7. 2. Norman Vance, ‘The Ideal of Manliness’, in Brian Simon and Ian Bradley, eds, The Victorian Public School (London: Gill and Macmillan, 1975), 115–28. In his The Sinews of the Spirit: the Ideal of Christian Manliness in Victorian Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 8–28, Vance reduces the types to three: physical, chivalric and moral. 3. David Newsome, Godliness and Good Learning: Four Studies on a Victorian Ideal (London: John Murray, 1961). From a slightly different viewpoint, Claudia Nelson, Boys Will Be Girls: the Feminine Ethic and British Children’s Fiction, 1857–1915 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), argues that the original ethic was one of ‘humanliness’ which really valorized feminine qualities. Blake Richard Westerlund, ‘The Construction of British Masculinity in Adventure Fiction’ (PhD dissertation, University of Tulsa, 1998), sees Tom Brown’s Schooldays as the model for a range of adventure ﬁction from the pens of Henty and other hard cover authors. Tom Brown’s Schooldays has been repeatedly analysed, but see especially: Isabel Quigley, The Heirs of Tom Brown (London: Oxford University Press,1982), 42–68; Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: the Public Schools in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 23–69; and Donald E. Hall, ‘Muscular Anxiety: Degradation and Appropriation in Tom Brown’s Schooldays’, Victorian Literature and Culture 21 (1993), 327–43. 4. J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emer- gence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000 [1981]); and Bruce Haley, The Healthy Body and Victorian Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 141–60. 5. Stefan Collini, ‘“Manly Fellows”: Fawcett, Stephen and the Liberal Temper’, in Lawrence Goldman, ed., The Blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and Victorian Liberal- ism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 41–59; and Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 91–118. 6. The same phenomenon occurred in Victorian melodrama, both on stage and in ﬁction: Michael Booth, English Melodrama (London: Jenkins, 1965). 7. Harold Perkin, The Origins of Modern English Society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969); Simon Gunn, The Public Culture of the Victorian Middle Class (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000). The role of gender in the formation of the middle class has been considered in Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchinson, 1987). See also Catherine Hall, White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (Cambridge: Polity, 1992). 8. Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 16–22. 9. Gregory Anderson, Victorian Clerks (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976), 20–7; see also, David Lockwood, The Blackcoated Worker: A Study in Class Consciousness (London: Unwin, 1958), 41–68. 10. Keith McClelland, ‘Some Thoughts on Masculinity and the “Representative Artisan” in Britain, 1850–1880’, Gender and History 1 (1989), 164–77; Keith McClelland, ‘Rational and Respectable Men: Gender, the Working Class, and Citizenship in Britain, 1850–1867’, in Laura Frader and Sonya O. Rose, eds, 194 Notes to Chapter 4

Gender and Class in Modern Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), 280–93; Catherine Hall, Keith McClelland and Jane Rendall, Defining the Victo- rian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867 (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 2000), 98–101. 11. John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), discusses the function of moral fantasies in chaps 1 and 2. 12. Boys of England 11/267 (16 December 1871). 13. James Greenwood, ‘Penny Awfuls’, Saint Pauls Magazine 12 (1873), 165–6. 14. Newsome, Godliness and Good Learning, 201; J. A. Mangan, ‘“Muscular, Mili- taristic and Manly”: The British Middle-Class Hero as Moral Messenger’, from Richard Holt, J. A. Mangan and Pierre Lanfranchi, eds, European Heroes: Myth, Identity, Sport (London: Frank Cass, 1996), 33. 15. Claudia Nelson, Boys Will Be Girls argues that hardcover fiction stressed not a masculine ideal for boys, but a feminine, or more clearly, a ‘human’ ideal. 16. Figures tabulated from Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Children from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983): Brett figures, 15; Boy’s Own Magazine figures, 45; Union Jack figures, 45; Boy’s Own Paper figures, 46. Joseph McAleer, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain, 1914–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 214–20, suggests the Boy’s Own Paper figures were somewhat illusory, or that, at least, sales had diminished signally by the 1890s. His research reveals the B.O.P. had to be subsidized by the Religious Tract Society after its first decade. 17. See my discussion of this in Chapter 3. 18. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975 [1948]), 19–37; Louis James, Fiction for the Working Man, 1830–1850: A Study of the Liter- ature Produced for the Working Classes in Early Victorian Urban England (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 190–3; Peter Haining, The Penny Dreadful (London: Victor Gollancz, 1975); Peter Haining, The Legend and Bizarre Crimes of Spring-Heeled Jack (London: Muller, 1977); and Peter Haining, The Mystery and Horrible Murders of Sweeny Todd, The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (London: Muller, 1977). 19. David Reed, The Popular Magazine in Britain and America (London: British Library, 1997), 14–16. 20. Examples are used throughout the book, but see also the index to volume one of John Burnett, David Vincent and David Mayall, eds, The Autobiography of the Working Class (3 vols: Brighton: Harvester, 1984–89): entries under leisure on penny dreadfuls and cheap literature, boy’s magazines, children’s stories, and reading and books. 21. Pat Thane, ‘Social History, 1860–1914’, in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds, The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (2 vols: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 2:210–12. 22. See my discussion of this in Chapter 2. 23. David Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 35–87, 236–96, offers an exhaustive autopsy of the topic. See also Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, The Army in Victorian Society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), 59–102. 24. J. R. S de Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Development of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977). See my discussion of this in Chapter 2. Notes to Chapter 4 195

25. Even the Religious Tract Society’s Boy’s Own Paper illustrated these characteristics, which is why the editor and the publishing committee were generally at odds: Patrick Dunae, ‘The Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, Private Library 9 (1976), 123–58. 26. Vane St John, ‘”Wait Till I’m a Man!” or, The Play Ground and the Battle Field’, Boys of England Vols 2–3/nos.43–58 (1867). 27. Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 20–7. 28. Wainright is perhaps named after the famous art critic and poisoner, Thomas Grifﬁths Wainewright (1794–1852), subject of Andrew Motion’s Wainewright the Poisoner (London: Faber and Faber, 2000); see also Richard D. Altick, Victorian Studies in Scarlet (New York: Norton, 1970), 120–1. 29. Other historical tales from Boys of England, which treat similar themes to those discussed below include: ‘Roland the Young Roundhead; or, The Secret of the Moated Grange. A Historical Tale’, nos.572–86 (1877); ‘Brothers in Arms; or, The War Cry of Old’, nos.641–59 (1879); ‘The Secret of the Water Witch; or, The Castaway Cavaliers. A Romance of the Days of Good Queen Bess’, nos.771–91 (1881–82); ‘The Great Bell of Bow; or, ‘Prentices and Clubs’, nos.880–99 (1883–84); and ‘Mat o’ the Forge; or, The Mystery of the King’s Armourer’, nos.1385–1402 (1893). 30. See Alun Howkins and C. Ian Dyck, ‘”The Time’s Alteration”: Popular Ballads, Rural Radicalism and William Cobbett’, History Workshop Journal no.23 (1987), 20–38, esp.25–6. 31. ‘The Vengeance of Paul Fleming; or, The Rover’s Son’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.6 (c.1883). 32. D. G. Paz, Popular Anti-Catholicism in mid-Victorian England (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992). 33. ‘The Vengeance of Paul Fleming’, 18. 34. Ibid., 5. Introduced to Don Lopez’s son, he is repelled as if ‘he had suddenly grasped a snake unawares’. 35. ‘The Master of the Sword; or, The Brother Apprentices’, Boys of the Empire nos.1–21 (1888). In 1933, R. A. H. Goodyear remembered this tale as one of a type of yarn which ‘threw a glamour over my young life which glows in my veins yet’: ‘Stories I Liked Most – and Least’, Collector’s Miscellany 3rd series, no.3 (March–April 1933), 45. 36. ‘Master of the Sword’, 316. 37. Some examples of other tales with similar settings which explored the same themes as those discussed in the Jack Harkaway tales below include: ‘Ralph the Light Dragoon; or, The Green Banner of Islam’, Boys of England nos.406–33 (1874); ‘Dick Gordon, The True British Sailor Boy; or, the Cruise of the Water Sprite’, Boys of England nos.472–83 (1875–1876); ‘Jack of the Naval Brigade; or, The Zulu’s Daughter’, Boys of England nos.653–64 (1879); ‘Jubilee Jack; or, The Flag that Braves the Battle and the Reward’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.38 (c.1881); ‘The Golden Pagoda; or, A Midshipman’s Adventures in the Chinese War’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.73 (c.1882). 38. Most of the Harkaway tales were initially serialized in Boys of England before being issued in hardcover. They include: ‘Jack Harkaway’s Schooldays’, nos.249–69 (1871); ‘Jack Harkaway, After Schooldays; His Adventures Aﬂoat and Ashore’, nos.270–305 (1872); ‘Jack Harkaway at Oxford’, nos. 306–42 (1873); ‘Jack Harkaway Among Brigands’, nos.343–82 (1873); ‘Jack Harkaway and His Son’s Adventures Around the World’, nos.382–476 196 Notes to Chapter 4

(1874–1875), plus several more. Many were reprinted in other Brett journals in later years. 39. See, for example, Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies 17 (1973), 89–99; and Patrick A. Dunae, ‘British Juvenile Literature in an Age of Empire: 1880–1914’, (PhD dissertation, Victoria University of Manchester, 1975). 40. ‘Jack Harkaway, After Schooldays; His Adventures Afloat and Ashore’, Boys of England nos.270–305 (1872). 41. Kevin Carpenter, Desert Islands and Pirate Islands: The Island Theme in Nineteenth- Century English Juvenile Fiction: A Survey and Bibliography (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Peter Lang, 1984), traces the progress of the ‘Robinsonnade’. See also Joseph Bristow, Empire Boys: Adventures in a Man’s World (London: Harper Collins Academic, 1991), 93–126. Ballantyne’s adventure novels were amongst the most popular for the juvenile market in the Victorian period and many were based on his own travels. He had been sent to Canada in his teens to work for the Hudson Bay Company and his tales of clashing cultures often resulted from his personal observation, first in Canada and later in other parts of the world. However, The Coral Island reflected none of his travels and is a work of pure imagination. 42. Carpenter, Desert Islands, 69. 43. Bracebridge Hemyng, ‘Jack Harkaway the Third; or, The Champion of the School’, Jack Harkaway’s Journal for Boys 1 (1893). 44. P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (London: Longman, 1993), 22–37. 45. ‘Peter Pills and His Friend Potions’, Boys of the Empire nos.61–74 (1889). 46. ‘Peter Pills’, 147. The scene also merits two illustrations, 145, 148; a later con- frontation is illustrated as well, 193. M.R.C.P indicates membership in the Royal College of Physicians, while M.R.C.S. refers to the Royal College of Surgeons; both were elite institutions to which one was appointed on examination. 47. The professional status of medical men was still being established in the late nineteenth century. See W. J. Reader, The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nine- teenth Century England (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966); Noel Parry and Jose Parry, The Rise of the Medical Profession: A Study in Collective Social Mobility (London: Croom Helm, 1976); M. Jeanne Peterson, The Medical Profession in mid- Victorian London (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); F. F. Cartwright, A Social History of Medicine (London: Longman, 1977); S. E. D. Shortt, ‘Physi- cians, Science and Status: Issues in the Professionalization of Anglo-American Medicine in the Nineteenth Century’, Medical History 27 (1983), 51–68; Stella V. F. Butler, ‘A Transformation in Training: the Formation of University Medical Faculties in Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool, 1870–1884’, Medical History 30 (1986), 115–32; Virginia Berridge, ‘Health and Medicine’, in F. M. L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 3:179–82. 48. Of course, this is not necessarily the case. The pharmaceutical industry in Britain remained unregulated well into the twentieth century. See J. K. Crellin, ‘The Growth of Professionalism in Nineteenth Century British Pharmacy’, Medical History 11 (1967), 215–27; Hilary Marland, ‘The Medical Activities of mid- Nineteenth Century Chemists and Druggists, with Special Reference to Wake- field and Huddersfield’, Medical History 31 (1987), 415–39; Jonathan Liebenau, ‘Ethical Business: The Formation of the Pharmaceutical Industry in Britain, Germany, and the United States before 1914’, Business History 30 (1988), 116–29. Notes to Chapters 4–5 197

49. ‘Canadian Jack; or, the Mystery of the Old Log Hut: A Colonial Story’, Boys of the Empire nos.18–44 (1888/89). 50. Other stories which treated similar themes included: ‘The Rival Chiefs; or, From Schoolground to the Warpath’, Boys of England nos.399–412 (1874); ‘The Brand of Death’, Boys of England nos.665–8 (1879); ‘English Will Amongst the Boers; or, Rivals in Love and War’, Boys of England nos.983–1005 (1885–1886); and ‘The Cowboy King; or, The Indian’s Terror’, Boys of England nos.1323–1341 (1892). 51. ‘Canadian Jack’, 274. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid. 55. The cult of hunting was particularly strong at this time. See John M. Mackenzie, The Empire of Nature: Hunting, Conservation and British Imperialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989). 56. Mackenzie, Empire of Nature, 275. 57. This episode is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. 58. Dollman does have one redeeming characteristic: his lack of racial prejudice. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7. 59. ‘Canadian Jack’, 286. 60. See my discussion of this in Chapter 7. 61. Rohan Allan McWilliam, ‘The Tichborne Claimant and the People: Investiga- tions into Popular Culture, 1867–1886’ (PhD diss., University of Sussex, 1990), 2, 263, 266–7, 279. 62. See Boys of the Empire, 2 (1889), 94, 126, 240. This was a common practice; other signatures in Boys of the Empire included: Rory Delany, 2 (1889), 94, 126, 240; Master of the Sword, 2 (1889), 158; Godwin the Saxon, 3 (1889), 48, 160, 240; Mat the Mystery, 3 (1889), 96, 160, 176, 240; and Peter Pills, 3 (1889), 176, 224. 63. Alex J. Tuss, S. M., The Inward Revolution: Troubled Young Men in Victorian Fiction, 1850–1880 (New York: Peter Lang, 1992), 2–3. 64. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School.

5 The democratization of manliness at the turn of the century, 1890–1920

1. Thomas Burke, The Wind and the Rain: A Book of Confessions (London: Butterworth, 1924), 59. This is Burke’s comment on being sent to the orphan- age, which he was told would be like going to a ‘posh’ boarding school. 2. V. S. Pritchett, A Cab at the Door: An Autobiography (London: Chatto and Windus, 1968), 109. Pritchett’s background was lower middle class. When his father dis- covered his cache of the Gem and the Magnet, they were tossed into the ﬁreplace and burned (112–13). 3. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160–1. 4. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975 [1948]), 127–80; Richard Alewyn, ‘The Origin of the Detective Novel’, in Glenn W. Most and William W. Stowe, eds, The Poetics of Murder (New York: Harcourt, 1983), 62–78; Robin Winks, ed., Detective Fiction (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 1988); Joseph A. Kestner, The Edwardian Detective, 1901–1915 (Aldershot: 198 Notes to Chapter 5

Ashgate, 2000). Except for Turner, there has been no significant discussion of the detective in mass juvenile fiction. 5. G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985); Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900–1939 (London: Croom Helm, 1980); Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’, History Workshop Journal 5 (1978), 9–66; Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth- Century Britain (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); George Robb, ‘Race Motherhood: Moral Eugenics versus Progressive Eugenics, 1880– 1920’, in Claudia Nelson and Anne Sumner Holmes, eds, Maternal Instincts: Visions of Motherhood and Sexuality in Britain, 1875–1925 (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1997), 58–74; John Springhall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883–1940 (London: Croom Helm, 1977); and Michael Rosenthal, The Character Factory: Baden Powell and the Origins of the Boy Scout Movement (London: Collins, 1986). 6. George Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England (London: Macgibbon and Kee, 1967 [1936]) remains the classic statement on this period. 7. John Gillis, ‘The Evolution of Delinquency in England, 1890–1914’, Past and Present 67 (May 1975), 96–126; Stephen Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981); Victor Bailey, Delinquency and Citizenship: Reclaiming the Young Offender, 1914–1948 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990); Michael J. Childs, Labour’s Apprentices: Working-Class Lads in Late Victorian and Edwardian England (Montreal: McGill, 1992); Thomas E. Jordan, The Degeneracy Crisis and Victorian Youth (Buffalo: State University of Buffalo Press, 1993); Matthew Hilton, ‘“Tabs”, “Fags”, and the “Boy Labour Problem” in Late Victorian and Edwardian Britain’, Journal of Social History 28 (1994–95), 587– 608; Andrew Davies, ‘Youth Gangs, Masculinity and Violence in Late Victorian Manchester and Salford’, Journal of Social History 32 (1998), 349–79. 8. Colin Fry, ‘Picture of Perfection’, New Society 18 (12 August 1971), 294–5; Philip Warner, ed., The Best of Chums (London: Cassell, 1978); Robert H. MacDonald, ‘Reproducing the Middle Class Boy: From Purity to Patriotism in Boys’ Magazines, 1892–1914’, Journal of Contemporary History 24 (1989), 519–39. 9. Paul West, I, Said the Sparrow (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 80; Burke, The Wind and the Rain, 59. 10. Mark Linley was the first of several scholarship boys at Greyfriars. See, ‘A Lad from Lancashire’, Magnet no.45 (1908). Other publications also treated this topic: Walter Edwards, ‘The Scholarship Boy’, Boy’s Journal no.33 (1914); ‘A Lancashire Lad’, Boy’s Friend Library no.69 (1908). Some critics have suggested that it was rare for real public schoolboys to read these stories, as they would have easily recognized the unreality of the settings; see Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: The Public School in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 276–7; Arthur Marshall, Girls Will Be Girls (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1974), 116. 11. Childs, ‘Boy Labour’, 798–802; Keith McClelland, ‘Some Thoughts on Masculinity and the “Representative Artisan” in Britain, 1850–1880’, Gender and History 1 (1989), 164–77. Notes to Chapter 5 199

12. Besides the occasional mention in many autobiographies, nostalgia is the main theme of the many ‘Old Boys Book Clubs’ scattered around Britain and of the Story Papers Collectors Digest, a monthly publication still prospering in its sixth decade of publication. School stories have received several monographic treatments: John Reed, Old School Ties: The Public Schools in British Literature (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1964); Isabel Quigley, The Heirs of Tom Brown: The English School Story (London: Chatto and Windus, 1982); Peter William Musgrave, From Brown to Bunter: The Life and Death of the School Story (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985); Richards, Happiest Days. 13. The growth of the public school is suggested by the fact that the Clarendon Commission (1861–64) had recognized only nine public schools, but by 1902, 102 schools belonged to the Headmaster’s Conference (the body which deﬁned most public schools) and another sixty were on the border of public school status; see J. R. S. de Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Development of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977), 239, 273. 14. Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–1. 15. ‘Harkaway the Third; or, The Champion of the School’, Jack Harkaway’s Journal for Boys 1 (1893). Hemyng also set some of his novels in schools, for example, Eton School Days, or Recollections of an Old Etonian (London: Ward, Lock and Tyler, 1864) and Butler Burke at Eton (London: John Maxwell, 1865). 16. There is a booming Frank Richards industry. Besides the successful reprints of series of Greyfriars stories from the Howard Baker Press, there are many volumes which discuss the minutiae of the stories. They include: J. S. Butcher, Greyfriar’s School: A Prospectus (London: Cassell, 1965); The Magnet Companion (London: Howard Baker, 1971); George Beal, ed. and W. O. G. Lofts, comp., The Magnet Companion ’77 (London: Howard Baker, 1976); Eric Fayne and Roger Jenkins, eds, The Charles Hamilton Companion: Volume One. A History of the Gem and Magnet (Maidstone: Museum Press, ca.1972); John Wernham and Mary Cadogan, eds, The Charles Hamilton Companion: Volume Two. The Greyfriars Characters (Maidstone: Museum Press, c.1976); John Wernham, ed., The Charles Hamilton Companion: Volume Three. A New Anthology from the Works of Charles Hamilton (Maidstone: Museum Press, 1976); W. O. G. Lofts and Derek Adley, The World of Frank Richards (London: Howard Baker, 1975); Mary Cadogan, Frank Richards: The Chap Behind the Chums (London: Viking, 1988). 17. Anne Wilson, ‘Little Lord Fauntleroy: The Darling of Mothers and the Abomination of a Generation’, American Literary History 8 (1996), 232–58. Frances Hodgson Burnett’s Little Lord Fauntleroy was ﬁrst published in the US in 1886, but quickly became an international bestseller. 18. J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000 [1981]): see especially Mangan’s introduction to the new edition where he cas- tigates writers who have failed to understand his analysis. The tension between games and freedom is best expressed in Rudyard Kipling, Stalky & Co. (1899), an early subversive critique of the cult of athleticism. George Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell: Vol. I: An Age Like This (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), considered Stalky & Co. to be the inspiration for most twentieth- century school stories, 510, but Frank Richards denied this in his riposte, ‘Frank Richards replies to George Orwell’, in Orwell and Angus, eds, Collected Essays, 532–3. 200 Notes to Chapter 5

19. J. A. Mangan and Colm Hickey, ‘English Elementary Education Revisited and Revised: Drill and Athleticism in Tandem’, European Sports History Review 1 (1999), 63–91. 20. Martin Clifford [Charles Hamilton], ‘Tom Merry’s Schooldays’, Gem no.3 (30 March 1907), 15. 21. Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown’s Schooldays, ch.3. 22. In 1908 Charles Hamilton was called before Amalgamated Press editor Percy Griffith and sub-editor Herbert Hinton. They posed a simple question: Could he write a new paper, the Magnet? Without thinking he answered ‘yes’ and soon was authoring two full papers each week as well as writing stories for other publications: Charles Hamilton, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London: Charles Skilton, 1952), 33. 23. The Remove class was part of the lower fifth form, which meant most of its members would be around 15 years old. 24. Bunter was not the central character of these early stories, but a constant source of comic relief. He was a benign but greedy schoolboy obsessed by his next meal and forced by a lack of funds to ingratiate himself with others to procure his wishes. Bunter as a character entered English popular culture and it is still not uncommon to hear someone referred to as a ‘real Billy Bunter’. His popularity was assured when he became the centre of a series of post-war novels and television series. 25. Harry Wharton, Bob Cherry, Frank Nugent, Hurree Jamset Ram Singh and Johnny Bull. 26. Frank Richards, ‘The Taming of Harry’, Magnet no.2 (22 February 1908), 1. 27. For a more detailed examination of the depiction of the influence of women on boys’ lives see Chapter 8. 28. Richards, ‘Taming of Harry’, 3. 29. Ibid., 14. 30. Interestingly, Charles Hamilton later revealed that Frank Nugent was based on himself. See Frank Richards [Charles Hamilton], ‘On Being a Boys’ Writer’, Saturday Book 5 (1945), 75–85. 31. Peter Vansittart, Paths from a White Horse: A Writer’s Memoir (London: Quartet, 1985), 14. 32. Jack Overhill, ‘Sixty Years Ago’, Story Paper’s Collector’s Digest 31/364 (April 1977), 31–2. 33. See Frank Richards, ‘The Mystery of Greyfriars’, Magnet no.3 (29 February 1908). The basic plot revolves around Hazeldene’s efforts to win the prize himself by psyching out his only opposition, Wharton. 34. Frank Richards, ‘Chums of the Remove’, Magnet no.4 (7 March 1908), 7. 35. Harry Wharton had a tendency to slip back into his old habits, which would then spark a new series of tales about his redemption. See the ‘Harry Wharton, Rebel’, series, Magnet nos.879–88 (1925); the ‘Harry Wharton down on his luck’ series, Magnet nos.1255–60 (1932); the ‘Harry Wharton versus Mr. Quelch’ series, Magnet nos.1285–96 (1932); and ‘The Shadow of the Sack’, Magnet no.1683 (1940). Other characters also dealt with similar problems, notably ‘the Bounder’ Vernon Smith, in ‘A Schoolboy’s Crossroads’, Magnet no.180 (1911); ‘Vernon- Smith’s feud against the Famous Five’, Magnet nos.247–55 (1912); the breaking- bounds stories, Magnet nos.297–300 (1913); ‘Saving the Bounder’, Magnet no.511 (1917); and many others. 36. Frank Richards, ‘A Lad from Lancashire’, Magnet no.45 (22 December 1908). Notes to Chapter 5 201

37. Christine Heward, Making a Man of Him: Parents and Their Sons’ Education at an English Public School, 1929–50 (London: Routledge, 1988), 160–2. 38. T. W. Bamford, ‘Public School Data: A Compilation of Data on Public and Related Schools (Boys) mainly from 1866’, University of Hull Institute of Education Aids to Research 2 (July 1974), 42–6, discusses fee structures in some depth and illustrates how little is known. See also his The Rise of the Public Schools: A Study of Boys’ Public Boarding Schools in England and Wales from 1837 to the Present Day (London: Nelson, 1967), 302–7. Brian Simon notes that the Schools Inquiry Commission (1869) had called for the eradication of free places in order to separate the classes, although this was not effectively carried out and Honey reminds us that public schools scholarship examinations were generally based on skill at Latin and Greek, which effectively excluded the working class: Brian Simon, ‘Systematization and Segmentation in Education: The Case of England’, in Detlef K. Müller, Fritz Ringer and Brian Simon, eds, The Rise of the Modern Educational System: Structural Change and Social Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 99, and John Honey, ‘The Sinews of Society: The Public Schools as a “System”’, in Muller, Ringer and Simon, eds, The Rise of the Modern Educational System, 157. 39. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, 505–31. 40. Eric Fayne, ‘Let’s Be Controversial’, Collector’s Digest no.158 (February 1960), 56–7. 41. The Magnet sold in excess of 200,000 copies each week from around 1925 to 1935, but had fallen to a weekly circulation of 40,000 by 1940; see Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Children from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983): 58. 42. John Reed, Victorian Conventions (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1975), 268–88 and E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys, 19–20. The struggle to ﬁnd one’s true family and secure one’s inheritance was one of the most enduring plots of the nineteenth century. 43. John G. Cawelti, Apostles of the Self-Made Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), argues that Alger heroes are aided as much by meeting the right patron as by hard work and that their success is generally modest, 110–11. Michael Denning, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America (London: Verso, 1987), 167–84. 44. Earlier novels in which the hero had been cast among thieves lacked this element of proving his manliness, see, for example, Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist (1837). 45. Geoffrey Murray, ‘Mighty London! Modern Story of a Great City’, Boy’s Journal nos.1–16 (1913). The gothic reading of the city evokes G. W. M. Reynolds’ classic the Mysteries of London (two series; 4 vols each; 1846–55). 46. The name and the instrument both suggest the popularity of the Sherlock Holmes stories in these years. 47. Murray, ‘Mighty London!’ 23–4. 48. Ibid., 24. 49. Walter Hope, ‘Who Was to Blame?’ Boy’s Journal no.5 (1913), 133–6. Walter Hope was a pen-name of the journal’s editor, Horace Phillips. 50. The temperance movement in Britain has been examined in depth for the mid-Victorian period, but less work has been done on the later years. See Brian Harrison, Drink and the Victorians: The Temperance Question in England, 1815– 1872 (London: Faber and Faber, 1971). 202 Notes to Chapter 5

51. Hope, ‘Who Was to Blame?’ 135. 52. Ibid. 53. Boy’s Journal nos.5–9 (1913). 54. One engine driver was convicted of manslaughter, then later pardoned, when his train ran into a standing train at 3 A.M. at Aisgill, Westmorland on 2 September 1913. The classic treatment of railway accidents is L. T. C. Rolt, Red for Danger: the Classic History of British Railway Disasters (London: Sutton, 1998 [1955]), see especially his chapters: ‘Signalmen’s Errors, 1890–1937’ and ‘Drivers’ Errors, 1890–1940’, 194–255. 55. ‘Only a Collier Lad’, Stories of Pluck no.460 (1903). 56. The evidence for this is strongest in textile regions of Lancashire. See Patrick Joyce, Work, Society and Politics: The Culture of the Factory in later Victorian England (London: Methuen, 1980), 134–57. 57. The role of diction in indicating character was also clear in ‘Mighty London!’ where Allan Sherlock speaks grammatical English while his foster father, Slogger Sam, uses a thick patois. 58. C. Bridges, ‘With Pick and Lamp: The Perils of the Pit Boy’, Union Jack Library of High-Class Fiction n.s.1 (1903). 59. Tales which dealt with factory work, mining and ofﬁce work were increasingly frequent. For example, see John C. Twist, ‘Dauntless Cobby, The Collier Lad’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.21 (1898); Bracebridge Hemyng, ‘The Driver of the Royal Mail; or, The Mystery of the Cryptograph’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.24 (1898); ‘Chris Waterman [Thames River police]’, Union Jack no.464 (1902); ‘The Fire Fighters’, Union Jack no.452 (1902); Hamilton Edwards, ‘Only a Pit Boy’, Boy’s Friend Library no.13 (1907); Allen Blair, ‘Robbed of His Character: A Story of Business Life’, Boy’s Journal no.14 (1913); Horace Phillips, ‘It’s Hard to Get On’, Boy’s Journal no.17 (1914); John Tregellis, ‘Black Strike; or, The War of the Workers’, Boys’ Friend nos.665–85 (1914); and Andrew Gray, ‘Disaster Pit’, Boys’ Friend nos.656–67 (1915). In all these tales the heroes worked in order to do their proper job. Although there is little support for organized labour, most tales see unions as providing a necessary role. This is a great contrast to G. A. Henty, ‘Facing Death: A Tale of the Coal Mines’, Union Jack nos.16–20 (15 April–13 May 1880), which blasted the idea of working-class solidarity and portrayed all of the working class as drunken or lazy. 60. All these tales are found in Stories of Pluck and the Union Jack Library of High- Class Fiction in 1903. 61. Jack, Sam and Pete were an Englishman, an American and a black man (origins obscure), who roved the world having adventures. They will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7. 62. Boxing stories appeared at one time or another in most story papers. For example, see L. M. Furniss, ‘Tom Cribb, Boxer’, Pluck n.s. nos.283–91 (1910); Walter Edwards, ‘The Side-Stepper’, Boy’s Journal no.48 (1914); Captain Malcolm Arnold, ‘For Cup and Belt’, Boy’s Friend nos.656–65 (1914); Henry T. Johnson, ‘The Boxing Barrister’, Boys’ Realm nos.612–23 (1914); ‘The Pit Champion’, Boys’ Realm no.635 (1914); Captain Malcolm Arnold, ‘The Airman Boxer’, Boys’ Realm nos.640–66 (1914); Mark Darran, ‘The Champion from Mill-Land. A Tensely Written Romance of the Ring and the Worker’s Home’, Boy’s Friend nos.695–705 (1914); and Geoffrey Holt, ‘Turned Down’, Boy’s Journal no.70 (1915). Notes to Chapter 5 203

63. Tom Sayers (1826–65) was probably the most celebrated middleweight of the Victorian era. He retired undefeated in 1860, although his final appearance in the ring, against American John C. Heenan, ended in a draw after 37 rounds fought in two hours and six minutes. Many said Heenan fought unfairly, but Sayers lasted the fight. His admirers collected £3000 for him and his family on his promise to retire. His burial three years later at Highgate Cemetery was akin to a state occa- sion. William Bradfoot, ‘Tom Sayers’, Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922), 17:881–2; Dennis Brailsford, Bareknuckle: A Social History of Prizefighting (Cambridge: Lutterworth, 1988), 128–37. 64. They included Kennington, Islington, West Ham, Hammersmith, Woolwich, Wandsworth, Battersea, Lewisham, New Cross and Hackney. 65. Arthur S. Hardy, ‘Handsome Jack, or Afraid for His Face’, Marvel n.s.505 (5 October 1913). 66. Stanley Albert Shipley, ‘The Boxer as Hero: A Study of Social Class, Community, and the Professionalization of the Sport in London, 1890–1905’ (PhD diss., University of London, 1986), 1–10. 67. Although this was slow to come. See Andrew Davies on the pub as a masculine space: Leisure, Gender and Poverty: Working-Class Culture in Salford and Manchester, 1900–1939 (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992) and Clare Langhamer, Women’s Leisure in England, 1920–60 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 70–3. 68. Shipley, ‘The Boxer as Hero’, 88. 69. Ibid., 56. 70. Ibid., 77–90. 71. Ibid., 287–326. 72. Arthur S. Harding, ‘Tom Sayers on Tour’, Marvel n.s.277 (15 May 1909), 1. 73. For example, ‘Paul Conway: Detective’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.26 (1898); ‘A Traitor’s Trail [Dixon Brett]’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.30 (1910); ‘Archie Farlow and Neil Brand’, Pluck n.s. nos.270–2 (1910); and the P. C. Spearing series, Pluck n.s. nos.323–576 (1910–1915). 74. ‘Sexton Blake, Detective’, ([12 May] 1894). See Turner, Boys Will Be Boys, ch.8, for an extended treatment of Blake. 75. ‘The Mystery of the Diamond Belt’, Boys’ Journal 3/57–70 ( 17 October 1914–16 January 1915). The film was produced by Charles Raymond for I. B. Gilbert and released in August 1914; at 3,500 feet in length it was a substantial film: Rachael Low, The History of British Film: 1906–1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1973 [1948]), 198, 288. Subsequently Sexton Blake has been adapted for screen and later television repeatedly. 76. ‘Sexton Blake, Scoutmaster’, Union Jack (20 November 1909). 77. ‘Private Tinker, A.S.C.: A Magnificent Tale of Tinker at the Front’, Union Jack Library of High-Class Fiction n.s.589 (23 January 1915). 78. For a look at how this idea was inculcated in the upper classes, see Peter Parker, The Old Lie: the Great War and the Public School Ethos (London: Constable, 1987). 79. ‘The Boy Scout of Scarlett’s; or, Bayonets for the Boers’, True Blue War Library no.1 (5 February 1900), 4. 80. The Boer War was also depicted in Captain Hatterly, ‘The Two War Recruits’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.28 (1898); J. Holloway, ‘For Queen and Country; or, The Mystery of the Veldt’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.39 (1898). 204 Notes to Chapter 5

81. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys, 191–202; Samuel Hynes, The Edwardian Turn of Mind (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), 34–53, discusses hardcover invasion ﬁction. See also Christopher Andrew, Secret Service: The Making of the British Intelligence Community (London: Heinemann, 1985), 34–53. Of course the modern genre can be traced to [G. T. Chesney], ‘The Battle of Dorking, or Reminiscences of a Volunteer’, Blackwood’s Magazine 109 (May 1871), 539–572. 82. Boys’ Realm no.605 (3 January 1914), 496. 83. Boys’ Realm no.662 (6 February 1915), 593. 84. Other letters from the trenches in the Boys’ Realm in 1915 can be found in no.667 (13 March 1915), 672; no.697 (9 October 1915), 325; and no.707 (18 December 1915), 496. The Union Jack also published a series of signed letters from the trenches between July 17 and December 4, 1915. After this the letters stop. Most boost the Union Jack and ask for them to be forwarded to the trenches, one challenges the veracity of the letters (24 July), one is from a prisoner of war (30 October) and the last is a plea for anyone to come forward if they have seen the correspondent’s brother-in-law, who has been reported missing in action (12 December). Another affecting letter enclosed a photograph of a group of friends who had enlisted together; ‘X’ marks indicated that several lay dead already: Boy’s Journal no.66 (19 December 1914), 355. 85. Dudley Vaughn and Henry T. Johnson, ‘When War Came’, Boys’ Realm nos.639–58 (1914–1915); Sidney Drew, ‘The Air Raiders’, Boys’ Realm nos.691–704 (1915); A. S. Hardy, ‘The Fighting Footballers’, Boys’ Realm nos.696–711 (1915–1916); Captain Malcolm Arnold, ‘The Pride of Kitchener’s Army’, Boys’ Realm nos.697–710 (1915–16). 86. T. C. Wignall, ‘The Fighting Strain’, Boys’ Realm no.694 (18 September 1915), 274. 87. Boys’ Realm no.702 (13 November 1915). 88. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 26–28, discusses the ritual of kicking a football behind enemy lines. 89. Jack Lewis, ‘For Britain’s Glory’, Boys’ Journal 3/62 (21 November 1914), 257. 90. See Magnet Companion, 116. 91. Football came under a great deal of criticism at the beginning of the war for not stopping competition, and for employing so many able-bodied men. The Football League and Football Association (professional soccer’s governing bodies) resisted pressures to abandon play, offering themselves as recruiters instead; their success was debateable. Middle-class critics were especially critical of what was essentially a working-class sport. By mid-1915 the leagues agreed to limit matches to regional contests and to use only amateurs to play for the duration of the war; several teams suspended play completely. See Colin Veitch, ‘“Play up! Play up! and Win the War!”: Football, the Nation and the First World War’, Journal of Contemporary History 10 (1985), 363–78. For an account of the machinations of one club to survive while carrying on wartime play, see A. J. Arnold, ‘“Not Playing the Game”? Leeds City in the Great War’, International Journal of the History of Sport 7 (1990), 111–19. 92. See Elaine Showalter, ‘Rivers and Sassoon: The Inscription of Male Gender Anxieties’, in Margaret Randolph Higonnet et al., eds, Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 61–9; and Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987 [1985]), 167–94. Showalter argues that much of the shellshock of the Great War was sparked by men who could not recon- Notes to Chapters 5–6 205

cile a certain vision of courageous masculinity with the realities of trench warfare. Most of her work deals with the ‘breakdown’ of Siegfried Sassoon, but she also explores the class-linked methods for ‘curing’ these men – the talking cure for the upper classes and electrical shocks for the lower. For another perspective on the psychological effects of the war, see Eric J. Leed, No Man’s Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). 93. Johns himself had escaped a rather mundane life during the war. Born in 1893, his father was a tailor, and after attending a local grammar school, he entered indentures to become a surveyor. At 18, he had joined the local yeomanry, and when the war started he went into the army, serving at Gallipolli before trans- ferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917, where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant. He served as an instructor and in August 1918 while on a mission he was shot down and spent the remainder of the war as a prisoner of war. He remained in the Royal Flying Corps until 1927, when he began illus- trating books, and in 1932 while editor of the new magazine Popular Flying created ‘Biggles’. The tales were immediately popular and many were published in Modern Boy before transfer to hard cover: Peter Beresford Ellis and Piers Williams, By Jove, Biggles! The Life of Captain W. E. Johns (London: W. H. Allan, 1981) and Peter Berresford Ellis and Jennifer Schoﬁeld, Biggles! The Life Story of Capt. W. E. Johns (Godmanstone, Dorset: Veloce, 1993). 94. See for example, ‘Biggles’ Xmas Box’, Modern Boy no.358 (15 December 1934).

6 Balance, self-control and obedience in the inter-war years

1. Vernon Scannell, The Tiger and the Rose: an Autobiography (London: Robson, 1983), 71. Born into a working-class family the poet attended elementary school; after war service he attended Leeds University. Scannell later listed ‘loathing Tories’ amongst his recreations in Who’s Who. 2. Derek Davies, ‘Untitled’ in Ronald Goldman, ed., Breakthrough: Autobiographical Accounts of the Education of Some Socially Disadvantaged Children (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), 30–1. Son of a skilled worker in the Black Country, he received a scholarship, attended Oxford and later became a teacher and headmaster. 3. The Education Act 1918, (the Fisher Act), conﬁrmed the age for school leaving at 14 throughout the country, eliminating the anomaly that had continued in some areas where at age 12 a child could work and study at a ‘continuation’ school. It was hoped that the age would soon be raised to 15, and successive educational reports applied themselves to the task of separating primary from secondary education. 4. According to Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Children from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983), 58; although readership remained high during the 1920s, by 1939 circulation had fallen from a peak of 200,000 per week to 40,000 per week for the Magnet and 16,000 per week for the Gem. See also, George Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, The Collected Essays of George Orwell. Volume One: An Age Like This (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), 507. 5. Red Circle stories dominated the pages of the Hotspur from 1933 to well into the 1950s. Tales appeared weekly with many themes regularly replayed. 206 Notes to Chapter 6

6. These were Home House (for British boys), Colonial or ‘Conk’ House (for Empire boys), and Transatlantic or ‘Yank’ House (for American and Canadian boys). 7. Paul West, I, Said the Sparrow (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 79–80; Scannell, Tiger and the Rose, 71; Wolveridge, ‘Ain’t It Grand’: (or, ‘This was Stepney’) (London: Journeyman, 1981), 30–1. 8. Chaim Bermant, Coming Home (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1976), 79. 9. ‘The Terror of Yank House’ Hotspur no.7 (14 October 1933), 185–6. 10. Septimus Green was a continuing character during the inter-war years, beginning as a teacher and later becoming a school inspector. Between 1933 and 1938 he featured as hero of seven different series of ‘Big Stiff’ stories. 11. Dave Marson, Children’s Strikes of 1911 (Oxford: History Workshop, 1973) and Stephen Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), ch.4, both deal extensively with the hundreds of school strikes during the period. A constant request was the abandonment of the cane although this was seldom the issue which sparked dissent. One ‘Big Stiff’ story showed boys striking against other masters’ use of the cane, Hotspur no.65 (24 November 1934), 199–202. 12. ‘Thick-Ear Donovan’ appeared in Wizard nos.475–98 (1932); nos.524–51 (1932–33); nos.592–604 (1933); and nos.629–45 (1934). ‘Mississippi Mike’ was featured in Hotspur nos.136–47 (1936). Some series were comic while others offered adventure backgrounds. All stressed the teachers as exemplars. See from 1933’s Hotspur: ‘The World’s Toughest School’, nos.82–93; ‘Cobb’s College for Cops’, nos.84–91; ‘The Headmaster’s a Spoofer’, nos.89–106; ‘Masters of the Hooded Class’, nos.97–106; ‘The School with Two Heads, a Swiper, a Swotter’, nos.100–106; ‘The School Bell Must Not Ring’, nos.107–23; and from other papers: ‘Burley Brook’, Wizard nos.539–56 (1932); ‘The School Where No Boy Forgets’, Wizard nos.950–61 (1941); ‘Mary’s Lambs at School’, Rover nos.908–14 (1939); ‘The School for T’s and B’s [Troublesome and Backwards]’, Rover no.83 (1923). 13. ‘The Big Stiff’, Hotspur no.6 (7 October 1933), 161–4. 14. During one series of stories, the Big Stiff’s peers actually managed to get him committed to a lunatic asylum, certain he must be mad to employ the methods he likes; he founded a successful school within the grounds of the asylum and carried on. See ‘Whoopee! – It’s the Big Stiff’, Hotspur nos.182–92 (20 February–19 June 1937). 15. G. A. N. Lowndes, The Silent Social Revolution: an Account of the Expansion of Public Education in England and Wales, 1896–1965 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 129–39; R. J. W. Selleck, English Primary Education and the Progressives, 1914–1939 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), 40–4. 16. ‘The Big Stiff’, Hotspur no.21 (20 January 1934), 66–9. 17. Ibid. no.61 (27 October 1934), 108–11. 18. Ibid., 108. 19. Tarzan of the Apes was ﬁrst published in 1913; over the next thirty years, a score of novels detailing the jungle man’s adventures appeared. As early as 1918 Tarzan had been taken up by the cinema. His appeal remains almost undimmed today, but recent inquiries have focused on the racist nature of these texts: John Newsinger, ‘Lord Greystoke and Darkest Africa: the Politics of the Tarzan Stories’, Race & Class 28 (1986), 59–71. 20. The boy lost in infancy was a popular theme. See also, ‘The Kid from the Jungle’, Wizard nos.1–16 (1922); ‘The Kid from the Yukon’, Wizard nos.66–74 (1923–24); Notes to Chapter 6 207

‘Bayrak’, Wizard nos.321–35 (1929); ‘Cave-Man Joe’, Wizard nos.512–23 (1932); ‘Jan of the Jungle’, Modern Boy nos.228–42 (1932). 21. Jeff Berglund, ‘Write, Right, White, Rite: Literacy, Imperialism, Race, and Cannibalism in Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan of the Apes’, Studies in American Fiction 27 (1999), 53–76. 22. Tex Rivers, ‘The Schoolboy Cannibal Earl’, Boys’ Friend Library n.s. no.546 (1 October 1936), 18. 23. Rivers, ‘Schoolboy Cannibal Earl’, 19. 24. ‘The Worst Boy at Borsted’, Pilot nos.2–23 (1935–36). Borstals are penal refor- matories for youths aged 16 to 21. Established in 1900, they at ﬁrst put a heavy emphasis on discipline to reform inmates, but by the 1930s placed a higher premium on education. For a short history of the movement, see Roger Hood, Borstal Re-Assessed (London: Heinemann, 1965), 1–62. See also, Martin J. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 131–40, 285–93, and 358–64. 25. Note the following ways of describing Jim: ‘tough, untamed and deﬁant’(p.59), ‘perpetually sullen’(p.124), and ‘a born leader’ – someone who could ‘put it over the warders and the governor’ (p.184). Only the last sings his praises, but this celebrates his subversive qualities, as an underground leader. The establishment view is best summed up by the appeal board, who term him ‘a sturdy, self- opinionated, unruly youngster obviously in need of discipline’(p.472). 26. ‘Worst Boy at Borsted’, 472. 27. Ibid., 97. 28. Ibid., 103. 29. Ibid., 185. 30. Ibid., 493. 31. Ibid., 516. 32. Ibid., 572. 33. Ibid., 604. 34. ‘You and the Editor’, Adventure no.1 (21 September 1921), 3. The famous explorer is unnamed. 35. See J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000 [1981]); Joe Maguire, ‘Images of Manliness and Competing Ways of Living in Late Victorian and Edwardian England’, British Journal of Sports History 3 (1986), 265–87; and Jeffry Hill, ‘“First-Class” Cricket and the Leagues: Some Notes on the Development of English Cricket, 1900–1940’, International Journal of the History of Sport 4 (1987), 68–71. 36. Geoffrey Gordon, ‘The Factory Batsman’, Boys’ Realm no.629–40 (1915). Other Edwardian tales that used sport included: ‘The Fighting Footballer; or, The Sporting Chance’, Boy’s Journal nos.2–16 (1913); Henry St Johns, ‘The Speed King’, Boys’ Friend nos.676–80 (1915); Sidney Drew, ‘Pride of the Footplate; or, The Railway Athlete’, Boys’ Realm nos.608–20 (1914); A. S. Hardy, ‘The Caddies of St Cuthberts’, Boys’ Realm nos.623–42 (1914). 37. This tale vindicates the criticism of Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), in its derision of business and its validation of a noncompetitive, aristocratic set of values. 38. The Adventure (1922). Some other examples include: ‘A Battling Five Footer’, Rover nos.244–52 (1928); Alfred Edgar, ‘The Schoolboy Speedmen!’ Modern Boy 208 Notes to Chapters 6–7

nos.63–72 (1929); ‘Johnny on the Jump’, Rover nos.359–73 (1929); and Walter Hammond, ‘The Captain of Claverhouse’, Modern Boy nos.124–47 (1930). 39. John Lowerson, ‘Golf’, in Tony Mason, ed., Sport in History: a Social History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 187–214; Roland Quinault, ‘Golf and Edwardian Politics’, in Negley Harte and Roland Quinault, eds, Land and Society in Britain, 1700–1914: Essays in Honour of F. M. L. Thompson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 191–210. 40. His dedication to the game is especially admirable in a period when turning professional was never done by a gentleman as it could only be seen as a decline in status. See Jack William, ‘Cricket’, in Mason, ed., Sport in History, 116–45. 41. Margaret Morris, The General Strike (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), 11, 77; Symons, General Strike, 16–17. 42. See Arthur Marwick, The Deluge: British Society and the First World War (London: Bodley Head, 1965); Jane Lewis, Women in England 1870–1950: Sexual Division and Social Change (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1984); Jane Lewis, ed., Labour and Love: Women’s Experience of Home and Family, 1850–1940 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Diana Gittins, Fair Sex: Family Size and Structure, 1900–1939 (London: Hutchinson, 1982). 43. For examples, see Alison Oram, ‘“Embittered, Sexless or Homosexual”: Attacks on Spinster Teachers, 1918–39’, in Arina Angerman, Geerte Binnema, Anne- mieke Keunen, Vefie Poels and Jacqueline Zirksee, eds, Current Issues in Women’s History (London: Routledge, 1989), 183–202; Sonya O. Rose, ‘Gender Antago- nism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth-Century Britain’, Social History 13 (1988), 191–208; and Keith Grint, ‘Women and Equality: The Acquisition of Equal Pay in the Post Office, 1870–1961’, Sociology 22 (1988), 87–108. 44. This is cogently argued in Richard Wall and Jay Winter, eds, The Upheaval of War: Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 1–6.

7 ‘Manhood achieved’: Imperialism, racism and manliness

1. Louis Heren, Growing Up Poor in London (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973), 57. 2. J. P. Quaine, ‘The Australian Bushranger in the Old Boys’ Books’, Vanity Fair 3/27 (November 1926), 32–4. 3. Robert Huttenback, ‘G. A. Henty and the Imperial Stereotype’, Huntington Library Quarterly 19 (1965), 63–75. 4. The best treatment of this is in H. John Field, Toward a Programme of Imperial Life: The British Empire at the Turn of the Century (Oxford: Clio, 1982), 39–40. Field investigates the concept of ‘character’ as it related to the idea of empire as a means of regeneration – the answer many social Darwinians found to the degeneration of the ﬁn de siècle. See also Jeffrey Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society (London: Longmans, 1981), 38–40; Leonore Davidoff, ‘Class and Gender in Women’s History’, Feminist Studies 5 (1979), 87–141. 5. Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies 17 (1973), 89–99, esp. 90. 6. Patrick A. Dunae, ‘Boys’ Literature’, Victorian Studies 24 (1980), 105–21, esp. 108. 7. John Springhall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883–1940 (London: Croom Helm, 1977). Notes to Chapter 7 209

8. John Martin notes that these periodicals were very popular in Australia, where they served to maintain the incorporation of Australia within the British Empire; as he notes, the young readers there were both Australian and British: ‘Turning Boys into Men: Australian “Boys’ Own” Annuals, 1900–1950’, in C. E. Gittings, ed., Imperialism and Gender: Constructions of Masculinity (New Lambton, NSW: Dangaroo, 1996), 200–13. See also, Richard Phillips, Mapping Men and Empire: A Geography of Adventure (London: Routledge, 1997). 9. John Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), suggests that the genre continued mostly unchanged from the earlier period. In this present study, Chapter 7 concentrates on juvenile literature and imperialism, but makes only general comments on the period after the first world war. 10. Patrick A. Dunae, ‘The Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, Private Library 9 (1975), 123–58. 11. Bernard Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism, 1850–1970 (London: Longman, 1975), 8–12, synthesizes the debate on this topic. For further discussion, see Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Clas- sical Political Economy, the Empire of Free Trade, and Imperialism, 1750–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). 12. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victori- ans: The Official Mind of Imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961). They first argued their theory in ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, Economic History Review 6 (1953), 1–15. See also P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, ‘Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expansion Overseas I: The Colonial System, 1688–1850’, Economic History Review 39 (1986), 501–25; ‘Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expan- sion Overseas II: New Imperialism, 1850–1945’, Economic History Review 40 (1987), 1–26; and British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (London: Longman, 1993). 13. Besides the original publication in the Boys of England, all of the stories were repeatedly reprinted both in weekly parts and book form up until the end of the century. 14. James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, 93–5; Dunae, ‘Boys’ Literature’, 107. 15. Bracebridge Hemyng, ‘Jack Harkaway’s After Schooldays’, the Boys of England no.277 (2 March 1872), 226. 16. This was the height of the republican movement in Britain, although its force was soon dissipated; see N. J. Gossman, ‘Republicanism in Nineteenth Century England’, International Review of Social History 7 (1962), 47–60; Edward Royle, Radicals, Secularists and Republicans: Popular Freethought in Britain, 1866–1915 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980), 198–206; Fergus A. D’Arcy, ‘Charles Bradlaugh and the English Republican Movement, 1868–1878’, Histor- ical Journal 25 (1982), 367–83; Antony Taylor, ‘Down with the Crown’: British Anti- Monarchism and Debates about Royalty since 1790 (London: Reaktion, 1999); and David Nash and Antony Taylor, eds, Republicanism in Victorian Society (London: Sutton, 2000). One of the events which helped to dim republican fervour was the near-death of the Prince of Wales in 1872, soon after his father’s demise; see William M. Kuhn, ‘Ceremony and Politics: The British Monarchy, 1871–1872’, Journal of British Studies 26 (1987), 133–62. 17. Another example of this type of story was ‘Canadian Jack’, which was discussed at length in Chapter 4. Canadian Jack is held up as an example of all that is manly. He is strong, skilled, dependable and morally upright, as is his cousin 210 Notes to Chapter 7

Will, who transfers easily to the Canadian wilderness. Will benefits from his exposure to frontier life, but his parents exhibited few fears that he will never become manly. The only Englishman who is presented as unmanly is Sir Regi- nald Dollman, an aristocrat who has been made soft by his easy life. The only masculine trait he has is his skill with a gun (a characteristic that is tradition- ally linked to aristocrats). ‘Canadian Jack’ is typical of imperial adventure fiction in its unthinking English arrogance and its stolid snobbishness towards foreigners. Other tales which explore this theme include: ‘British Dick and Sam the Yank; or, England and America Against the World’, Boys of England nos.1692–1702 (1899); ‘English Jack Amongst the Afghans; or, The British Flag – Touch It Who Dare!’ Boys of England nos.626–53 (1879); ‘Wait Till I’m a Man!’ Boys of England nos.43–58 (1867). An interesting adjunct is the biographical series ‘Heroes of the Backwoods’, Boy’s Own Paper 7 (1884/85), which celebrated several hard men of the new world, including Americans Daniel Boone, J. C. Fremont and Kit Carson. Another series in the same volume celebrated English imperialists of an earlier era, including Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher and Sebastian Cabot. 18. See, for example, Ogilvie Mitchell, ‘For the Cause of Cuba’, True Blue no.3 (1898); ‘Secret Foe’, Union Jack no.470 (1902); or ‘Under the Yellow Flag; or, The Cor- sairs of China’, Pluck no.451 (1903). 19. Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’, History Workshop Journal no.5 (1978), 9–66. For an extended discussion of the idea of decline, see G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971) and the first chapter of J. M. Winter, The Great War and the British People (London: Macmillan, 1986). See also, G. R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain, 1900–1914 (Leyden: Noordhoff Interna- tional, 1976); and Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985). 20. Although recent debates have minimized the reality of an economic down- turn in the last decades of the nineteenth century, contemporary opinion still evinced some disquiet, especially over the rapidly growing economies of the United States and Germany. See S. B. Saul, The Myth of the Great Depression, 1873–1896 (London: Macmillan, 1969), for a synthesis of the debates. 21. Porter, Lion’s Share, 199. 22. The most extensive treatment of this is Marilyn Lake, ‘The Politics of Respectabil- ity: Identifying the Masculinist Context’, Historical Studies 22 (1986), 116–31. Lake’s thesis is that the bushman achieved cultural hegemony in the period 1880–1920 due to the efforts of Bohemian male writers. They celebrated the single wandering worker as the archetypal male and especially praised his ability to avoid domestication at the hands of women. This stereotype reached beyond Australia’s shores and celebrated bushmen as excellent tutors of manliness. See also Judith Allen, ‘“Mundane” Men: Historians, Masculinity and Masculinism’, Historical Studies 22 (1987), 617–28, and Richard Waterhouse, ‘Australian Legends: Representations of the Bush’, Australian Historical Studies no.115 (October 2000), 201–21. These tales were echoed in juvenile fiction published for sale in Australia: H. M. Saxby, A History of Australian Children’s Literature, 1841–1941 (Sydney: Wentworth, 1969), 31–45. 23. ‘A Word at the Start’, Boy’s Journal no.1 (20 September 1913), 3. 24. Gordon Wallace, ‘Cameron’s Last Chance’, Boy’s Journal nos.1–8 (1913). This serial lasted for eight episodes, entitled ‘Water Rights’, ‘Bush Peril’, ‘Stuck Up!’, Notes to Chapter 7 211

‘The Bush-Mates’ Gratitude’, ‘The Bush-Mates’ Peril’, ‘The Stolen Mob’, ‘Gold Dust and Grit’, and ‘Manhood Achieved’. 25. Wallace, ‘Cameron’s Last Chance’, 29. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid., 30. 29. Ibid., 55. 30. Ibid., 241. 31. Other tales with a similar theme include: ‘Bail Up, a Story of the Australian Bush’, Pluck no.472 (1903); John C. Twist, ‘The Digger’s Terror: an Exciting Story of Life Among the Gold Mines’, True Blue no.2 (1898); Howard C. Boyes, ‘In the Last Hour: the Story of a Britisher in the Land of the Kangaroo’, Boy’s Journal no.9 (1913). 32. Coral Lansbury, Arcady in Australia (Melbourne: University of Melbourne Press, 1970). 33. Charities such as Dr Barnardo’s and the Salvation Army helped many children to emigrate and periodicals like Boys of the Empire sponsored contests to bestow such a privilege. The results were often problematic. William J. Fishman, East End 1888 (London: Duckworth, 1988), 56–7, 94–6, and 235–43; see also Alex G. Scholes, Education for Empire Settlement: A Study of Juvenile Migration (London: Longmans, Green, 1932); Gillian Wagner, Children of the Empire (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1982); Philip Bean and Joy White, Lost Children of the Empire (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989). 34. The most satisfying of these were: E. M. Forster, A Passage to India (1924); and George Orwell, Burmese Days (1934). But Orwell’s relationship to the empire was particularly problematic, see Daphne Patai, The Orwell Mystique: A Study in Male Ideology (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984), 1–52. 35. See Porter, Lion’s Share, 266–7, and for a more comprehensive treatment of the way this was accomplished P. N. S. Mansergh, The Commonwealth Experience (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1969), 212–46. 36. Porter, Lion’s Share, 279; Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire; and Stephen Con- stantine, ‘“Bringing the Empire Alive”: the Empire Marketing Board and Impe- rial Propaganda, 1926–33’, in John M. Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986), 192–231. Empire Day was first proposed by Lord Meath in 1896, and unofficially observed from 1903; it was officially adopted in Britain in 1916: John M. Mackenzie, ‘ “In Touch with the Infinite”: the BBC and the Empire, 1923–53’, in Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture, 168. 37. One exception is Spike May’s recollection of the hardship his rural family suffered when his father attempted to emigrate to Canada. He eventually returned as part of a Canadian regiment to fight in the Great War. Spike May, Reuben’s Corner: An English Country Boyhood (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969). 38. Neither volume of John Burnett, David Vincent and David Mayall, eds, The Auto- biography of the Working Class (3 vols. Brighton: Harvester, 1984–9) contains any of these references, nor does William Matthew’s older, British Autobiographies: An Annotated Bibliography of British Autobiographies Published or Written Before 1951 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955). 39. Louis Heren, Growing Up Poor in London (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973), 57–8. 212 Notes to Chapter 7

40. Modern Boy no.1 (11 February 1928), 11. Earlier tales had sometimes used imperial events as a backdrop, but not as a means of boosting the empire. See the Sexton Blake story: ‘The Problem of the Pageant’, Union Jack n.s.no.397 (1911). 41. ‘The Right Sort; or, The Boy Emigrants: Thrilling Yarn of Life and Adventure in Canada’, Nugget Library n.s.44 (ca. 1922). 42. Ibid., 1. 43. Ibid., 54. 44. This led to the odd decision to create ‘bantam’ battalions, made up of under- sized men; soon these groups had disappeared, casualties of the high mortality rate of the western front. See J. M. Winter, The Great War and the British People, 32, for more on this phenomenon. 45. ‘The Right Sort’, 53. 46. Ibid., 60. 47. This theme is also explored in ‘A Dust-Up in Saskatchewan’, Rover no.133 (1924); ‘A Mutt on the Mississippi’, Rover no.301 (1928); ‘The Klondyke Kid’, Rover no.342 (1928); John Hunter, ‘The Boy Sheriff’, Modern Boy nos.163–70 (1931); George E. Rochester, ‘The Air Ranger’, Modern Boy nos.170–7 (1931); and John Allan, ‘The Flying Tramps’, Modern Boy nos.220–33 (1932). 48. Although this tale takes place in the Antarctic, it can be set in the context of tales of exploration of the polar regions which had developed in the past few decades. See Francis Spufford, I May Be Some Time: Ice and the English Imagination (London: Faber, 1996); and Robert K. David, The Arctic in the British Imagination, 1818–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000). 49. ‘Toll of the Silent Wastes’, Modern Boy no.12 (28 April 1928), 28. 50. Ibid., 8. 51. Anti-Americanism was a popular theme. See also, ‘The Country That Lost Its Memory’, Wizard nos.614–25 (1934); ‘The Land of Crazy Men and Crazy Rivers’, Wizard no.777 (1937); and ‘Roll of the Voodoo Drums’, Wizard nos.794–807 (1938). Joseph Kestner detects a similar strain decades earlier in Sherlock Holmes; see his Sherlock’s Men: Masculinity, Conan Doyle and Cultural History (London: Ashgate, 1997), 8–10. 52. ‘Toll of the Silent Wastes’, 8. 53. Maintaining peace on the edges of empire was a vibrant theme during the interwar years. See ‘Galloping Dick o’ the Mounties’, Rover no.53 (1923); ‘Dirk of the African Police’, Rover nos.119–131 (1923); ‘Ned the Game Ranger’, Rover nos.160–170 (1924); Percy F. Westerman, ‘Ringed by Fire!’ Modern Boy nos.376–83 (1935); ‘Tiny the Terrible, King of the Crocodile Country’, Rover no.583 (1934); ‘The Wolf of Kabul’, Wizard (eight series between 1930 and 1940); and many more. 54. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd, eds, Englishness: Politics and Culture, 1880–1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1986); David Feldman, Englishmen and Jews: Social Rela- tions and Political Culture, 1840–1914 (London: Yale University Press, 1994); J. A. Mangan, ed., The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience (London: Routledge, 1993); Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Mas- culinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Wendy Webster, Imag- ining Home: Gender, ‘Race’, and National Identity, 1945–64 (London: UCL Press, 1998); Raphael Samuel, Island Stories: Unravelling Britain. Theatres of Memory Volume II (London: Verso, 1998). Notes to Chapter 7 213

55. See Christine Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971) for a broad discussion of this trend. 56. Earlier ideas of racism are best described as ‘plantocracy racism’. This was an argument most fully illustrated in Edward Long’s History of Jamaica (1774). It stressed polygenetic inferiority, lack of moral capacity, the curse of Ham, and, most crucially, the constructive power of work. See George Metcalf’s introduction to Long, (London: Class Library of West Indian Studies, no.12, Frank Cass, 1970), 1:ix. Peter Fryer, Staying Power: the History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto, 1984) is an excellent exploration and synthesis of race in Britain. The discussion below of the development of racism derives chieﬂy from Chapter 7 in this book. 57. Stephanie Barczewski demonstrates how Anglo-Saxonism dominated the re- casting of ideas about Robin Hood and King Arthur in the nineteenth century in Myths and National Identity in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 2000), ch.4, while Gail Bederman demonstrates its application in an American context in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 178–84. 58. The Irish in particular suffered from this. See L. Perry Curtis, Apes and Angels: The Irish in Victorian Caricature (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1971); and D. G. Paz, ‘Anti-Catholicism, Anti-Irish Stereotyping and Anti-Celtic Racism in mid-Victorian Working-Class Periodicals’, Albion 18 (1986), 601– 16. 59. Brian Street, ‘Reading the Novels of Empire: Race and Ideology in the Classic “Tale of Adventure”’, in David Dabydeen, ed., The Black Presence in Literature (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 95–110; Patrick Brantlinger, ‘Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent’, Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), 166–203; Abdul R. JanMohamed, ‘The Economy of Manichean Allegory: The Function of Racial Difference in Colonialist Literature’, Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), 59–97. 60. Patrick A. Dunae, ‘Boys’ Literature and the Idea of Race: 1870–1900’, Wascana Review (1977), 84–107. 61. Ibid., 85. 62. This has been elegantly dissected in Edward W. Said’s Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978), 1–28. Said concentrates on the cultural construction of the Orient (chieﬂy the Near East) and reveals a systematic denial of the realities of the Orient in order to sustain western hegemony. What he suggests can be applied to other peoples and cultures dominated by the west in the period. Recent replies include Robert H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880–1918 (Manchester: Manchester Univer- sity Press, 1994) and John M. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory, and the Arts (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995). 63. Kathryn Castle, Britannia’s Children: Reading Colonialism through Children’s Books and Magazines (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996). See also Frances M. Mannsaker, ‘The Dog that Didn’t Bark: the Subject Races in Imperial Fiction at the Turn of the Century’, in Dabydeen, The Black Presence in Literature, 112–33, for an examination of the hierarchy of the races in boys’ novels. 64. Robert A. Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies, 1830–1910 (London: Cornell, 1976), introduction. 214 Notes to Chapter 7

65. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 199–226, notes that in the thirty years following the mutiny over fifty novels took the mutiny as a theme, as well as numerous plays, poems, histories and personal accounts. All concentrated on the massacre at Cawnpore and none mentioned the British atrocities which pre- ceded it. Brantlinger sees the event as a touchstone for popular attitudes to race. 66. Bernard Semmel, Jamaican Blood and Victorian Conscience: The Governor Eyre Con- troversy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1963). 67. Catherine Hall, ‘Competing Masculinities: Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill and the Case of Governor Eyre,’ in her White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (Cambridge: Polity, 1992), 255–95. 68. Nonfiction was little better. See ‘Among the Blacks’, Boy’s Own Paper no.300 (11 October 1884), 30; ‘Among the Masai’, Boy’s Own Paper no.340 (18 July 1885), 667–70; and ‘Stanley on the Congo’, Boy’s Own Paper nos.339–40 (1885). 69. Robert A. Huttenback, The British Imperial Experience (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 57, makes this point about the Maori of New Zealand; Christine Bolt, ‘Race and the Victorians’, in C. C. Eldridge, ed., British Imperialism in the Nine- teenth Century (London: Macmillan, 1984), 126–47, esp. 136; Stephen Cohen, The Indian Army: Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation (Los Angeles: University of California Los Angeles Press, 1971), 48–9. 70. ‘Half-Caste Bob; or, The Hero of Our Indian Contingent’, Boy’s Weekly Reader Novelette no.103 (ca.1883), 19–20. For an extended treatment see my ‘“Half- Caste Bob” or Race and Caste in the Late Victorian Boys’ Story Paper’, in David Finkelstein and Douglas M. Peers, eds., Negotiating India in the Nineteenth-Century Media (Basingstoke: Palgrave [Macmillan], 2000), 63–83. 71. Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 90–2. 72. Most tales which dealt with other races had imperial settings. Africa was little explored, but the Mediterranean, Turkey and Asia were fertile ground for fiction. See ‘Left-Handed Jack on the Plains of India’, Boys of England nos.1272–91 (1891); ‘The Persian Soldier; or, The Days with Nadir Shah’, Boys of England nos.1385–1404 (1894). 73. Canada was vigorous in its struggle to limit the extent of non-white immigra- tion. Although it was most concerned with Japanese and Chinese settlers, its laws were constructed on racial lines. Even naturalization did not grant immigrants of color the right to vote. See Huttenback, Racism and Empire, 317–26. 74. Publishers often employed correspondence columns to endorse their own opinions, so the failure to criticize may indeed indicate a readership easily prey to racial considerations. 75. ‘Young Jack Harkaway and His Boy, Tinker: Their Adventures Afloat and Ashore’, Boys of England nos.477–521 (1875–76). ‘Wait Till I’m a Man’, Boys of England no.47 (1867), 321–2, also explored the interconnections between justice and race. 76. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw their Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2001). 77. Charles Hamilton, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London: Charles Skilton, 1952), 38. 78. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 169. 79. Frank Richards, ‘Reply to George Orwell’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume One: An Age Like This (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), 538. Notes to Chapter 7 215

80. Hurree Jamset Ram Singh was introduced in ‘Aliens at Greyfriars’, Magnet no.6 (1908). The theme was replayed in ‘The New Boy at Greyfriars’, Magnet no.36 (1908), which introduced Chinese schoolboy Wun Lung; ‘Wun Lung Minor’, Magnet no.117 (1910); ‘Bunter’s Black Chum’, Magnet no.312 (1914); ‘Looking After Inky’, Magnet no.516 (1917). 81. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 95. 82. Ibid., 98–9. 83. Ben Shephard, ‘Showbiz Imperialism: The Case of Peter Lobengula’, in Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture, 94–112. See also, Jacqueline Jenkinson, ‘The Glasgow Race Disturbances of 1919’, in Kenneth Lunn, ed., Race and Labour in Twentieth-Century Britain (London: Frank Cass, 1985), 60. 84. Attitudes were somewhat different towards women of colour. See Harriet Vincent’s section in Paul Thompson, ed. The Edwardians: the Remaking of British Society (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975), 121–30. 85. Combining friends of different backgrounds had long been popular. See ‘Tom, Pat and Sandy in Afghanistan; or, English, Irish and Scotch’, Boys of England nos.747–9 (1881); ‘British Jack and Yankee Doodle; or, School Life in the Far West’, Boys of England nos.706–19 (1880/81); and ‘The Cruise of the Cygnet; or, The Adventures of Jack, Phil and Con in Many Lands’, Boys of England nos.1501–1558 (1896). 86. This potent stereotype was best dissected in J. C. Furnas, Goodbye to Uncle Tom (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1956), esp.363–4, 386–7. 87. Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (New York: Continuum, 1989 [1973]), 3–18. 88. On the minstrel show in Britain: W. MacQueen-Pope, The Melodies Linger On: the Story of Music Hall (London: W. H. Allen, 1950), 323–5, 337–8, 411–4; Raymond Mander and Joe Mitchison, British Music Hall: A Story in Pictures (London: Studio Vista, 1965), 104; Oxford Companion to the Theatre, 4th edition, s.v. ‘minstrel show’ and ‘Thomas Dartmouth Rice’; Michael Pickering, ‘Mock Blacks and Racial Mockery: The Nigger Minstrel and British Imperialism’, in J. S. Bratton et al, eds, Acts of Supremacy: The British Empire and the Stage, 1790–1930 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991), 179–236; and Simon Featherstone, ‘The Blackface Atlantic: Interpreting British Minstrelsy’, Journal of Victorian Culture 3 (1998), 234–51. 89. Stanley J. Lemons, ‘Black Stereotypes as Reﬂected in Popular Culture, 1880–1920’, American Quarterly 29 (1977), 102–16; Alan Havig, ‘Richard F. Outcault’s “Poor Lil’ Mose”: Variations on the Black Stereotype in American Comic Art’, Journal of American Culture 11 (1988), 33–42; Joseph Boskin, Sambo: the Rise and Demise of an American Jester (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Robert C. Toll, Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974). 90. Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks, 8. 91. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 102. 92. S. Clarke Hook, ‘The Gorilla’s Captive’, Marvel n.s., no.222 (25 April 1908), 8–9. 93. Lemons, ‘Black Stereotypes’, 110. For a persuasive argument linking manliness and racism see, Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 45–76. 94. ‘“Just My Foolin” By the Old Boy’, Modern Boy 13 (28 July 1934), 9. 95. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992). 96. See also ‘Niggers’, [a joke page] Rover no.5 (1922), 118; ‘500 Jokes and Best Riddles’, a joke book presented with Rover no.84 (1923); ‘Joke Book including 216 Notes to Chapter 7

Some Nigger Yarns and Mexican Jokes’, presented with Rover no.86 (1923); and in the ever-present joke pages of the inter-war years. 97. John Darwin, ‘Imperialism in Decline? Tendencies in British Imperial Policy Between the Wars’, Historical Journal 23 (1980), 657–79. 98. Laura Tabili, We ask for British Justice: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Impe- rial Britain (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 41–57; Jenkinson, ‘Glasgow Race Disturbances’, 43–67; Neil Evans, ‘Regulating the Reserve Army: Arabs, Blacks and the Local State in Cardiff, 1919–1945’, in Lunn, ed., Race and Labour, 68–115; Kenneth Lunn, ‘Race Relations or Industrial Relations?: Race and Labour in Britain, 1880–1950’, in Lunn, ed., Race and Labour, 1–29. 99. Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire, 83–6; Constantine, ‘Bringing the Empire Alive’, 192–231. 100. ‘Bomba the Fierce’ ﬁrst appeared in Wizard no.330 (1929) for a series of 13 tales; there were two more series and several independent tales in the next decade. Other examples of helpful black sidekicks were: Golly the Zulu in ‘Sniper Dalton’, Rover no.339 (1928); Bumps the Zulu in ‘The Witch Doctor from Woolwich’, Rover no.322 (1928); and ‘Potlicker – Ship’s Mascot’, Rover no.233 (1926). 101. Edgar Wallace created colonial administrator ‘Sanders of the River’ in 1909. Orig- inally short stories, they were collected in a series of books after publication in magazines. See, MacDonald, Language of Empire, 222–8. 102. The ‘Wolf of Kabul’ tales appeared in the Wizard regularly in the 1930s. Other national groups varied in their treatment. See for example, ‘Jim, Snig and Joe’, Rover no.8 (1922), which celebrates the exploits of British youths Jim and Snig in China where they help their Japanese pal Joe (San Jokai) in his bid to escape imprisonment. Joe is a ‘Jap secret agent’ whose motives remain unexamined. Their adventures continued in several more stories. 103. Captain Justice appeared in over twenty series of tales in Modern Boy from 1930 to 1939. The 11 tales under discussion here were the eighth series. 104. Murray Roberts, ‘Justice & Co. – Castaways!’ Modern Boy no.335 (7 July 1934), 7. Primo Carnera (1907–1967) was heavyweight boxing champion of the world from 1933 to 1934. 105. For a discussion of this phenomenon in early writings about Africa, see Mary Louise Pratt, ‘Scratches on the Face of the Country; or, What Mr Barrow Saw in the Land of the Bushman’, Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), 119–43. 106. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 104. 107. Murray Roberts, ‘Castaways Aﬂoat!’ Modern Boy no.338 (28 July 1934), 21. 108. Murray Roberts, ‘Cannibal Camp!’ Modern Boy no.339 (4 August 1934), 7. 109. Murray Roberts, ‘The Painted Ogre!’ Modern Boy no.341 (18 August 1934), 19. 110. Hoxie Neale Fairchild, The Noble Savage: A Study in Romantic Naturalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928). 111. Murray Roberts, ‘The Painted Ogre!’ Modern Boy no.341 (18 August 1934), 24. 112. Murray Roberts, ‘The Road to Freedom!’ Modern Boy no.345 (15 September 1934), 4. 113. Other examples of this include ‘The Black Revolt’, Rover nos.625–41 (1934); ‘Roll of the Voodoo Drums’, Wizard nos.794–803 (1938). 114. Fryer, Staying Power, 298–316; see also Tabili, We Ask for British Justice, 81–112; Lunn, ‘Race Relations’; Jenkinson, ‘Glasgow Race Disturbances’; and Evans, ‘Regulating the Reserve Army’. 115. Fryer, Staying Power, 316–21. Notes to Chapters 7–8 217

116. Ron Ramdin, The Making of the Black Working Class in Britain (London: Wildwood, 1987), 59–186. 117. ‘George Washington Jones’, Wizard nos.321–69 (1929), no.377 (1930), nos.407– 12 (1930). 118. Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks, 38–44, 72–5. 119. See also ‘Ginger Sambo’, Rover no.340 (1928); ‘Black Sheep of the Lambs’, Rover no.249 (1927); ‘Snooty Sootter the Janitor’, Rover nos.546–87 (1932); ‘Bingo’, Wizard no.590 (1933); ‘Dat No-Good Nigger, Frisco Sam’, Wizard nos.877–86 (1939). 120. Matthew, British Autobiographies; and Burnett, et al., eds, Autobiography of the Working Class. 121. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 170–1. 122. Ibid., 27.

8 Comrades, chums and competitors: Images of women in the boys’ story paper

1. It is difﬁcult to know how to approach this literature as the idea of separate spheres originated before the Victorians; for an interesting consideration of the problems of this terminology in an American context, see Linda K. Kerber, ‘Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: the Rhetoric of Women’s History’, Journal of American History 75 (1988), 9–39. As an historiographical device separate spheres are generally assumed without being investigated and most early studies in women’s history were content to concentrate on the women’s sphere to the exclusion of the men’s. Patricia Branca’s Silent Sisterhood: Middle-Class Women in the Victorian Home (London: Croom Helm, 1975), an investigation of middle-class women’s actual duties, is an early response to this. More recently there has been an effort to disentangle the threads of these two spheres as can be seen from Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall’s Family For- tunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchin- son, 1987); see also Amanda Vickery, ‘Golden Age to Separate Spheres? A Review of the Categories and Chronology of English Women’s History’, Historical Journal 36 (1993), 383–414. 2. Martha Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women, 1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 3. Alison Oram, ‘“Embittered, Sexless, or Homosexual”: Attacks on Spinster Teachers, 1918–39’, in Arina Angerman, Geerte Binnema, Annemieke Keunen, Veﬁe Poels and Jacqueline Zirksee, eds, Current Issues in Women’s History (London: Routledge, 1989), 183–202. 4. Kirsten Drotner, English Children and Their Magazines, 1751–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 47, makes this point about the use of magazines for boys and girls to learn about many aspects of life. 5. ‘Canadian Jack; or, the Mystery of the Old Log Hut. A Colonial Story’, Boys of the Empire nos.18–44 (1888/89), 290. 6. Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama, and the Mode of Excess (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Rohan McWilliam, ‘Melodrama and the Historians’, Radical History Review 78 (2000), 57–84; Elaine Hadley, Melodramatic Tactics: Theatricalized Dissent in the English Marketplace, 218 Notes to Chapter 8

1880–1885 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995); Michael Hays and Anastasia Nikolopoulou, ‘Introduction’, to Michael Hays and Anastasia Nikolopoulou, eds, Melodrama: The Cultural Emergence of a Genre (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1996), vii–xv. 7. For a discussion of fears of dissection in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Ruth Richardson, Death, Dissection and the Destitute (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988). For another fictional example of a corpse coming to life see ‘Peter Pills and His Friend Potions, or, The Adventures of Two Medical Students’, Boys of the Empire and Young Men of Great Britain nos.61–74 (1 April 1889– 1 July 1889). 8. ‘Canadian Jack’, 170. 9. Ibid. 185. 10. Patricia Barnett notes a similar pattern in the Jack Harkaway tales of Bracebridge Hemyng, although she sees this as symptomatic of his ‘modern’ outlook, ‘English Boys Weeklies’ (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1974), 87. 11. For discussions of the tendency of psychiatry to label women as mad who refused to conform to the sexual system, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987 [1985]); Judith Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London (London: Virago, 1992), 171–89; Alex Owen, The Darkened Room: Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England (London: Virago, 1989), 139–67; and Rohan McWilliam, ‘The Tichborne Claimant and the People: Investigations into Popular Culture, 1867–1886’, (PhD diss, University of Sussex, 1990), 242. The fear of incarceration inspired Charles Reade’s novel, Hard Cash (1863). 12. Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.29 (1880). 13. ‘New woman’ was the contemporary term for independently minded women who boasted their equality with men and sought to prove it in behaviour and social concerns. See Lloyd Fernando, New Women in the Late Victorian Novel (London: Penn State University Press, 1977); Gail Cunningham, The New Woman and the Victorian Novel (London: Methuen, 1978); Lucy Bland, ‘The Married Woman, the ‘New Woman’, and the Feminist: Sexual Politics of the 1890s’, in Jane Rendall, ed., Equal or Different: Women’s Politics, 1800–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), 141–64; and Sally Mitchell, The New Girl: Girls’ Culture in England, 1880–1915 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). 14. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978). 15. ‘Philip and the Pasha’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.29 (1880), 22. 16. Adeline Hartcup, Love and Marriage in the Great Country Houses (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1984), 73–96, argues that ‘dynastic engineering’ often demanded weddings not based on affection. 17. ‘Philip and the Pasha’, 24. 18. Ibid. Compare the fate of the heroine of The Lustful Turk (1828), who is kid- napped and presented to the Dey of Algiers. Emily is successfully deflowered and capitulates to life in the harem. Her spirit is broken by her seducer so that she submits completely to him, mainly through the agency of ‘natural’ impulses once she has had sex with him. Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in mid-Nineteenth Century England (London: Weiden- feld and Nicolson, 1966 [1964]), argues that this reflects a view of nature as Notes to Chapter 8 219

uncontrollable once disturbed, 205–10. He further discusses how these tales are very clearly about the domination of women by men, especially by the agency of sexual control, 211–12. 19. See my discussion of Dollman’s masculinity in Chapter 4 and his attitude towards race in Chapter 7. 20. Some other tales which rehearse these themes include: ‘The Vengeance of Paul Fleming; or, The Rover’s Son’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.6 (c.1880); ‘Fatima, the Pearl of the East; and, the Two Midshipmen’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.17 (c.1880); ‘Doomed to Death’, Boy’s Weekly Reader Novelette no.20 (c.1880); ‘The Pasha’s Daughter; or, Mat Merryweather’s Love Adventure’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.22 (c.1881); ‘Three Loves’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.103 (c.1882). 21. On suffrage, see George Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England (London: Macgibbon and Kee, 1966 [1936]), 133–205, 349–73; Ray Strachey, The Cause: A Short History of the Women’s Movement in Great Britain (London: Virago, 1978 [1928]); Roger Fulford, Votes for Women: The Story of a Struggle (London: Faber and Faber, 1958); Jill Liddington and Jill Norris, One Hand Tied Behind Us: The Rise of Women’s Suffrage in Britain (London: Virago, 1978); and Brian Harrison, Separate Spheres: The Opposition to Women’s Suffrage in Britain (London: Croom Helm, 1978). On women’s work during the Great War, see Arthur Marwick, Women at War, 1914–1918 (London: Croom Helm, 1977); Gail Braybon, Women Workers in the First World War (London: Croom Helm, 1981); and Deborah Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls: Women Workers in World War I (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998). 22. Yvonne was introduced in ‘Beyond the Reach of Law, or A Woman’s Revenge’, Union Jack no.485 (1913). She also appeared in her own series of stories in the Boy’s Journal nos.59–61 (1915). 23. Mary Cadogan, Frank Richards: The Chap Behind the Chums (London: Viking, 1988), 94. 24. Frank Richards, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London: Charles Skilton, 1952), 77–80. 25. Richards created the girls’ school, but when it moved to its own publication, the Amalgamated Press assigned another writer to provide the ongoing stories. Girls’ school fiction was very popular and has been discussed by Mary Cadogan and Patricia Craig in You’re a Brick, Angela!: A New Look at Girl’s Fiction from 1839–1975 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1975) as well as in Drotner, English Chil- dren, 202–16. Richards girls’ school stories are briefly discussed in Beverly Lyon Clark, Regendering the School Story: Sassy Sissies and Tattling Tomboys (New York: Garland, 1996), 248–50. 26. Frank Richards, ‘The School Dance’, Magnet no.59 (1909). 27. Frank Richards, ‘The Invasion of Greyfriars’, ‘The Bully of Greyfriars’, ‘The Cliff House Party’, Magnet nos.68–70 (1909). 28. Frank Richards, ‘The Remove Master’s Substitute’, Magnet no.28 (28 August 1908), 2. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid., 7. 31. Ibid., 11. 32. Ibid., 13. 33. Ibid., 7. 220 Notes to Chapter 8

34. This was a rare foray for Frank Richards into current political events, which he generally tried to avoid. 35. Frank Richards, ‘Harry Wharton’s Campaign’, Magnet no.58 (23 January 1909), 2. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid., 10. 38. Harrison, Separate Spheres, 137–42. This is also richly documented in Lisa Tickner, The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign, 1907–14 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1987), 151–226. 39. Frank Richards, ‘Wild Women at Greyfriars’, Magnet no.341 (22 August 1914), 12. For an alternative reading of these stories see Cadogan, Frank Richards, 94–114. 40. S. Clarke Hook, ‘Votes for Women’, Marvel n.s.no.518 (27 December 1913), 1–12. 41. Arthur Hardy, ‘The Fighting Parson and the Suffragettes’, Marvel n.s.no.546 (1913). See also, Claude Heathcote, ‘The Boy Tramp; or, The Suffragette and the Statue’, Boy’s Friend no.669 (1915). 42. ‘Hardy, ‘Fighting Parson’, 25–iii. 43. Ibid., iii. 44. Harrison, Separate Spheres, 174–99. 45. Wizard no.11 (2 November 1922), 289. 46. Of course, it is also just a joke, but misogyny is often disguised in humour. 47. Michael Stuart, ‘Frantic Footer’, Modern Boy no.346 (22 September 1934), 3–6, 8. 48. ‘Bully for Bingo!’ Rover no.204 (1926), 93–6. 49. ‘Mary’s Lambs at School’, Rover nos.908–13 (9 September-14 October 1939). 50. Ibid., 18. 51. Dina Copelman, London’s Women Teachers: Gender, Class and Feminism, 1870–1930 (London: Routledge, 1996), 102–7. 52. This anxiety is most clearly argued in Oram, ‘“Embittered, Sexless, or Homo- sexual”, 183–202; and Copelman, London’s Women Teachers, 232–6. 53. Women’s changing status has been under increasing examination of late. See Jane Lewis, ‘In Search of a Real Equality: Women Between the Wars’, in Frank Gloversmith, ed., Class, Culture and Social Control (Brighton: Harvester, 1980), 208–39; Brian Harrison, Prudent Revolutionaries: Portraits of British Feminists Between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Harold L. Smith, ed., British Feminism in the Twentieth Century (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1990), esp. articles by Smith, Kent, Gorham, Land, Thane and Pugh; Susan Kingsley Kent, Making Peace: the Reconstruction of Gender in Interwar Britain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); and Caitriona Beaumont, ‘The Women’s Movement, Politics and Citizenship, 1918–1950s’, in Ina Zweiniger- Bargielowska, ed., Women in Twentieth-Century Britain (London: Longman, 2001), 262–77. 54. Branca, Silent Sisterhood, 74–94; Carol Dyhouse, ‘Mothers and Daughters in the Middle-Class Home, c.1870–1914’, in Jane Lewis, ed., Labour and Love: Women’s Experience of Home and Family, 1850–1940 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 27–48. 55. Theresa McBride, ‘“As the Twig is Bent”: The Victorian Nanny’, in Anthony S. Wohl, ed., The Victorian Family: Structures and Stresses (London: Croom Helm, 1979), 44–58. 56. This came to a head in the debate over efﬁciency. See G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efﬁciency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 Notes to Chapter 8 221

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’, History Workshop Journal no.5 (1978), 9–66; H. John Field, Toward a Programme of Imperial Life: The British Empire at the Turn of the Century (Oxford: Clio, 1982). For a contemporary example, see Arnold White, Efficiency and Empire (London: Methuen, 1901). 57. Alexander Paterson, Across the Bridges: Or Life by the South London Riverside (London: Edward Arnold, 1911), 21–34; Charles E. B. Russell, Young Gaol Birds (London: Macmillan, 1910). See also Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870–1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). 58. Alice M. Hutchinson, The Child and His Problems (London: Williams and Norgate, 1925); Charlotte Haldane, Motherhood and its Enemies (London: Chatto and Windus, 1927); Mrs H. A. L. Fisher, Mothers and Families (London: Ernest Benn, 1932); Dr H. S. Bryan, The Troublesome Boy (London: C. Arthur Pearson, 1936), 20–8, 144; A. F. Alington, Parenthood as a Career (London: Mother’s Union, 1937); Mrs Cecil Chesterton, What Price Youth (London: Nicholson and Watson, 1939), 9–33; Gwen Saint Aubyn, ed., The Family Book: A Comprehensive Guide to Family Life from before Marriage to the Adolescence of Children – Primarily for Parents (London: Arthur Barker, 1935); E. D. Laborde, Your Life’s Work (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1939); and Herbert M. Thompson, Can We Stem the Growth of Wrong-Doing Amongst the Young? (London: Western Mail and Echo, 1937), 8, all fix responsibility on the mother. Kenneth M. and E. M. Walker, On Being a Father (London: Jonathan Cape, 1928) and the anonymous Letters of a Father (London: Andrew Melrose, 1923) are rare examples which deal with male parenting. 59. Diana Gittins, Fair Sex: Family Size and Structure, 1900–1939 (London: Hutchin- son, 1982); A. H. Halsey, ed., British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Chang- ing Social Structure of Britain (London: Macmillan, 1988 [1972]), 40–1; Wally Seccombe, Weathering the Storm: Working-Class Families from the Industrial Revo- lution to the Fertility Decline (London: Verso, 1993); Simon Szreter, Fertility, Class, and Gender in Britain, 1860–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Leonore Davidoff, Megan Doolittle, Janet Fink, and Katherine Holden, The Family Story: Blood, Contact and Intimacy (London: Longman, 1999). 60. Elizabeth Sloan Chesser, Youth (London: Methuen, 1928), v. 61. Recent feminist scholarship has explored this. From a psychological viewpoint, Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Rocking of the Cradle and the Ruling of the World: The Mermaid and the Minotaur (London: Women’s Press, 1987 [1976]), argues that male children develop a desire to control women because their mothers seem to be contradictory creatures who fail to satisfy their every wish immediately and completely. Because of the difficulties of psychological separation, she suggests that boys develop a fear and contempt for their mothers, and by exten- sion, women in general, while women develop a need to be controlled, which is usually obliged by men. In a historical framework, Denise Riley, ‘The Free Mothers: Pronatalism and Working Mothers in Industry at the End of the Last War in Britain’, History Workshop no.11 (1981), 59–119, illuminates the pro- natalist assumption of policy-makers during the aftermath of the second world war, and emphasizes the tendency of society to categorize women almost solely in terms of their maternal function; Elaine Showalter’s, The Female Malady, 195–219, exposes how women who tried to shape their lives around issues larger than a biological imperative were often categorized as schizophrenic during the mid-twentieth century. 222 Notes to Chapters 8–9

62. Cyril Burt, The Young Delinquent (London: University of London Press, 1925); A. S. Neill, The Problem Child (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1929); Ethel Mannin, Common Sense and the Child: A Plea for Freedom (London: Jarrolds, 1931) and Common Sense and the Adolescent (London: Jarrolds, 1937); August Aichhorn, Wayward Youth, with an introduction by Sigmund Freud (London: Putnam, 1936); John Rickman, ed., On the Bringing Up of Children (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1936); Emanuel Miller, ed., The Growing Child and Its Problems (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1937) and The Generations (London: Faber and Faber, 1938); M. D. N. Dickson, Child Guidance (London: Sands, 1938). 63. At the turn of the century the growth of juvenile delinquency had shifted from a focus on the working class to one on the middle class, and organizations like the Boy’s Brigade and Boy Scouts had risen to deal with them. See my discussion in Chapter 5. 64. Winter, Great War and the British People, 65–83, 273–305. 65. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), ch.3. 66. Jenny Gould, ‘Women’s Military Services in First World War Britain’, in Margaret Randolph Higonnet, Sonya Michel, Jane Jenson and Margaret Collins Weitz, eds, Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 114–25; and Krisztina Robert, ‘Gender, Class and Patri- otism: Women’s Paramilitary Units in First World War Britain’, International History Review 19 (1997), 52–65. 67. Fussell, Great War, 105–13. 68. Marwick, Women at War states the case best; but for the revisionist line see Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls, 5; the essays by Higonnet and Higonnet, Gould, Gilbert, and Riley, in Higonnet et al., Behind the Lines; and by Winter, Wall and Thom, in Richard Wall and Jay Winter, eds, The Upheaval of War: Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). Susan Kingsley Kent, ‘Gender Reconstruction after the First World War, in Smith, ed., British Feminism, 66–83, brings many of these strands together.

9 Conclusions: On heroes and hero worship

1. ‘“Wait Till I’m a Man”’ or, The Play Ground and the Battle Field’, Boys of England nos.43–58 (1867). 2. See the discussion of the Victorian world view in Leonore Davidoff, ‘Class and Gender in Victorian England,’ Feminist Studies 5 (1979), 87–141. Davidoff discusses how a fear of disorder was projected onto male sexuality, especially as manifested by the working classes and native blacks. 3. Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Macmillan, 1963), 85–120; Henry Pelling, A Short History of the Labour Party (London: Macmillan, 1961), 1–34. 4. George Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume I: An Age Like This (1920–1940) edited by Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), 505–31. 5. Of course their vision of the status quo did not preclude some reordering of traditional hierarchies. Neither hailed from the traditional ruling class, they were successful entrepreneurs. Lord Northcliffe in particular should be viewed as an example of an arriviste who helped to inﬁltrate the old aristocracy. See David Notes to Chapter 9 223

Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 200, 327–8. 6. John Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), ch.1; John Mackenzie, Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986), ch.1; Ross McKibbin, The Ideologies of Class: Social Relations in Britain, 1880–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 259–93; David Cannadine, Class in Britain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ch.3. Bibliography

Arrangement of material: I. Primary sources. A. Manuscript and archival material B. Periodicals (including dates of publication and publisher) C. Autobiographical accounts D. Other printed sources II. Secondary sources A. Books B. Articles C. Theses D. Unpublished material

Primary sources

Manuscript and archival material British Library. Department of Additional Manuscripts. Northcliffe papers. British Library. Department of Additional Manuscripts. Royal Literary Fund papers. Periodicals (including dates of publication and publisher) Adventure (1921–61). D. C. Thomson. Aldine Cheerful Library (1894–1905). Aldine Press. Aldine Half-Holiday Library (1893–1910). Aldine Press. Bonnie Boys of Britain (1884–5). J. H. Brandon/S. Dacre Clarke. Boy’s Cinema Weekly (1919–39). Amalgamated Press. Boy’s Comic Journal (1883–98). Edwin J. Brett. Boy’s First Rate Pocket Library (1890–1905). Aldine. Boy’s Journal (1913–15). Amalgamated Press. Boy’s Leader (1895–1900). Henry Wells Jackson. Boy’s Own Magazine (1855–75). Samuel O. Beeton. Boy’s Own Paper (1879–1967). Religious Tract Society. Boy’s Standard (1881–92). Charles Fox. Boys (1892–4). Edward Step. Boys and Girls (1887). Samuel Dacre Clarke. Boys of England (1866–99). Edwin J. Brett. Boys of England Pocket Novelette (1880–83). Edwin J. Brett. Boys of Our Empire (1900–3). Boys Empire League. Boys of the Empire and Young Men of Great Britain (1888–89). Edwin J. Brett. Boys of the United Kingdom (1887–88). Samuel Dacre Clarke. Boys’ Budget (1924–41). Blackie and Son. Boys’ Champion Journal (1889–91). Charles Fox. Boys’ Champion Paper (1885–86). Samuel Dacre Clarke. Boys’ Favourite (1929–30). Amalgamated Press. Boys’ Friend (1895–1927). Amalgamated Press.

224 Bibliography 225

Boys’ Friend Threepenny Library (1906–40). Amalgamated Press. Boys’ Half-Holiday (1887). Charles Fox. Boys’ Herald (1903–12). Amalgamated Press. Boys’ Leisure Hour (1884–91). Charles Fox. Boys’ Mailbag (1892–1909). S. W. Partridge and Co. Boys’ Monster Weekly (1899). Charles Shurey. Boys’ Popular Weekly (1888–89). Samuel Dacre Clarke. Boys’ Realm (1902–29). Amalgamated Press. Boys’ Realm Football Library (1909–15). Amalgamated Press. Boys’ Weekly Reader Novelette (1881–83). George Brett. Boys’ Wireless Annual (1925). George Newnes. British Boys’ Paper (1888–89). Aldine/S. Dacre Clarke. Briton (1927). Peele. Bull’s Eye (1898–1900). Aldine. Bullseye (1931–34). Amalgamated Press. Captain: A Magazine for Boys and Old Boys (1899–1924). George Newnes. Champion (1922–55). Amalgamated Press. Champion Boys’ Paper (1913–14). Odhams. Chatterbox (1866–1914). Gardner, Darton. Cheer, Boys, Cheer (1912–13). Amalgamated Press. Chums: A Paper for Boys (1892–1934). Cassell’s/Amalgamated Press. Comrades (1886–87). Samuel Dacre Clarke. Detective Weekly (1933–40). Amalgamated Press. Flag Library for Boys (1935–36). George Newnes. Fun and Fiction (1911–14). Amalgamated Press. Gem (1907–39). Amalgamated Press. Greyfriar’s Herald (1915–22). Amalgamated Press. Hotspur (1933–59). D. C. Thomson. Jack Harkaway’s Journal for Boys (1893). Edwin J. Brett. Magnet (1900–40). Amalgamated Press. Marvel (1893–1922). Amalgamated Press. Modern Boy (1928–39). Amalgamated Press. Nelson Lee Library (1915–33). Amalgamated Press. New Boys’ Paper (1886–88). Aldine Press. Nugget Library (1907–16). James Henderson. Nugget Library (1919–22). Amalgamated Press. Nugget Weekly (1920–21). Amalgamated Press. Our Boys’ Journal (1876–82). Edwin J. Brett. Our Boys’ Paper (1880). Allingham and John Holloway. Penny Popular (1912–31). Amalgamated Press. Pilot (1935–38). Amalgamated Press. Pluck (1922–24). Amalgamated Press. Pluck: A High Class Weekly Library Of Adventure at Home and Abroad, on Land and Sea. Being the Daring Deeds of Plucky Sailors, Plucky Soldiers, Plucky Firemen, Plucky Explorers, Plucky Detectives, Plucky Railwaymen, Plucky Boys, Plucky Girls, and All Sorts and Conditions of British Heroes, [Stories of] (1894–1916). Amalgamated Press. Ranger (1931–35). Amalgamated Press. Rover (1922–73). D. C. Thomson. Scholar’s Own: A Magazine for School and Home (1893–1914). Educational Newspaper Co., Ltd. 226 Bibliography

Sexton Blake Annual (1938–43). Amalgamated Press. Sexton Blake Library (1915–70). Amalgamated Press, then Mayﬂower books. Skipper Book for Boys (1931–41). D. C. Thomson. Sport and Adventure (1922). Amalgamated Press. Startler (1930–32). Amalgamated Press. Surprise (1932–33). Amalgamated Press. Thriller (1929–40). Amalgamated Press. Triumph (1924–40). Amalgamated Press. True Blue. A Weekly Library of High-Class Fiction (1898–1900). Aldine Press. True Blue. The Half Holiday Library (1910–11). Aldine Press. True Blue War Library (1900–6). Aldine Press. Union Jack (1880–93). W. H. G. Kingston/G. A. Henty. Union Jack Library of High-Class Fiction (1894–1933). Amalgamated Press. Up-to-Date Boys Journal and Novelettes (1899–1901). Edwin J. Brett. Vanguard (1923–26). D. C. Thomson. W. H. G. Kingston’s Magazine for Boys (1859–63). W. H. G. Kingston. War Stories (1935). George Newnes. Wild West Weekly (1938–39). Amalgamated Press. Wizard (1922–78). D. C. Thomson. Young Britain: A New Paper for the Youth of the Empire (1919–24). Amalgamated Press. Young Britons’ Journal (1888–89). Popular Publishing Company. Young England: Kind Words for Boys and Girls (1880–1937). C. J. Houston for Sunday School Union. Young Englishman (1882). Ernest Williams. Young Man (1887–1919). YMCA. Young Men of Great Britain. A Journal of Amusing and Instructive Literature: Companion to the Boys of England (1868–72). Edwin J. Brett.

Autobiographical accounts Barnes, Ron. Coronation Cups and Jam Jars. London: Centerprise, 1976. Benjamin, Harry. Adventure in Living: The Autobiography of a Myope. London: Health for All Publishing Company, 1950. Bermant, Chaim. Coming Home. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1976. Blake, John. Memories of Old Poplar. London: Stepney Books Publications, 1977. Booth, J. B. Life, Laughter, and Brass Hats. London: Werner Laurie, 1939. Bowyer, William [pseudonym of William Bowyer Honey]. Brought Out in Evidence: An Autobiographical Summing Up. London: Faber and Faber, 1966. Brown, F. J. Journal of a Stranger: A Subobjective Narrative. Maidstone: Londinium Press, 1979. Burke, Thomas. The Wind and the Rain: A Book of Confessions. London: Butterworth, 1924. Catling, Thomas. My Life’s Pilgrimage. London: John Murray, 1911. Clarke, Austin. Growing Up Stupid Under the Union Jack. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1980. Coward, Noel. Autobiography. London: Methuen, 1986. Edwin, John. I’m Going – What Then?. London: New Horizon, 1978. Ezard, Edward. Battersea Boy. London: William Kimber, 1979. Glasser, Ralph. Growing Up in the Gorbals. London: Chatto and Windus, 1986. Goldman, Ronald. Breakthrough: Autobiographical Accounts of the Education of Some Socially Disadvantaged Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. Bibliography 227

Grossek, Mark. First Movement. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1937. Hammerton, Sir James A. Books and Myself. London: MacDonald and Company, n.d. Heren, Louis. Growing Up Poor in London. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973. Jackson, David. Unmasking Masculinity: A Critical Autobiography. London: Unwin Hyman, 1990. Mackenzie, Compton. My Life and Times. Octave One, 1883–1891. London: Chatto and Windus, 1963. MacQueen-Pope, Walter James. Twenty Shillings in the Pound. London: W. H. Allen, 1948. Marshall, Arthur. Girls Will Be Girls. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1974. Maugham, Robin. Escape from the Shadows. London: Robin Clark, 1971. May, Spike. Reuben’s Corner: An English Country Boyhood. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969. Meads, Richard James. Growing Up with Southall from 1904: Memories of R. J. Meads. Southall: R. J. Meads, 1979. Osborne, John. A Better Class of Person. An Autobiography, 1929–1956. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981. Pritchett, V. S. A Cab at the Door: An Autobiography. London: Chatto and Windus, 1968. Roberts, Robert. The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]. Rolph, C. H. [pseudonym of Cecil Rolph Hewitt]. London Particulars. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980. Sampson, George. Seven Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947. Samways, George Richmond. The Road to Greyfriars. London: Howard Baker, 1984. Scannell, Vernon. The Tiger and the Rose: An Autobiography. London: Robson, 1983. Spenser, James [pseudonym of Francis Harold Guest]. Limey Breaks In. London: Longman, 1934. Taylor, A. J. P. A Personal History. London: Hamilton, 1984. Vansittart, Peter. Paths from a White Horse. A Writer’s Memoir. London: Quartet, 1985. West, Paul. I, Said the Sparrow. London: Hutchinson, 1963. Willis, Frederick. 101 Jubilee Road: A Book of London Yesterdays. London: Phoenix House, 1948. Willis, Ted. Whatever Happened to Tom Mix? The Story of One of My Lives. London: Cassell, 1970. Wolveridge, Jim. ‘Ain’t It Grand!’ (or ‘This Was Stepney’). London: Journeyman, 1981. Wood, Ernest Egerton. Is This Theosophy ...?London: Rider and Company, 1936.

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NB Fictional characters are indexed with their forenames ﬁrst (e.g. Sherlock Holmes) adventure tales, 1, 5, 6, 21, 29, 31, Boer War, 71–2, 94–5, 97, 125, 34, 37, 45, 47, 49–51, 71, 73, 128 102, 115, 124, 126, 137, 155, ‘Bomba the Fierce’, 148 168, 173, 179 Bonnie Boys of Britain, 32 see also ‘domestic’ adventure tale Borstal stories, 112–14, 117–18 advertising, 28 Boxing stories, 79, 87–8, 91, African tales, 109–12, 149–52 96, 104, 112, 114, 116, Aldine Press, 31, 94 168 Alger, Horatio, 83 ‘Boy Scout of Scarlett’s, or Bayonets Allingham, H.J., see Ralph for the Boers’, 94–5 Rollington Boy Scouts, 1, 22, 72, 93–4, 124, Amalgamated Press, 4, 8–9, 36, 128, 179 38–41, 82, 97, 102, 128, Boy’s Champion Paper, 32 159 Boy’s Friend, 36 see also Harmsworth circulation, 36 American inﬂuences, 1, 6, 104–5, Boy’s Graphic, 32–3 135, 137, 142–3 Boy’s Own Magazine, 8, 28–30, 34 anti-racist tales, 136–9 circulation, 29 see also racism Boy’s Own Paper, 2, 4, 8, 31, 34, 38, apprenticeship, 13, 17, 22 40, 45, 49, 71 aristocratic effeminacy, 64–7, circulation, 31, 34 140–1, 155, 158 Boys and Girls, 32 Arnold, Thomas, 14, 46 Boys of England, 2, 8, 33–4, 48, 51, athleticism, 15–16, 68, 74, 76–7, 123–4 116, 128 circulation, 34 aunts, 79, 153 Boys of the Empire, 7, 57, 61 see also family Boys of the Isles, 32 Australian settings, 128, 129–31, Boys’ Brigade, 22 159 Boys’ Cinema, 39 Boys’ Comic Journal, 45 Back, W.H., 36 Boys’ Companion, 33 Ballantyne, R.M., 59, 137 boys’ lives Beeton, Isabella, Mrs, 28 education, 2, 4, 13–20, 22–3, 25, Beeton, Samuel O., 8, 28–9, 31, 27–8, 50–2, 68–9, 73, 76, 82, 33–4, 50 99, 105–6, 111, 114–15, 118, Big Stiff, 4, 9, 105–8, 117–18, 167, 137–8, 154, 172, 175 170 elite, 14–17 Biggles, 72, 98 inter-war, 23–4 Billy Bunter, 1, 5, 37, 77, 79, 80, leisure, 22–3 142 non-elite, 17–18 Biskind, Peter, 7 public school, 20 blood see penny dreadful work, 20–2

269 270 Index boys’ story papers Child’s Companion; or Sunday deﬁned, 1–3, 8 Scholar’s Reward (1824–1932), popularity of, 4–5 26 types of, 2–3 Children’s Friend (1824–1930), 26 see also conservatism of story ‘Chin-Wag with the Chief’, 39 papers Chums, 2, 14, 36, 73, 153, 181 Boys’ World, 32 Clarendon Report (1864), 14–15, 76 circulation, 32 Clarke, Samuel Dacre, 31–2 Brett, Edwin John, 2, 7–10, 31, class 33–4, 36, 38, 40, 49, 50–1, 71, and masculinity, 3, 52, 62, 73–4, 124, 126, 141, 159 98–9, 118–19, 175, 178–9, 180 British Boy’s Paper, 32 elite, 14–17, 46–7, 49, 50–1, 62, British Empire see imperialism 68, 70–3, 76, 100, 103, 141, Brooks, Edwy Searles, 75 176–7 brothers, 15, 19, 46, 48, 57, 62, 86, lower middle, 3, 9, 13–14, 17–24, 102–3, 127, 133, 140, 156, 160, 47, 72, 74, 103 162 middle, 3, 25, 36, 46–8, 50, 68, see also family 72–4, 86, 103, 128, 167, 172, Brown, Charles Perry, 31 176–8 ‘Buffalo Bill among the Sioux’, 45 relations, 6, 10, 86–7, 166, 176 Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show, status, 60, 68, 74, 176, 178–9 142 working, 3, 7, 9, 13, 17–24, 36, ‘Bully for Bingo’, 168 40, 49, 62, 69, 71, 73–4, 81, Burke, Thomas, 70 83, 86–8, 91, 95, 103, Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 109 118–19, 125, 172, 177–8 see also under manliness Cadogan, Mary, 10, 181 clerks, 18, 21, 47, 177 ‘Cameron’s Last Chance’, 129–31 Cold War, 7 ‘Canadian Jack, or, The Mystery of Colley, Linda, 14 the Old Log Hut: A Colonial Collini, Stefan, 46 Story’, 7, 63–8, 125, 133–4, Comrades, 32 140–1, 155–6 Conan Doyle, Arthur, Sir, 71, 181 Canadian tales, 63–7, 133–6, 140–1, conservatism of story papers, 1, 155–6 4–5, 7, 81, 180 Cannadine, David, 50, 141 Coral Island, 59 ‘Cannibal Camp’, 149–51 correspondence, 7, 21, 33 ‘Cannibal Earl’ see ‘Schoolboy cricket, 77, 81, 91, 100, 115, Cannibal Earl’ 116–17, 148, 161, 163 Cannibals, 109, 113, 118 Cromer, Lord [Evelyn Baring], 138 Captain, 2, 14, 36, 73 cross-dressing, 167–8 Captain Justice, 149–51 Curzon, George Nathaniel, Carlyle, Thomas, 139 Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, castaway stories, 60, 127–8, 149–51 138 ‘Castaways!’, 149–51 Castle, Kathryn, 10, 138 Davies, Derek, 100 ‘Catapult Cowboy’, 39 Defoe, Daniel, 59 Catholicism, 54–7 degeneracy, fears of, 126 Cawelti, John, 5, 6 Denning, Michael, 6–7 Champion, 32, 39, 41, 60, 100 detective stories, 5, 37, 71–2, 92–4, character, 6, 15, 46, 49 146 Index 271

Dickens, Charles, 27, 83 Gem, 1, 4, 37, 75–7, 82, 100, 142, dime novel, 6 160 Dixie Dale, 104–5 gender see masculinity; women Dollman, Sir Reginald. see Reginald gender anxiety, 166–71 Dollman George Washington Jones, 151–2 ‘domestic’ adventure tales, 71, 82, Girl’s Own Paper, 31 92, 115, 132 Golding, William, 60 Drotner, Kirsten, 26 ‘Gorilla’s Captive’, 144–6 Dunae, Patrick, 10, 124, 138 Greenwood, James, 29, 48, 181 Greyfriars, 7, 10, 70, 73, 75, 77, 79, Edwards, Hamilton, 36 80–2, 102–3, 105, 139, 142, effeminacy, 9, 67–8, 77, 108, 112, 146, 160–1, 168, 170–1 136, 140, 163 Guy Rayner, 32 see also aristocratic effeminacy Emmett brothers, 33 Haggard, H. Rider, 45, 137 Empire Day, 123, 132–3, 148 ‘Half-Caste Bob, or, The Hero of Eric, or Little by Little, 46 Our Indian Contingent’, Eyre, Governor, controversy, 139 139–40 Hamilton, Charles. see Frank ‘Factory Batsman’, 115–16 Richards family, 9–10, 14–22, 24, 31, 36, Hangar, P.J., 39 38, 48, 51, 54–5, 63, 65, 71, Harmsworth, Alfred, later Lord 83–4, 88, 92, 95, 100, 103, Northcliffe, 2, 9, 35–8, 71–6, 109, 115–16, 119, 127, 133, 95, 128–9, 159 154, 160, 172–3, 177, Harry St George, 94–5 179 Harry Wharton, 37, 40, 75, 77, see also aunts; brothers; fathers; 79–81, 87, 161–2 mothers; sisters; uncles ‘Harry Wharton’s Campaign’, 162 Farrar, F.W., 46 Hemyng, Bracebridge, 47, 58, 60, fathers, 15, 19, 22, 32, 40, 52, 54, 75, 123, 126 55, 61–3, 65, 83–6, 91, 94, 106, Henty, G.A., 34, 38, 45, 47, 51, 109, 115–18, 129–30, 133, 124, 137–8 140–1, 155–6, 162, 167, 169, Heren, Louis, 123, 132 176–7 heroes see also family adult, 92–4, 106–12, 116–19 Fawcett, Millicent Garrett, 163 aristocratic, 9, 50, 54, 70, 72–3, Fawkes, Guy, 48 91, 100, 118, 176, 178 First World War, 15–16, 23, 71–2, black, 143–6 82, 88, 94–5, 97–100, 105, 119, class disputed, 82–6, 94–7, 102–14 126, 128, 131, 135, 159, 166, elite, 61, 76–82, 109–11 172–3, 178, 181 imperial, 63–67, 126–36 football, 40, 77, 81, 91, 96–8, 108, Indian, 139–40, 142–3 166–7, 173 military, 97–8 ‘For Britain’s Glory’, 96–7 racist, 141, 149–52 formula literature, 5–6 schoolboy, 76–82, 102–6, 115–17 Forster Act (1870), 17, 28 skilled working-class, 70–1, 177 Fowler, David, 23 upper middle-class, 60–3 Fox, Charles, 31, 37 heroines ‘Frantic Footer’, 167 imperial, 155–8 Fussell, Paul, 173 schoolmistress, 160–3, 168–71 272 Index

Hickey, Colm, 77 circulation, 39 highwaymen, 27, 37, 50 ‘Making of Harry Wharton’, 77–81 historical tales, 54–8 Mangan, J.A., 76–7, 81, 181 Hood, Tom, 29 manliness Hook, S. Clarke, 87, 144 deﬁned, 45–8, 49–50, 59, 68, Horizon, 1, 181 84–6, 101–2, 119, 136, 150, horror comics, 10 152, 175–80 Hotspur, 38, 41, 100, 102–3 democratization of, 70–99, Hughes, Thomas, 46, 49, 74, 77 101 Hurree Jamset Ram Singh, 139, relationship to class, 62, 73–4, 142, 146 98–9 Hutchinson, Edward, 31 see also masculinity Huttenback, Robert, 124, 138 Mark Linley, 81–2 Marvel, 36–8, 72, 87–8, 143, 159 Illustrated London Newspaper, 27 circulation, 36 imperialism, 7, 9–10, 26, 38, 119, ‘Mary’s Lambs at School’, 168–71 124–7, 132, 136–8, 180 masculinity Edwardian, 128–31 concept discussed, 3–4 inter-war, 125–6, 131–6 marriage and, 58 Victorian, 125–8 mature men and, 54, 65–7 Indian tales, 139–40, 148 see also manliness mass culture, 6, 124 Jack Harkaway, 4, 10, 34, 50, ‘Master of the Sword, or The 58–61, 68, 71, 74–5, 91, 105, Brother Apprentices’, 57–8, 125–8, 141 63 ‘Jack Harkaway, After Schooldays; Mayhew, Henry, 18 His Adventures Aﬂoat and medical tales, 60–3 Ashore’, 59–60, 126–8 ‘Mighty London! Modern Story of a Jack Harkaway’s Journal for Boys, 126 Great City’, 83 Jack, Sam and Pete, 87, 98, 139, military tales, 51–4 143–6, 151, 163, 165–6 Mill, John Stuart, 139 James, Louis, 10, 124 Milner, Alfred, Viscount Milner, Johns, W.E., 72, 98 138 Modern Boy, 39, 132, 149 Kingston, W.H.G., 4, 34, 38, 45 moral fantasy see formula literature Kipling, Rudyard, 16 More, Hannah, 26 knitting, 169, 171 mothers and motherhood, 15, 19, 52, 60, 63, 67, 76–7, 83–5, 109, Labour voting, 7, 180 111, 132, 140, 142, 152, 154, Lemahieu, D.L., 13 159–60, 167, 172 Lilliputian Magazine, 26 see also family literacy, 3, 18, 25, 48 ‘Mr. Asaph Spades’, 146–7 Little Lord Fauntleroy, 76 muscular Christianity, 46, 110 Lloyd, Edward, 6, 26–7 Lloyd’s Newspaper, 27 Nelson, Claudia, 10 Lord of the Flies, 60 Nelson Lee, 92 Newsagents Publishing Company, MacDonald, Robert H., 10 33 Magnet, 1, 2, 4, 7, 37, 39–40, 73, Newsome, David, 46 75, 77, 82, 100, 142, 160, Northcliffe, Lord see Harmsworth, 163 Alfred Index 273

Oliver Twist, 83 Quaine, J.P., 123 ‘Only a Colliery Lad’, 86–8 ‘Oriana, or the Castle of Gold’, 45 racism, 123 orientalist tales, 156–8 anti-American, 135–6, 142 orphans, 76, 95, 133 anti-Black, 139–52 Orwell, George, 1, 2, 4–5, 10, 82, anti-Celtic, 123–4 102, 142, 180–1 anti-French Canadian, 64 Our Boys’ Paper, 32 anti-Native American, 64 circulation, 32 anti-Spanish, 54–7 Edwardian, 141–6 patrimony, stolen, 51–2, 63, 86–7, general discussion, 136–9 112–14 inter-war, 146–52 ‘penny dreadfuls’, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, Victorian, 139–41 26–7, 31, 33–4, 36–8, 48, 50, Rands, W.B., 29 159 reader response criticism, 7, 13 bad influence of, 4 readership defined, 13 Penny Popular, 80 Red Circle Schools, 102–5 Pete, 139, 143–7, 151, 163–6 Reed, Talbot Baines, 47 ‘Peter Pills and his friend Potions, Reginald Dollman, Sir, 64–7, 140–1, or, The Adventures of Two 155, 158 Medical Students’, 60–3 Reginald Fairleigh, 52 ‘Peter Sticks It’, 116–18 Reid, Mayne (1818–83), 29 ‘Philip and the Pasha, or, A Rescue Religious Tract Society, 4, 26, 31, from the Harem’, 156–8 34, 49–50, 125 Phillips, Horace, 129 ‘Remove Master’s Substitute’, Pilot, 109 161–2 prep schools, 15 Rex Ellis, 135–6 Pritchett, V.S., 70 Reynolds, G.W.M., 8, 26–7, 33 ‘Private Tinker, A.S.C.: A Reynolds’s Miscellany, 8 Magnificent Story of Tinker at Richards, Frank, 4–5, 7, 10, 16, the Front’, 94 36–7, 39, 70–1, 75, 77, 79, professionalization, 60–3 102–3, 105, 142, 160, 167, 181 public schools, 2–4, 9, 14–17, 47, 50, Orwell, response to, 5 59, 68, 70–1, 73, 82, 100, 102–3, ‘Right Sort’, 133–5 109, 115, 132, 160, 172, 177 Roberts, Robert, 7, 37, 40, 70, 75, publishers and publishing 152 creation of a youth market, 28 Robinson Crusoe, 59 early childrens’ periodicals, 25–6 Rollington, Ralph (H.J. Allingham), Edwardian, 34–8 31–3 general policies, 8 Rose, Jonathan, 20 giveaways, 40 Rover, 2, 4, 38, 40–1, 59, 100, 103, inter-war, 38–44 168 payments to authors and editors, 36 Sayers, Tom (1826–65), 88 ‘penny dreadfuls’, 26–7 Scannell, Vernon, 100 roots, 25 scholarship boys, 17, 73, 81–2 Victorian, 28–34 school stories, 60, 74–82, 102–14, see also Aldine Press; 160–3, 168–71 Amalgamated Press; Brett; ‘Schoolboy Alderman’, 39 Clarke; Harmsworth; ‘Schoolboy Cannibal Earl’, 4, Rollington; Thomson 109–12, 118 274 Index schoolmasters, 4, 59, 105 Union Jack Library of High-Class popular, 101, 104–8 Fiction (1893–1922), 36, 38, unpopular, 59, 105 92 science fiction, 1, 5, 39, 171 Scott, Walter, Sir, 54 Vance, Norman, 46 Septimus Green see Big Stiff Vanguard, 38 Sexton Blake, 10, 72, 92–5, 98, 159 ‘Vengeance of Paul Fleming, or, The Sherlock Holmes, 71, 92–3 Rover’s Son’, 54–7 sisters, 16, 19, 31, 57, 61–3, 80, 86, villainesses, 159–60 153, 160–1 viralization, 128, 174 see also family ‘Votes for Women’, 163–6 Skipper, 38, 100 Smiles, Samuel, 68 Wainwright, 52 sporting stories, 115–18, 167 ‘Wait Till I’m a Man!, or, The St Jim’s, 75, 82, 142 Playground and the Battlefield’, St John, Vane, 51 51–4, 176 Stalky & Co, 16 war stories, 37, 51–4, 94–8 Startler, 39 Waugh, Alec, 16 street life, 19, 21–2, 37, 73, 84, Whittaker, Frederick, 83 91–2, 131 ‘Who was to Blame?’, 85–6 suffragette stories, 153, 161–6 ‘Wild Women at Greyfriars’, 162–3 Sunday School, 4, 26 Wilde, Oscar, 128 Surprise, 39 Winskill, Ben, 37 swapping papers, 39 ‘With Pick and Lamp: The Perils of a Pit Boy’, 87 Tarzan, 109 Wizard, 4, 38–41, 100, 148, 151 teachers see schoolmasters circulation, 39 see also under heroines Wodehouse, P.G., 2, 96 Thomson, D.C., 2, 8, 38–41, 71, 82, Wolf of Kabul, 148 102, 106, 168, 180 women Tinker, 92–5 Edwardian, 76, 86, 159–66 ‘Toll of the Silent Wastes’, 135–6 evolution of depiction, 171–4 Tom Brown’s Schooldays, 4, 14, 46, general discussion, 153–5 49, 51, 68, 71–2, 74, 77, 106, inter-war, 166–71 124 Victorian, 55–7, 155–8 Tom Merry, 37, 75–7, 79, 81–2 working-class tales, 85–91 ‘Tom Merry’s Schooldays’, 77 ‘Worst Boy at Borsted’, 112–14, 117 Tom Sayers, 87–91, 98, 166 Turner, E.S., 9–10 Young Briton’s Journal, 32 Young Men of Great Britain, 34–5 uncles, 57–8, 62–3, 65, 110 circulation, 34 Union Jack (1880–93), 4, 34, 36, 93 Youth’s Magazine; or Evangelical circulation, 34 Miscellany,26