ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
FOR THE COLLEGIATE BUSINESS CURRICULUM
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
LEO NIEMI, B. S., A. M.
* * * *
The Ohio State University 1959
Approved by
Adviser Department of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer owes a special debt of gratitude to Doctors
J. Marshall Hanna and Charles B. Hicks for their guidance, counsel, and inspiration in the general direction of the writer's doctoral program as well as the writing of this study.
The writer is also greatly indebted to the members of the
Advisory Committee, Doctors Hugh Laughlin, William Logan, and Daniel
Shonting for the many hours of time spent in guiding the organization, writing, and evaluation of this study.
The assistance in revising the questionnaire given by Doctors
Arvid W. Jacobson of Wayne University, John W. Carr, III of the Uni versity of Michigan, E. W. Martin of Indiana University, Leon R. Hay of San Jose State College, and George A. Wagoner of the University of
Tennessee is greatly appreciated.
The writer also wishes to express his gratitude to the many respondents for providing the data for this study. Their letters and comments supplementing the questionnaire are especially appreciated.
Special thanks are due Messrs. Hoot Gibson and Paul Haefner of International Business Machines for their help with the survey and in organizing an introductory computer course for Western Michigan
University.
Finally, this study is dedicated to my wife, Elizabeth, whose encouragement, patience, and cooperation made it all possible. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii
LIST OF TABLES ...... iv
Chapter I. PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND SURVEY METHOD ...... 1 Growth of the Office Function The Role of the Electronic Computer in Reducing and Controlling Office Costs The Problem The Need and Significance of the Study Organization of the Study
II. ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS AND COMPUTER APPLICATIONS ...... 18 Description of Electronic Computer Systems Computer Applications Operations Research
III. SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE ON EDP EDUCATION ...... 44 Training Programs Related Research
IV. ANALYSIS OF REPLIES TO QUESTIONNAIRE ON E D P ...... 83 Introduct ion Computer Applications Curricular Programs Specialized Electronic Data Processing Courses Training and Educational Backgrounds of EDP Managers
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 164 Summary of Findings Conclusions and Recommendations
APPENDIXES ...... 183 Appendix A, Glossary of EDP Terminology Appendix B, Cover Letters Appendix C, Questionnaire Appendix D, List of Respondents
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 208
AUTOBIOGRAPHY 226
iii LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Number of Questionnaires Sent and Replies Received 12
2. Types of Organizations Replying 13
3. Summary of Responses to Survey on Operations Research Activity 40
4. Frequency of Operations Research Applications 41
5. EDP and Related Courses Offered by Various Colleges and Universities in the United States in 1957 69
6. Respondents' Curricular Program Preferences for Program mers of Data Processing Systems 73
7. Preference of College Subjects as Academic Preparation for Programmers of Data Processing Systems 74
8. Ranking of Academic Background Subjects for Programmers of Data Processing Systems 75
9. Estimated Percentages of Kinds of Utilization Made of Computers by Companies Surveyed 77
10. Number and Kinds of Computer Systems Reported by Various Computer Users 85
11. Per Cent of Total Computer Time Used for Business Data Processing by Various Organizations 87
12. Per Cent of Total Computer Time Used for Scientific and Research Studies by Various Organizations 89
13. Per Cent of Total Computer Time Used for Engineering Calculations by Various Organizations 90
14. Rank and Frequency of Business Data Processing Appli cations Reported by Various'Computer Users 91
15. Number of Years of College Education Recommended by Various Respondents for the Head of a Company EDP Unit 93
IV Table Page
16. Per Cent of Curriculum for a Prospective EDP Head to be Devoted to Business Courses According to Various Respondents 95
17. Per Cent of Curriculum for a Prospective EDP Head to be Devoted to Liberal Arts Courses According to Various Respondents 97
18. Per Cent of Curriculum for a Prospective EDP Head to be Devoted to Mathematics Courses According to Various Respondents 98
19. Per Cent of Curriculum for a Prospective EDP Head to be Devoted to Electrical Engineering Courses According to Various Respondents 100
2 0 . Educational Deficiencies Observed in Prospective EDP Managers by Various Respondents 101
21. Ranking by Various Respondents of General Orientation to Computers and EDP As a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 108
22. Ranking by Various Respondents of Digital Computer Pro gramming as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 109
23. Ranking by Various Respondents of Advanced Programming Techniques as a Course for the Prospective Head of and EDP Unit 111
24. Ranking by Various Respondents of Digital Computer Opera tion as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 112
25. Ranking by Various Respondents of Business Applications of Digital Computers as a Course for the Prospective 1 1 / Head of an EDP Unit L J L H
26. Ranking by Various Respondents of Business Systems Analysis and Design for EDP as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 115
27. Ranking by Various Respondents of Industrial Applica tions of Digital Computers as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 116
28. Ranking by Various Respondents of Numerical Analysis; Methods in High-Speed Computation as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 118 Table Paige
2 9 : Ranking by Various Respondents of Operations Research and Linear Programming as a Course for the Prospec tive Head of an EDP Unit 119
30. Ranking by Various Respondents of Methods and Applica tions of Analog Computing as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 121
31. Ranking by Various Respondents of Analog and Digital Computer Design as a Course for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 122
32. Other Specialized EDP Courses Recommended for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 123
33. Ranking of Specialized Courses for the Prospective Head of an EDP Unit 124
34. Recommended Training Place for General Orientation to Computers and EDP According to Various Respondents 127
35. Recommended Training Place for Digital Computer Pro gramming According to Various Respondents 129
36. Recommended Training Place for Advanced Programming Techniques According to Various Respondents 130
37. Recommended Training Place for Digital Computer Opera tion According to Various Respondents 132
38. Recommended Training Place for Business Applications of Digital Computers According to Various Respondents 133
39. Recommended Training Place for Business Systems Analysis and Design for EDP According to Various Respondents 134
40. Recommended Training Place for Industrial Applications of Digital computers According to Various Respondents 135
41. Recommended Training Place for Numerical Analysis and Methods in High-Speed Computation According to Various Respondents 136
42. Recommended Training Place for Operations Research and Linear Programming According to Various Respondents 138
43. Recommended Training Place for Methods and Applications of Analog Computing According to Various Respondents 139
vi Table Page
44. Recommended Training Place for Analog and Digital Com puter Design According to Various Respondents 140
45. Special EDP Courses Recommended by Various Respondents as Desirable for Managers Other Than EDP Managers 141
46. Number of Years of College Completed by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 145
47. The Highest Collegiate Degree Held by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 146
48. Kinds of Bachelors Degrees Held by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 148
49. Kinds of Graduate Degrees Held by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 149
50. Various Curricula Reported by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 150
51. Subject Areas from which Majors were taken by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 152
52. Specific Business Majors Taken by Heads of EDP Units 153
53. Specific Liberal Arts Majors Taken by Heads of EDP Units 154
54. Specific Engineering Majors Taken by Heads of EDP Units 155
55. Subject Areas from which Minors were taken by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 156
56. Specific Liberal Arts Minors Taken by Heads of EDP Units 157
57. Specific Business Minors Taken by Heads of EDP Units 158
58. Specialized EDP Courses Taken by Heads of EDP Units of the Various Organizations 159
vil CHAPTER X
PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND SURVEY METHOD
This study on Electronic Data Processing^" and Its Implications
for the Collegiate Business Curriculum has its foundations in the
problems of ever-increasing cost and complexity of the office function
and the role of the electronic computer in the solution of these prob
lems. A brief outline of these foundations is followed by the statement
of the problem, the importance and purpose of the study, its limitations,
and how it was organized.
Growth of the Office Function
Hicks and Place state that during the period from 1870 to 1950, while the total number of gainfully employed individuals increased from
about 12 1/2 million to 56 million, or 450 per cent, the number of
clerical workers increased 2300 per cent or five times as fast as all workers.^ in another comparison, Terry states that in 1870 about one worker in forty was an office worker; but that in 1955, about one in
^As a rather extensive technical vocabulary has developed around this subject, the definition of terms is included in Appendix A. 2 Charles B. Hicks and Irene Place, Office Management (New York: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1956), p. 11.
1 2 3 seven was an office worker. Thus, about eight million clerical workers were employed in 1955.
This rapid increase in the number of clerical employees, accord
ing to Littlefield and Peterson, is the result of (1) increasing size and
complexity of individual firms, (2) increasing clerical specialization,
(3) influences of government, (4) development of office-type organiza
tions, and (5) the scientific management movement.^ Similar reasons were given by Hicks and Place** and Terry. ^
In addition to these reasons, management's primary concern with production and its past failure to understand the importance of keeping
the clerical and administrative functions under strict control have been 7 8 9 cited as contributing factors by Fairbanks, Hicks and Place, and Terry.
The alarm of businessmen over these unfortunate conditions is
indicated by statements such as those made by Fairbanks describing the office as a "leak in the business dike" and "the Achilles' heel in
American business today.This current awareness of the pyramiding
3 George R. Terry, Office Management and Control (3d ed. rev.; Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1958), p. 12. 4 C. L. Littlefield and R. L. Peterson, Modern Office Management (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956), p. 5.
^Hicks and Place, op. cit., p. 16.
^Terry, loc. cit.
^Ralph W. Fairbanks, Successful Office Automation (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956), p. 9. g Hicks and Place, loc. cit. 9 Terry, loc. cit.
Fairbanks, op. cit., p. 1. 3 of office costs, which have been estimated from $35 billion for clerical 11 12 salaries to $100 billion for the total cost, per annum, has provided 13 the impetus for "automating" office activities.
The Role of the Electronic Computer in Reducing and Controlling Office Costs
The importance of the electronic computer for the solution of these office problems is concisely stated by Bell: "Perhaps the most important development that has ever occurred in business management is 14 the advent of the electronic digital computer."
The advent of electronic computer is described by Canning:
This field of electronic data processing has grown rapidly. It had its beginnings, from a practical point of view, in 1946 when the first electronic digital com puter was completed; a complete history of the field, however, would go back to the early ideas of Babbage in the nineteenth century. The electronic digital computer completed in 1946 was designed to solve certain types of ballistics problems, and the machines that followed it in the next few years were also designed for mathematical and engineering applications. Around 1949, however, the designers of these computers began to see how they might be used in the business world, for performing clerical operations. By 1953, electronic data processing for
^ Leahy Newsletter, Special Report Issue (New York: Leahy and Company, Inc., December, 1953). 12 The Wall Street Journal, February 26, 1957, p. 4. 13 The word "automation" is believed to have been used first by D. S. Harder, Ford Company vice-president, to describe a system for automatic handling of parts between progressive stages in production. About the same time, John Diebold, President of John Diebold & Associ ates, Inc., a management consultants firm, also used the word to mean both automatic handling and the process of making things automatically. "Factory automation" and "office automation" are fast becoming common place terms.
14Willi am D. Bell, A Management Guide to Electronic Computers (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957), p. 1. 4
business and industry was a reality, with the first few installations in and working.
The rapid increase in popularity of the use of the electronic
computer for business data processing is described by Kozmetsky and
Kircher:
Since 1950 . . . the growth of interest in electronics among businessmen has been remarkable. Articles in popular magazines have heralded the new "electronic brains." Professional journals, and meetings of pro fessional societies have discussed the potential of this new equipment. Orders for hundreds of computers of all sizes have been placed by businessmen.-^
Another statement by Hattery and Bush is indicative of the
potential contribution of computers to business data processing:
The potential contribution of electronics is gen erally acknowledged. Experience already reported along with concurrent developments in management such as the use of mathematical techniques in management decision-making, indicates the trend is sharply up ward in appreciating the possible aids to management which high-speed computing or data-processing equip ment can provide. The growing number of successful applications in payroll, cost analysis, logistics problems and other areas point the way unmistakably.-^
In a more recent article, the editors of The Office reported on
a survey of 5,000 of their subscribers in regard to office automation
and data processing. Their findings also showed that the advantages of electronic and related data processing equipment are being extended to
Richard G. Canning, Electronic Data Processing for Business and Industry (New York: John Wiley 6c Sons, Inc., 1956), p. 2.
^George Kozmetsky and Paul Kircher, Electronic Computers and Management Control (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1956), p. 7. 17 Lowell H. Hattery and George P. Bush, Electronics in Management (Washington: The University Press of Washington, D. C., 1956), p. 3. 5 office operations at an increasing rate. They reported that about 24 per cent of medium to large companies now have data processing equipment, that another 11 per cent are giving the problem serious study, and that 18 4 per cent actually plan to install such equipment during 1959.
Another indication of the rapid growth in the number of computers
in use was seen in announcements by International Business Machines Cor poration that by November, 1956, they had installed 500 medium-sized computers and 100 large-sized computers, 19 and that by August, 1959, they had installed more than 1,700 small-, medium-, and large-scale systems. 20
The fact that all of the large computers had been installed since April,
1952, and all the medium-sized computers had been installed since Decem ber, 1954, is evidence of the recentness and speed of the adaptation of electronic computers primarily to the processing of business data. 21
In regard to future developments, Becker and Murphy summarize a popular viewpoint that "the impact of automation on office work in the next ten years will be even greater than it has been in the production and manufacturing fields." 22
^"The Advance of Automatic Systems," The Office, Vol. XLIX, No. 1 (January, 1959), pp. 14-15. 19 International Business Machines, We've Come a Long Way Together, (New York: International Business Machines, 1956), p. 1. 20 Charles C. Smith, "Looking Toward the Future," Office Executive Vol. XXXIV, No. 8 (August, 1959), p. 16.
^International Business Machines, op. cit. , p. 4. 22 Esther R. Becker and Eugene F. Murphy, The Office in Transition (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), p. 5. 6
The Problem
Statement of the Problem
Based upon the fact that electronic data processing is a fait
accompli in numerous business and industrial firms and governmental
agencies and that a definite trend toward even greater office auto mation exists with its obvious implications on the pattern of operations
of millions of people at all levels in the administrative structure, it was the purpose of this study to determine what additions and changes
are necessary in the curricular patterns of business students. Specifi
cally, what knowledge, skills, and understandings of electronic data processing should colleges and universities provide their business students?
Purposes
The purposes of this investigation were-—
1. To determine the kinds of computers owned and the uses made
of these computers.
2. To determine the training and educational requirements of:
(a) prospective heads of electronic data processing units,
and (b) managers of other areas who may not be directly
concerned with electronic data processing.
3. To determine what part of these requirements should be
provided in the collegiate school or department of business
and what can or should be provided elsewhere (as in high
school, company, on-the-job, or equipment manufacturer
training programs; or in other collegiate departments); and 7
4. To suggest ways in which collegiate schools or departments
of business may meet those requirements that fall within
their jurisdiction.
Scope
While it is recognized that personnel at all levels in an organ
ization, from the top executives to the operative employees, are involved
in some phase of electronic data processing, this study was concerned
with the educational needs of electronic data processing personnel at the
management level, with special emphasis on the needs of the managerial or
supervisory personnel who are in charge of the analyzers, programmers,
console operators, clerical workers, and others who make up the electron
ic data processing department. The needs of programmers, of console
operators, and of those "make-ready" personnel, such as key-punch opera
tors who prepare the raw data, are the bases for other studies.
The survey included a sampling of computer users in governmental agencies, public utilities, insurance and banking firms, and in a variety of manufacturing concerns. In addition, computer manufacturers, public accounting and management consulting firms, and colleges and universities were surveyed. The sampling was limited to organizations within the
United States.
No attempt was made to survey the numerous organizations using mechanical punch-card equipment, but those primarily concerned with electronic computers and electronic data processing. This, in effect, excluded from the study the small organizations which generally are users of the punched-card equipment. 8
Procedure and Survey Method
Procedure.--The writer--
1. Reviewed the literature on data processing.
2. Attended conferences on data processing.
3. Enrolled in special training courses in data processing.
4. Prepared a trial questionnaire and submitted it to several
educators for their comments.
5. Prepared a final questionnaire from the trial questionnaire.
6. Submitted questionnaires to computer users, computer manu
facturers, colleges and universities, and public accounting
and management consulting firms.
Survey Method.— Although the ideal method for conducting a survey of this type would be through personal interviews, the fact that the respondents are scattered throughout the country precluded the use of that method. Instead, a questionnaire was developed (see Appendix C) which queried the computer users and others about the following topics:
Part A--General
1. The kind of electronic computer system used
2. The percentage of computer time used for business,
scientific, and engineering applications
3. Specific business data processing applications
Part B--Curricular Programs
1. The extent of college education required for electronic
data processing managers
2. Recommended college curriculum for electronic data
processing managers 3. Academic deficiencies in Che educational background of
college graduates applying for positions in electronic
data processing
Part C--Special Electronic Data Processing Courses
1. Ranking and determination of training source of eleven
specialized courses for electronic data processing
managers
2. Determination of the desirability of these courses for
managers other than electronic data processing managers
Part D--Training and Educational Background of the Present Head of the Company Electronic Data Processing Unit
1. The number of years of college education completed and
degrees held
2. Collegiate major and minors token
3. Special electronic data processing courses taken
The three questions of Part A were for determining which elec
tronic computer is being used and the extent and nature of computer
applications. Knowledge of the frequency of application of electronic
data processing to certain business problems such as payroll computation would be helpful in determining the content of college electronic data processing courses.
Of the three questions in Part B, one asked what percentage
should be taken by the prospective electronic data processing manager
from the curricular fields of business administration, liberal arts, mathematics, and electrical engineering. The purpose of this section was to determine the relative importance of these areas in an attempt to 10 answer the question, Is breadth of education rather than specialization wanted in electronic data processing managers?
Part C consisted of eleven suggested areas of specialized elec tronic data processing training such as General Orientation to Electronic
Data Processing. The purpose of this section was to identify and rank these special training needs, and to determine where this training should be provided.
The replies to these questions by the computer users were corre lated with those of the colleges and universities and with the results of the John Diebold & Associates, Inc. study on electronic data process- 23 ing education which was recently completed.
In contrast to Parts B and C which asked for viewpoints as to what the background of electronic data processing managers should be, this section was for determining what actually i£ the background of the present electronic data processing head. In this way actual practice was compared with purported aims to provide significant correlations to fur ther validate the study.
Four hundred and fifty-two questionnaires were sent to various j computer users, representatives of computer manufacturers, public accourfc- ing and management consulting firms., and colleges and universities. Of these, 29 were returned because of improper address (the individuals were no longer with the company, etc.), 19 were unable to answer (usually, no computer), and 15 of the returns from branches of a large corporation
23 John Diebold & Associates, Inc., EDP Education, Part II ("Automatic Data Processing Policy Report 19"; New York: A. D. P. Co., Inc., 1957). 11
were combined Into a single answer, which resulted in an effective mail
ing of 389 questionnaires. From these, 182 usable replies were received,
which was a 46.8 per cent return. Tables 1 and 2 give a detailed analy
sis of the questionnaires sent out and received and the types of organi
zations replying.
Significance of the Various Contributions
Each of the four groups surveyed had its own unique contribution
to make, as their basic orientations differ.
Computer users.--The computer users have a wealth of knowledge
and experience in developing people in the new skills and techniques of
electronic data processing. As these companies have considerable time
and expense invested in computer installations, their very existence
could be jeopardized through errors in judgment concerning selection
and application of equipment and selection and training of personnel.
Consequently, much seasoned thinking has gone into the solution of the various problems involved. This was readily apparent from the many
individualized letters and comments that were returned with the ques
tionnaires .
Computer manufacturers.--As for the computer manufacturers, to
say that they have a vested interest in training personnel is belaboring
the obvious. They had to train personnel for themselves and for their
customers in order to sell their equipment. Each equipment manufacturer
is trying to surpass his competitors by providing better equipment and
better service such as training a staff of personnel for the purchaser of his equipment. TABLE 1
NUMBER OF QUESTIONNAIRES SENT AND REPLIES RECEIVED
Sent Returned Unable Combined Effective Usable Percent To Whom Sent Out "Improper To Returns Mailing Replies Usable Replies Address" Answer Received Received
Computer users 293 25 9 15 244 121 49.6
Computer manufacturers 50 2 1 0 47 26 55.3
Public accounting and consulting firms 27 2 2 0 23 7 30.4
Colleges and universi ties 82 0 7 0 75 28 37.3
Totals 452 29 19 15 389 182 46.8 TABLE 2
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS REPLYING
Computer Users Insurance and Banking ...... 30 Governmental Agencies...... 19 Public Utilities ...... 20 Manufacturing Concerns ...... 52 Total 121
Computer Manufacturers International Business Machines ...... 6 Remington Rand Univac ...... 6 Burroughs ...... 4 Others (Ten firms at one each) ...... 10 Total 26
Public Accounting and Management Consulting Firms Public Accounting Firms . 6 Management Consulting Firms ...... _1 Total 7
Colleges and Universities Universities ...... 20 Colleges ...... 3 Technical Institutes ...... _3 Total 28
GRAND TOTAL 182 14
Thus, the quite specific approach of the computer user, con
cerned with his own immediate problems, can be compared with the some
what broader approach of the computer manufacturer who is concerned with
a variety of customers and applications.
Public accounting and management consulting firms.— Many public
accounting firms have added trained computer specialists to their staffs
as more and more accounting applications are processed on the computers.
Their experience tends to be broader than that of either the computer
users or the computer manufacturers as they deal with a number of
clients using a variety of computers.
A few management consulting firms are now specializing in elec
tronic data processing, and are conducting training courses, conferences,
and seminars in numerous locations around the country. Their experience
is also broad and varied. (The electronic data processing educational
survey of one of these firms is reviewed in Chapter III.)
Colleges and universities.--A number of higher educational insti
tutions, realizing the importance of the computer in a wide variety of
applications, have developed courses and conducted conferences and
seminars on electronic computers. In fact, a number of institutions
have built their own computers.
The faculty of these institutions are providing continuing
leadership through their teaching, writing, research, conference leading,
and other activities. Their viewpoints, which tend to be broader and more detached than the others, are incorporated in this study and form a
significant basis for comparison. 15
How the Respondents were Selected
Many of the respondents are authors. Whenever the address of the author of a book or magazine article pertaining to electronic data processing could be determined, his name was included in the mailing list. Lists of participants in electronic data processing seminars and conferences provided another useful source of contacts. It was assumed that the organizations represented by these conference participants had electronic computers or were contemplating getting them. Of course, in the case of the authors, this frequently was an established fact as they were reporting on their experiences with their new electronic com puter installations.
The list of computer manufacturers was not difficult to obtain.
Getting a sufficient number of names of respondents among the various branch offices, where much of the training takes place, was more diffi cult .
The names of the leading public accounting firms were found in one of their professional journals. 24 The John Diebold, Inc. survey provided the names of colleges and universities that have electronic computer courses.
It was assumed that many of these people, by virtue of being authors, heads of electronic data processing units, branch managers of the computer manufacturers, electronic data processing consultants, or college professors, had done some seasoned, disciplined thinking about the subject which would reflect in their responses to the items in the questionnaires. (The respondents are listed in Appendix D.)
24 Ibid. 16
The Need and Significance of the Study
The extensive introduction of electronic computers for data processing and other applications has created a critical need for greater numbers of more highly skilled personnel. The help wanted sec tions of metropolitan newspapers provide ample evidence of this need.
Attractive inducements are made for electronic data processing managers, programmers, console operators, systems analysts, tabulating equipment supervisors, punched-card machine operators, and many others. To meet these personnel requirements new people need to be trained and present management and operative personnel need to be retrained.
Implicit in the quantitative aspects of training are the quali tative aspects. What kind and how extensive should the training be for these various people? Also, who should provide this training? While considerable effort is being expended on training programs by the several agencies previously mentioned, there has not been much objective research to determine these needs. Such research is needed for counsel ling, guidance, curriculum and program development by the various train ing and education agencies. It is also needed to implement coordination of efforts, thereby eliminating unnecessary duplication of efforts.
This study was intended as a contribution to this body of needed research.
Organization of the Study
This study has been divided into five chapters, four appendixes, and a bibliography. The purpose, importance, scope, and survey method of the study are included in this first chapter. Electronic computers 17
and computer applications are described in Chapter II, Literature on
electronic data processing is surveyed in Chapter III, Chapter IV is
devoted to an analysis of replies to the questionnaires, and the summary, conclusions, and recommendations are made in Chapter V.
Summary
In the last few decades there has been a tremendous increase in the office function, as evidenced by its $100 billion annual cost and its eight million clerical work force. In an effort to achieve greater efficiency from paperwork, communications, and other activities, elec tronic computers are being installed at an unprecedented rate. This change from manual and mechanical to electronic data processing has created a demand for people with the variety of new skills required for exploiting the maximum potential of these electronic devices.
This study was undertaken to determine (1) the training and edu cational needs of those people who head electronic data processing units in the various organizations; (2) the training and educational needs as they relate to electronic data processing of other managers; and (3) who should provide this training and education.
Questionnaires were sent to insurance and banking firms, various agencies of the government, public utilities, various manufacturing con cerns, computer manufacturers, public accounting firms, and colleges and universitites. From these, 182 responses were received. CHAPTER II
ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS AND COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
This chapter consists of a general description of electronic com puter systems and their application to a variety of situations. A brief outline of the various kinds of computers and their basic components is followed by examples of business, governmental, and other computer appli cations. One of the latter, operations research, is treated separately in the last section of the chapter.
Description of Electronic Computer Systems
Computer Components
The five basic components of an electronic computer system are
(1) the input unit, (2) the storage unit, (3) the arithmetic unit,
(4) the control unit, and (5) the output unit.
The input unit.--The input unit is used for entering data and programs of instructions into the computer. Input media may consist of punched cards, paper tape, magnetic tape, or manual entry by means of a typewriter or some other mechanical device. The original data must be converted into the appropriate media for assimilation by the computer.
The storage unit.— The storage unit of the computer may consist of magnetic tapes, discs, or drums; magnetic cores; electrostatic tubes; or acoustic delay lines. Information is stored on magnetic tapes, discs 19 and drums in the form of magnetized spots usually called "binary bits."
The computer recognizes two conditions, the presence or the absence of a magnetized bit. Alphanumeric characters are represented by various com binations of bits of the binary code. The other devices operate on some what the same principle in that the presence of two different conditions is recognized.
Great differences exist in the speed of access to information stored in these various types of storage units. To give a rough indica tion of these speeds, some magnetic drums can provide information in a few thousandths of a second, while magnetic cores can provide data in a few millionths of a second.
The arithmetic unit.--The arithmetic unit consists of adders, multipliers, subtracters, and dividers. These are electronic devices capable of performing the basic arithmetic functions at the rate of several hundred to several thousand computations per second, depending on the size of the machine. Certain logical functions can be performed in the arithmetic unit also, enabling the machine to make comparisons and choose alternate courses of action. For instance, a computer can be programmed to determine whether all, a part, or none of an employee's wages are subject to F.I.C.A. tax. Features such as this enable the computer to process an entire payroll without human intervention.
The control unit.--The control unit operates the computer accord ing to the program of instructions placed into the machine. The control unit examines each instruction, and, on the basis of operation codes and other information in the instruction, it sets up the necessary circuitry to carry out that instruction. Thus, the control unit, by following the 20
program, instructs the computer to take data from the input device,
store the data in specific locations in the storage unit, take data from
storage to the arithmetic unit, perform certain arithmetic or logical
functions, store the results, and produce the required information via
the output unit.
The output unit.--In a number of computers, input and output are
located in the same unit. The same kinds of media may be used for out
put as are used for input. Output may also be in the printed form. A
variety of printers have been developed for this purpose. Speeds vary
greatly with the type of printer, from about ten characters a second on
an electric typewriter to 20,000 characters a second on some of the new
electronic printers.
Computer Speeds
Eckert and Jones sec up a hypothetical problem to give some idea
of the productive speed of computers. They estimated the time required
to solve one thousand multiplication problems, involving ten digit mul
tipliers and multiplicands, to be as follows: (1) by hand with pencil
and paper, one week; (2) with the aid of a key-controlled mechanical
desk calculator, one day; (3) by electro-mechanical calculator with auto
matic reading and writing, one hour; (4) by small electronic calculator,
one minute; and (5) by electronic supercalculator, one second,*-
vf. J. Eckert and Rebecca Jones, Faster, Faster (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), p. 2. 21
Kinds of Computers
UNIVAC and IBM, because of the widespread publicity g.:' /en them as pioneers among computers, are well known by the general public* Com puters, however, are by no means limited to these two. Even a cursory search of the literature reveals that there are many different kinds of computers. One finds analog and digital computers which may be produc tion-model or one-of-a-kind, special-purpose or general-purpose, scien tific or business machines which are further classified as small, medium, or large.
Analog and digital computers.--The electronic digital computer may be compared to a desk calculator in that it uses numbers to perform the basic arithmetic functions and otherwise manipulate and process data.
It may also be compared to the simplest and most ancient form of digital computers which are the ten fingers, except that the electronic computer needs only two "fingers" for its binary arithmetic.
The analog computer may be compared to a thermometer, speedometer, or slide rule in that it can indicate only approximate figures. It uses gear rotation, changes of shaft positions, or changes in electrical volt ages to represent physical changes and variables in the form of mathe matical equations. The analog computer has numerous engineering and scientific applications such as simulating physical conditions in flight patterns of missiles, stresses of materials in constructions, and flow of electricity in utility power grids.
General- and special-purpose computers.— A general-purpose com puter is a standard machine which is used for a great variety of appli 22
cations such as payroll, inventories, accounts receivable, accounts pay
able, statistical analysis, material scheduling, and numerous others.
In contrast, a special-purpose machine is designed to handle a
single or a narrow range of applications.
One might compare a general-purpose computer with a typewriter, which is used for a variety of applications, and a special-purpose machine with a checkwriter, which is used for a single purpose.
Scientific and business computers.--Some computers are designed
primarily for scientific applications and others primarily for business
applications. Modifications are made in the basic computer design to
accommodate special features such as floating decimal point, single
instruction square root, simultaneous division and multiplication in
scientific computers, and large storage capacity or fast input-output
in business data computers.
Some of these computers may be used for both business and
scientific applications, in spite of their primary designations, and,
therefore, are classified as general-purpose machines. Others are more
restricted in their use, and,therefore, are classified as special-purpose machines.
Small, medium, and large computers.— Computers may be further classified as small, medium, or large. The criteria used for these classifications include price, size and type of storage, speed of access, and physical dimensions. Price, as the other criteria tend to be included in this, seems to be the most common criterion used.
The small computer systems are those priced below $50,000 for outright purchase. Digital computers in this category include Monroe 23
Calculating Machine Company’s Monrobot IX, Royal McBee Corporation's
LGP-30, Burroughs Corporation's ElOl, and Underwood Corporation's
ELECOM 50.
The medium computers are those costing more than $50,000 but less
than $1 million. Some of the more popular digital computers of this size
are International Business Machine's IBM 650 and RAMAC, Remington Rand's
File Computer and UNIVAC 120, and Electrodata Corporation's DATATRON.
The large computers are those priced at $1 million and over. Digi
tal computers included in this price range are Datamatic Corporation's DA-
TAMATIC 1000, International Business Machine's 700 series computers, Radio
Corporation of America's BIZMAC, and Remington Rand's UNIVAC I and II.
Computer Applications
Business Data Processing Applications
The periodical literature contains literally hundreds of articles
on business data processing applications. Some of the more common ones
are mentioned below.
Insurance applications.--Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada
installed a Remington Rand UNIVAC II computer to handle a wide range of specific functions both in the actuarial and accounting sides of the business. Their mortality research studies, which they regarded as im possible or prohibitively expensive by conventional methods, and 43,000 mortgage loans totaling $512 million were successfully handled by com- 2 puter.
R. T. Wiseman, "Electronic Mortgage Accounting," Systems, Vol. XXIII, No. 3 (May-June, 1959), p. 8. 24
The Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company at Milwaukee,
Wisconsin installed an IBM 705 for premium billing, premium payments,
dividend calculation and application, automatic premium loans charged,
nonforfeiture and termination values, policy loan interest billing, loan
payments of interest and principal, file maintenance, commission calcu
lation and payment, reserve valuation, and accounting and statistical 3 totals.
Inventory applications.--Westinghouse Electric Corporation at
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, used leased-wire communications of orders and
an IBM 305 RAMAC to make an inventory of 5,500 warehoused items readily
available to twenty Central Region sales offices and the customers they 4 serve.
Factory Motor Parts, Incorporated, at San Francisco, California,
also used an IBM 305 RAMAC for handling their inventory problems. The computer performed the overall job of accounting for and analyzing the operations involved in maintaining 25,000 inventory items for their
2,500 customers. The computer facilitated the application of the prin ciple of management by exception in that only the exceptional situations were brought to the attention of the management. For example, whenever a customer exceeded his credit limit, their data processing machine flagged it automatically and it was turned over to the credit manager
3 Charles G. Groeschell, "Full Employment for Computer," Paperwork Simplification, No. 51 (Third Quarter, 1958), p. 5. 4 Frank H. Muns, "Improved Inventory Availability," Paperwork Simplification, No. 52 (First Issue, 1959), pp. 4-5. 25 for action. In the same manner, only the inventory items needing re- 5 plenishment were brought to the attention of the management.
Payroll applications.--General Electric's Major Appliance Divi sion in Appliance Park, Kentucky, used a Remington Rand UNIVAC I for their payroll of over 12,000 persons. They calculated the pay, printed the necessary documents, payroll registers, pay checks, and labor cost distribution sheets in a little over seven hours of computer time. With the computer, the job was done reliably and at reduced cost. f t
Before General Shoe Company installed an IBM 650 computer, it took 800 man hours and over 20 accountants to make up their 8,000 em ployee payroll. After the installation, it took 20 hours with the one machine and two operators.^
Sales applications.--Pabst Brewing Company's UNIVAC 120 handled the accounting, sales, and distribution reports for its Chicago office.
The computer system prepared customer acknowledgments, factory shipping requisitions, bills of lading, dispatches and invoices, schedule of pro duction facilities, orders for supplies, sales accounting, payroll account- Q ing, and budget and inventory control of Pabst's advertising materials.
Filing applications.— Michigan Hospital Service installed a Data- raatic 1000 which handled an average of 25,000 record changes and transac-
5 Charles F. Clayton, "EDP in the Smaller Company," Paperwork Simplification, No. 50 (Second Quarter, 1958), pp. 4-5.
6Bell, op. cit.. p. 296.
^Ross L. Homen, "General Shoe Payroll Time Cut 98 Per Cent," American Business, Vol. XXVI, No. 9 (September, 1956), p. 18.
«M. F. Hepple, "Computer Does Pabst's Sales Accounting," The Office. Vol. XLVI (September, 1957), p. 102. 26 tions daily. With this system, all permanent records involving
3,700,000 members were stored on only 20 reels of tape. In addition to cost reduction, the system offered the advantage of continuous compila tion, updating and processing of subscriber records upon which daily 9 decisions could be made.
Governmental Applications
Numerous computers have been installed by various agencies of the government. In fact, they have been among the first to use the com puters for data processing. In 1890 the U. S. census takers started the trend toward office automation when the first punched-card system was developed to process data taken in the census. Again in 1931, the Census
Bureau blazed the trail by installing the first UNIVAC.^
The U. S. Old Age and Survivors Insurance offices in Baltimore purchased an IBM 705 computer to process the millions of social security records.^
One of the respondents to this survey, a Major General from the
Office of the Comptroller of the Army, stated that the Department of the
Army has installed, or has approved for installation, twenty-two electron ic digital computers at various locations which are for use in business- type operations.
^WilBam S. McNary, "Giant Brain Makes Detroit Debut," Office Executive, Vol. XXXIII, No. 4 (April, 1958), p. 22.
^"Jobs on Electronic Office Machines," Changing Times, Vol. XI (September, 1957), p. 31.
11Ibid. p. 32 27
Another respondent, a staff member of the Data Systems Research
Staff and Comptroller for the Office of the Secretary of Defense, said that his replies referred to some 100 Defense computer installations devoted to business-type operations.
Other Computer Applications
While many people are familiar with the use of electronic com puters in various business-type applications, it may come as a surprise to some that the computers have invaded almost every field of endeavor.
Some of the applications which follow may seem unusual and others amusing; however, the importance of most of these cannot very well be minimized.
Military applications.— The Hughes Aircraft Company which pro duced the Convair F-106 Air Force fighter has developed a computer to do its navigation and interception of enemy aircraft. This computer which weighs 120 pounds and occupies about four cubic feet in the nose of the plane is called the "Digitair." According to the article:
The Digitair was designed to provide automatic navi gation of the F-106 to the target area by means of ground- transmitted data link commands, ground based Tacan signals, or dead reckoning if the former are not available. The computer develops steering commands for the auto pilot and display information for the cockpit and radar scope, Hughes says .
When the interceptor is close enough to target for its own airborne radar to lock onto the target, Digitair switches over to use radar data to compute steering commands and dis play information. Computer also determines when air-to-air missiles should be lowered into firing position, armed and fired. * . After the attack, the computer again takes over and flies the fighter back to its b a s e .
12 "F-106 Computer Navigates, Intercepts," Aviation Weekly. Vol. LXVII (December 16, 1957), p. 105. 28
Early in 1957 the R.C.A. people developed a computer called the
"Bizmac." Its first job was to keep track of all the spare parts for
Army tank and automotive vehicles the world over. The Bizmac is located at the Detroit Ordnance Tank-Automotive Command headquarters. R.C.A. states that the Bizmac cost $4,100,000, that it occupies 20,000 square feet of floor space, weighs 217 tons and can "remember" more than 100 13 million pieces of information.
Philological applications.--A computer was used in preparing a concordance (a word index) of the Bible. The whole text of the Bible in the Revised Standard Version was recorded on punched cards. From the cards, through Remington Rand's UNIVAC and 80 miles of tape, UNIVAC spent only 400 hours on the concordance, while the King James Version Concor dance of 1894 took 30 years in the m a k i n g . ^
The International Business Machines Corporation and the Roman
Catholic church also recently collaborated on a massive word puzzle.
They compiled a concordance of the 13-million-word complete works of
Saint Thomas Aquinas. This task, if done by human minds, would have taken more than a lifetime of a scholar.^
Musical applications.--Mr. L. A. Hiller, Jr. and Mr. L. M.
Isaacson of the University of Illinois turned the University's ILLIAC computer into a composer.
13 "Editorial Notes," Fortune, Vol. LV (April, 1957), p. 118.
^"Bible Labor of Years is Done in 400 Hours," Life, Vol. XLII, No. 7 (February 18, 1957), p. 92. 15 "Sacred Electronics and St. Thomas Aquinas," Time, Vol. LXVIII (December 31, 1956), p. 48. 29
According to Carpenter--
They began the task by setting the computer to pro duce a series of random numbers, each number corres ponding to a note on the musical scale. Each number was subjected by the electronic brain to a series of tests expressing various rules of musical composition. Notes which did not meet the requirements were dis carded automatically. . . If accepted, the note was used to build up a "composition" and stored in the computer's famous "memory" until the completed composition was ready to be printed out. The now famous Illiac Suite, played at the Association for Computing Machinery Con vention, was composed that w a y . 16
Meteorological applications.--An example of computer usage in the field of Meteorology is seen in its use to control the floods which occur so often in this country. According to Lear--
Professor J. J. Stoker of New York University has worked out mathematical equations to tell which tribu tary of a rising river to dam up first, when to open and shut the sluice gates all along the waterway, how to predict the swell of a torrent, and where to place future dams to prevent recurrence of a flood threat.
With the help of a UNIVAC computer and his for mulas he accurately forecasts an actual flood crest on the Ohio River within less than an inch and a half of the true level of the water. It took two hours to predict what the Ohio River would do two weeks in the future along its 375 miles of meandering from Wheeling, West Virginia, to Cincinnati. 17
Astronomical applications.--A computer-linked measuring system is now being developed at the University of California's Lick Observatory,
Mt. Hamilton, California. According to the article—
The equipment is designed to analyze data gathered in a sky-mapping project started ten years ago by
16 Allan Carpenter, "Amazing New Uses for Robot Brains," Science Digest, Vol. XLI, No. 2 (February, 1957), p. 2.
■^John Lear, "Figuring a Flood," Saturday Review, Vol. XL (April 6, 1957), p. 41. 30
Dr. C. D. Shane, director of Lick. . . The project's main objective is to determine the internal rotation of the Milky Way Galaxy and the galaxy's rotation relative to other galaxies, which are now known.
Photographical applications.--The National Bureau of Standards recently demonstrated that its digital computer can scan and reproduce pictures. A photograph was mounted on a rotating metal drum and scanned optically by a photo-multiplier cell. The data received from the scan ning was stored as numerical information in the memory of the computer.
The information was then transferred electronically to an oscilloscope where the image was reproduced.
Routines were worked out to enable the computer "to count the number of objects in a picture, evaluate the area of each object, and
disregard irrelevant images such as specks of dust on the photograph.
Medical applications.--With the assistance of a giant computer, the "SWAC" at the University of California, the precise three-dimensional chemical structure of vitamin B-12 was determined. According to the article:
B-12 is the largest and most complex molecule to be defined in complete detail. . . The complete pic ture of the B-12 molecule should shed new light on blood-building processes, of which the vitamin is an essential part. The extensive and successful use of SWAC in processing the vast amount of data may prove a boom to biochemists, who have shunned many struc tural problems of the large molecules because of the overwhelming computations which are involved. . . Lightning-fast calculations by SWAC made it possible to probe and eliminate many mathematical blind alleys,
18 "Star Positions Computed," Science News Letter, Vol. LXXIII, (February 1, 1938), p. 85.
^9"SEAC Takes Picture," Science News Letter, Vol. LXIII, No. 9 (March 8, 1958), p. 151. 31
in which scientists using conventional techniques would have been bogged down.
Wall Street applications.— A Datatron electronic computer was
installed in the office of Standard and Poor's^ Inc. to compile the broadest-based stock index yet used. The index is calculated by com puter every trading hour to record the collective movements of 500 common stocks. According to the writer, the biggest service of the electronic index was to "supply a figure that will stick relatively close to the actual dollar value of the stocks. That's something that the market followers, both pro and amateur, have always lacked."21
^ Operations Research
The first part of Chapter 1 outlined the problems of the office function, and the discussion up to this point has been concerned with the use of the electronic computer primarily for the solution of these paperwork problems.
Paperwork, however, is not the only management problem. In this complex, dynamic, highly automated society of ours, executives are confronted with increasingly more complicated problem situations-- situations characterized by a host of new variables and new uncertain ties which complicate decision making. Furthermore, the competitive situation is such that rough, rule-of-thumb measures are no longer adequate for directing the progress of a large organization. As
20 "Computer Helps Find Vitamin B-12 Structure," Science News Letter, Vol. LXVII, No. 15 (October 8, 1955), p. 237. 21 'Market Measured in a Flash; Datatron Electronic Computer," Business Week, (March 9, 1957), p. 43. 32
expressed by Grabbe, "In this m o d e m jet age, management cannot navigate
by 'the seat of the pants.'
Finke states:
To cope with these mushrooming complications, to keep from getting lost in a labyrinth of detail, today's executive needs fewer, rather than more, facts. But he needs usable facts: facts that are current as of the moment he receives them; facts that simplify the complex interrelationships of the various aspects of business. In short, he needs a tool and a technique that can reduce a host of factors and considerations to clearly state alternative courses of action, with the consequences of each.
Operations research is such a technique and the electronic com
puter is such a tool.
Definitions and Characteristics of Operations Research
According to Kimball and Morse, "Operations research is a
scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative
basis for decisions regarding the operations under their control."^
According to Pocock, "Operations research is a scientific methodoiogy-~analytical, experimental, quantitative--which, by assessing the over-all implications of various alternative courses of action in a
22E. M. Grabbe, Automation in Business and Industry (New York; John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957), p. 333. 23 Walter W. Finke, "Introduction: Making Tomorrow Today's Business," Operations Research Reconsidered, AMA Management Report 10 (New York: American Management Association, 1958), p. 7.
A / George E. Kimball and Philip M. Morse, Methods of Operations Research (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1951), p. 1. 33 management system, provides an improved basis for management deci sions . 25
Johnson gives his definition of what operations research offers to management:
Operations research is the prediction and comparison of the values, effectiveness, and cost of a set of pro posed alternative courses of action involving man-machine systems. To do this, it uses a model of the action that has been developed analytically by a logical and, when feasible, a mathematical methodology. The values of the basic action parameters are derived from historical analysis of past actions or from designed operational experiments. Most importantly, because all human and machine factors are meant to be included, an estimate of the uncertainty in the predicted outcome and in the values, effectivenesses, and costs of the proposed action is p r o v i d e d . 26
Pocock's list of the characteristics of the operations research approach helps to suranarize the concepts presented in the preceding definitions:
1. Operations research is concerned with the problems of business operations as a system.
2. Operations research utilizes the scientific method in that it is analytical, experimental, and quan titative.
3. Operations research borrows successful methodologies from all the various branches of science.
4. The operations research approach almost invariably involves model building, which is fundamental to the
25 John W. Pocock, "Operations Research: A Challenge to Manage ment ," Operations Research, A Basic Approach, Special Report No. 13 (New York: American Management Association, 1956), p. 9.
9 A Ellis A. Johnson, "Introduction: The Executive, The Organi zation, and Operations Research," Operations Research for Management, eds. Joseph F. McCloskey and Florence N. Trefethen (Baltimore; The Johns Hopkins Press, 1954), pp. xxiii-xxiv. 34
scientific approach. There are many types of models--simulation, mathematical, physical.
5. An operations research study almost invariably involves predicting the effects of alternate courses of action.^7
Techniques of Operations Research
A host of new terms identify the techniques of operations research. An examination of the literature on operations research reveals terms such as Boolean algebra, game theory, information theory, linear programming, model building, Monte Carlo techniques, organiza tion theory, queueing theory, search theory, simulation, symbolic logic, value theory, etc.
Pocock gives a brief description of some of these:
Queueing theory. Queueing theory develops the relationships that are involved in waiting in line. Customers awaiting service, planes waiting to land, machines awaiting the repair crew, items of produc tion line awaiting inspection--all are typical of the problems that may be approached by the methods of queueing theory.
Game theory. The study of competition between two main factions establishes a mathematical model that can be manipulated for the purpose of deter mining one player's best strategy and most likely gain. So far, this technique and its application have been developed chiefly by the military, although some work has been done in applying game theory to the timing of advertising.
Search theory. The study of minimizing the effort required to locate an object--or search theory--arose chiefly from the military problem of locating enemy submarines with limited detection resources. To date, it has had a very limited application to specialized marketing situations.
Pocock, op. cit., p . 10. 35
Symbolic Logic, The algebra of logic substitutes symbols for words, propositions, classes cf things, or functional systems* There have been only faltering attempts to apply this technique to business problems; however, it has had extensive implications in the logical design of computing machinery.
Information theory. An analytical process transfer red from the electrical communications field to operations research presumes to evaluate the effectiveness of infor mation flow within a given system. Despite its applica tion mainly to communications networks, it has had an indirect influence in stimulating the examination of busi ness organizational structures with a view to improving information or communication flow.
Value theory. Value theory is a process of assigning numerical significance to the worth of alternative choices. To date, this has been only a theoretical concept, and is in the status of elementary model formulation and experi mentation. When and if developed, this technique should be most helpful in assessing the worth of the various conclusions in the decision-making process.
Robinson describes linear programming as "the repetitive solu tion of a number of linear equations. . . as a means of systematically 29 reducing the mass of solutions. . . into an orderly procedure."
The Monte Carlo technique of simulation Is described by Calhoun and Green as "an attempt to characterize the real system under study by means of a descriptive model of that system which can be manipulated and with which various alternates can be tested by simulation without touching the real counterpart of the model."30
OO Ibid., pp. 17-18. 2.9 Patrick J. Robinson, "OR Techniques in Marketing Research," Operations Research Applied, Special Report No. 17 (New York: American Management Association, 1957), p. 40. 30 S. Reed Calhoun and Paul E. Green, "Simulation: Versatile Aid to Decision-Making," Advanced Management (April, 1958), p. 11. 36
Operations Research Applications
Since its first application on military problems just before the
outbreak of World War II, operations research has been extended to numer
ous problems in business and industry. Following are examples of some
of these operations research applications in military, marketing distri
bution, company planning and control, and production problems.
Military applications.--In 1939 British scientists used opera
tions research techniques on the problems of "integrating the newly deve
loping radar system of early warning against enemy air attack with the 31 older system of operational control based on the Observer Corps."
Operations research techniques were also used by the British and
Americans in problems "concerning the detection of ships and submarines 32 by the use of radar equipment on airplanes", concerning the "relation
ships between the number of bomb casualties and the bomb load dropped on 33 34 a given area"; of making antisubmarine air actions more effective;
and concerning the most effective size of merchant convoys "in terms both of minimum losses from submarine action and of minimum escort require- _ „35 ments."
Marketing and distribution applications.--Robinson reported that
Imperial Oil Limited of Toronto, Canada applied an operations research technique called "operations simulation" on inventory control, ordering,
3l xFlorence N. Trefethen, "A History of Operations Research," Operations Research for Management, p. 5.
~*^Ibid., p. 6. ^ Ibid. , p. 7. ^ I b i d . , p. 8. ^~*Ibid. , p. 9. 37
and distribution problems. This involved the use of a computer to pre- 36 test the proposed changes before they were actually put into operation.
Linear programming techniques were also used in determining the
location of field warehouses 3 7 and in evaluating the advertising expendi
tures .3®
Company planning and control applications.--The Wood Conversion
Company used the operations research concept of examining systems as a whole in developing its long-range plans for product diversification. 39
According to McGervey the benefits derived from this approach were as follows:
The use of operational procedures enabled us to make predictions of the condition of our system at various times in the future wherein the potential of new products were superimposed upon the present products at their forecast rate. In this way, we were able to set up a series of alternatives and choose a tentative plan, which we believed to pro vide the optimum relationship of risk and reward.^0
Production applications.--The Mueller Brass Company applied
linear programming to its production problems. In one specific
3 6 Robinson, op. cit., pp. 29-35.
~^Ibid. , pp. 38-40.
38Ibid., pp. 40-41. 39 Paul J. McGervey, Jr., "Integrating Product Development with Long-Range Company Plans," Operations Research Applied, Special Report No. 17, pp. 81-85. 40 Ibid., p. 85. 38 application, that of machine-load scheduling, it was able to reduce idle time from a 7 per cent to 1 per cent,^-*-
Argus Cameras, Inc. has also used linear programming in 42 scheduling.
A Survey of Company Practices and Progress in Operations Research
In February, 1957, David B. Hertz, Manager of Operations Re search, Arthur Anderson and Company, asked 5,325 individuals repre senting 3,150 companies questions about operations research. He re ceived 729 usable replies from 631 different companies.4^
Of the 631 companies responding, 324 (or 51.3 per cent) re ported they are using operations research; 144 reported they are con sidering it; and 163 reported that they do not intend to enter the field.44
The 51.3 per cent of companies reported as using operations research in 1957 represents a substantial gain over those reported in the Case Institute survey in 1955, where 27.4 per cent (85 out of 310) of the companies surveyed were using operations research.4"*
41 Ernest Schlensener, "Establishing Optimum Machine Loading," Operations Research Applied, Special Report No. 17, pp. 154-157.
4^James F. Brinkerhoff, "The Decision to Make or Purchase," Operations Research Applied, Special Report No. 17, p. 110. 43 David B. Hertz, "Industrial Operations Research in the United States," Operations Research Reconsidered, AMA Management Report 10, pp. 23-26.
44Ibid., p. 26-27.
45Ibid., p. 23. 39
Kinds of concerns using operations research.--Table 3 shows the distribution of operations research activities by kinds of industrial and other concerns and the operations research personnel employed by each.
The largest number of replies were received from companies in chemical and allied products, electrical and electronic, and machinery
(including motor vehicles). However, aircraft manufacturing reported the largest total number (236) of operations research personnel and the largest average number (19.7) of operations research personnel per group.
The over-all average for all industries was 6.5 personnel per group.
Hertz stated that "this predominant role is explained in part by the fact that all of the aircraft companies, in describing their work, mentioned being engaged in military operations analysis--aithough not necessarily exclusively. ,|4^
Applications.--Table 4 shows the number and kinds of operations research applications made by the various concerns.
Operations research applications were reported by 211 companies.
Of these, 72 per cent indicated that operations research had been applied to production problems. According to Hertz, "production problems were important in all categories except aircraft, transportation, utilities, and the financial, banks, and insurance companies category.
In regard to long-range planning, Hertz states:
The growing understanding in industry that OR applies to over-all problems is strikingly shown by the 68.8 per cent of the companies that report attacking long-
46Ibid., p. 27.
4 ^Ibid., p. 33. 40
TABLE 3
SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO SURVEY ON OPERATIONS RESEARCH ACTIVITY
No. of No. Total OR Average No. Class if icat ion Company Us ing Personnel OR Personnel Replies OR Per Group
Chemical & allied products 115 65 112 3. 7
Miscellaneous manufacturing 94 33 95 4.3
Machinery & motor vehicles 84 44 149 10.1
Electrical machinery and electronic mfg. 83 51 121 4.7
Metals (primary and fabrication) 54 25 90 5.6
Miscellaneous non- manufacturing 55 27 45 7.5
Utilities 36 17 34 8.3
Food 33 18 19 3.1
Financial, banks, and insurance companies 32 11 31 5.2
Aircraft manufacturing 23 19 236 19.7
Transportat ion 16 8 39 4.9
TOTALS 631* 324* 971 6.5
*Totals include six companies reporting the use of OR which could not be classified in any of the categories shown.
Source: David B. Hertz, "Inudstrial Operations Research in the United States," Operations Research Reconsidered, AMA Report Ho. 10 (New York: American Management Association, 1958), p. 28. 41
TABLE 4
FREQUENCY OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
Number of Per Cent of Application Responses Responses
TOTAL RESPONDENTS REPLYING . . , 100.0
Production ...... 72.0
Long-Range Planning ...... „ ,, . . . 145 68.8
Sales & Marketing ...... 136 64.4
Inventory ...... , . . . 135 64.0
Transportation & Shipping ...... , . . . 95 44.0
Top Management ...... 92 43.6
Res earch ...... , . . . 90 42.7
Finance ...... , . . . 87 41.2
Accounting ...... , . . . 72 34.1
Purchas in g ...... 50 23.7
Personnel ...... , . . . 48 22.8
Advertising ...... 20 9.0
Source: David B. Hertz, "Industrial Operations Research in the United States," Operations Research Reconsidered, AMA Report No. 10 (New York: American Management Association, 1958), p. 28. range planning problems. My experience indicates that three or four years ago only a small part of OR interest was devoted to such problems.^®
Results achieved.-~0f the 288 companies that replied to the
question asking what results had been achieved from their operations
research activities, 167 felt it was too early to tell, 75 said there
had been considerable improvement in operations, and 55 indicated
appreciable savings.
As a result of operations research programs, present and/or
future savings of more than $100,000 were reported by 17 companies,
savings of more than $1 million were reported by five companies, and
savings of more than $2 million were reported by two companies.
The basic units of electronic computers are (1) input,
(2) storage, (3) arithmetic, (4) control, and (5) output. Various
types of media, such as punched cards and magnetic tapes are used for
input and output.
Electronic computers manipulate data in terms of thousandths
and millionths of a second. They can be programmed to determine and
select alternate courses of action to process a complete application without human intervention.
A great variety of analog and digital computers of various
sizes are produced by the equipment manufacturers. Their prices vary
from less than $50,000 to more than $1 million. Electronic computers are used for a great variety of applications by organizations representing almost every field of endeavor.
A new and highly important use of electronic computers is in operations research. While not all applications require the use of computers, they have been found extremely useful where masses of data or extensive computations have made'other methods too slow, too costly, or otherwise unfeasible. CHAPTER III
SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE ON ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING EDUCATION
Training Programs
Programs for developing personnel for electronic data processing have been devised by computer manufacturers, computer users, colleges and universities, professional management societies, and management con sulting firms.
These programs consist of electronic data processing courses and other educational media such as meetings, forums, clinics, conferences, visitations, reading materials, etc.
What has been done by each training agency and how and why these various programs were developed form the basis of comparison as to what should be done, according to the responses to the questionnaire in this study.
Training Programs of Computer Manufacturers
Computer manufacturers were quick to learn that it requires more than producing a good computer to become a success in this field. Learn ing this was a bitter experience for the computer manufacturer leading the field during the early part of the 1950's. An account of this is given by Harris:
The No. 1 problem of the big fellows is selling— and keeping customers satisfied once they have been
44 45
sold. If Remington Rand had known how to sell and keep its customers happy, it would almost surely been wearing I.B.M.'s crown today. For Rand got started first with the UNIVAC in 1950, and when the market opened in 1953, I.B.M. didn't even have a competitive product. I.B.M. did develop a scien tific computer in 1951, and it delivered twelve of them in 1953, but it had no computer for business use. The battle between these two for primacy in the computer field is a classic in industrial war fare. There never has been a sharper clash, never a more complete victory snatched suddenly from defeat.^
Thus, the computer manufacturers learned about keeping customers satisfied from the mistakes made by Remington Rand. International Busi ness Machine's former policy of not selling its computers, but renting them instead, contributed to the same end, as customers renting equip ment could return it whenever they became dissatisfied.
Having profited from their earlier mistakes, the manufacturers intensified their efforts in developing better training programs and providing better service.
Now the purchase of a computer usually entitles the customer not only to training for a basic staff of programmers, operators, and main tenance personnel, but also to consultation service at no additional cost.
Remington Rand UNIVAC program.— The following sequence of four courses offered by Remington Rand UNIVAC is typical of those offered by the major computer manufacturers.
No. 001, Introduction to Computers, is a two-week course for business executives, tabulating equipment supervisors, systems and
^William B. Harris, "The Astonishing Computers," Fortune (June, 195 7), p. 139. 46 methods analysts, and members of electronic evaluation committees* The course objective is "to provide a general understanding of the universal techniques for applying general-purpose electronic computers to business 2 problems."
The course consists of--
Basic components of computers, approached by analogy to a typical payroll clerical operation--the short in struction code--methods of instructing computer to per form basic data-processing operations--use of magnetic tape as a medium for processing and storing permanent records--methods of sorting, merging, and collating on computers--detailed description of a typical data-process- ing problem--brief description of current methods for re presenting, storing, and manipulating information in a computer--demonstration of a simple problem on UNIVAC. Four hours of lecture and four hours of supervised study each day.3
No. 002, Programming I, is a six-week course for individuals desiring to become expert programmers, and has the objective "to provide a thorough understanding of the basic techniques for application of the
UNIVAC System to the data-processing problems of business."^
The description for this course is as follows:
Five fundamental components of computers--organi zation of memory and the address concept--special registers--representation of information--binary and coded decimal representations--concepts of pro gramming- -the system code--iterative coding--special techniques--generalized overflow--simple editing examples--item layout and manipulation--variable connectors— multiple tape input problems--sorting, merging, and collating methods for magnetic tape computers--detailed description of a typical data- processing problem applied to the UNIVAC System.
2 Remington Rand, Catalogue of Courses in Electronic Computers, 1955-1956 (New York: By the author, 1955), p. 2.
3Ibid. 4 Ibid. 47
Description of logical building blocks— detailed logic of a simple computer--individual preparation and solution of a problem of modest complexity on the system. Illustrative problems from typical applications will be assigned and discussed throughout the course. Four hours of lecture and four hours of supervised study each day.^
No. 003, Programming II, is a six-week course for individuals desiring to become expert programmers. The course objective is "to provide an understanding of advanced programming principles required for the most efficient applications of the UNIVAC System."^
This course consists of--
Introduction to standard service routines-- minimum latency coding--analysis of common program ming errors— use of tape identification blocks— meth ods for reconstructing a problem in event of computer error--detailed analysis of sorting routines on UNIVAC, brief introduction to automatic programming— program ming for the High-Speed Printer and other UNIVAC auxiliaries— additional techniques for using input buffer8--solution of a major problem, including analysis, flow-charting, coding, checking, and running on the system. Introduction to the detailed logic of the UNIVAC System, stressing techniques of inter rupting normal machine operation for purposes of pro gram checking. Topics covered include detailed opera tion of each instruction, sequencing of instructions, and error-detecting circuits. Four hours of lecture and four hours of supervised study each day.7
The last course in this training series, No. 020, Logical Opera tion, is a six-week course for operation and maintenance personnel. Its objective is "to provide a fundamental understanding of the UNIVAC Sys tem for those who might be called upon to serve as operators or main tenance technicians.
5Ibid. 6Ibid. 7Ibid. 8Ibid. 48
The description of this course is as follows:
Brief study of the use of the instruction code in computer applications--detailed presentation of the basic logic of UNIVAC— operation of arith metic, input-output, and control circuits-- logical operation of all instructions--use of supervisory control in normal running and in trouble shooting. Four hours of lecture and four hours of supervised study each day.9
A course similar to Programming I has been offered (at Remington
Rand's expense) to college professors. The purpose of the course is to
prepare these people for teaching similar courses in their own schools.
The writer took this course in June, 1957, when Remington Rand
scheduled it on the University of Chicago campus. This course consisted of lectures and laboratory work eight hours a day, five days a week, for
six weeks.
International Business Machines program.--Courses similar to the four offered by Remington Rand are also offered by International Business
Machines Corporation.
They also offer a course free of charge to college professors.
For example, An Introduction to Data Processing for Professors in Schools of Business Administration, was scheduled at the IBM School, Endicott,
New York, in August, 1958. The outline of this three-week course is as follows:
I. Fundamentals of Data Processing a. Unit records and their handling b. Stored program concepts c. Laboratory practice with 650
9Ibid. 49
II. Applications a. Accounting b. Marketing c. Banking d. Transportation e. Economics £. Statistics g. Production h. Management
III. Data Processing in Business Administration Curricula a. Existing courses b. Outlook
IV. Research Topics in Data Processing
V. Models of Business Systems a. Teaching tools b. Research tools c. Participants '*playM managemert: garne.^®
The International Business Machines Corporation has an intensive
eighteen-month executive training program for its management trainees.
The program is divided into seven phases. Phase I consists of eight weeks at the education center learning about punched card equipment
and applications. Phase II consists of fourteen to eighteen weeks of branch office experience in operation, installation, and selling problems
as they relate to punched card equipment. The trainee also has an
opportunity to teach some of the units in the first phase and to assist
in selling. In Phase III the trainee goes back to the education center
for four weeks of training on more advanced machines such as the IBM 305,
IBM 610, and IBM 650. In Phase IV, the trainee goes back again to the branch office for seven to nine weeks of training devoted to installation
International Business Machines, An Introduction to Data Process ing for Professors in Schools of Business Administration, A Three-week Seminar, August 11-29, 1958 (Endicott, New York; International Business Machines, 1958). 50
problems, applied science applications, and teaching. Phase V consists
of five weeks of application school where the trainee learns about the
IBM 704, IBM 705, and the IBM 7070, and their applications. In Phase VI
the trainee gets twenty-five to thirty weeks of branch office training
which consists of observing and assisting in sales activities. Inter
spersed in this time are five weeks of formal schooling in applications
of the 700 series of computers. Phase VII consists of four weeks of
sales school, which completes the program.
Limitations of computer manufacturers' schools.--While manufac
turers' courses for programmers and operators are generally excellent,
there are some drawbacks and limitations to their use. According to
Diebold--
The major drawback to this avenue is that in relation to the numbers needing and desiring EDP education, there are too few manufacturers' schools. A second limitation of these schools is their special ized level. . . The result of attending only one of these schools is not unlike studying political science at the local Republic or Democratic headquarters.12
Professional Management Organization Training Programs
American Management Association training programs.--The American
Management Association in August, 1958, conducted the one-week workshop
seminar, Electronic Data Processing— Installing and Administering Elec
tronic Data Processing Systems, described on the next page.
^ F r o m notes taken by the writer when he attended the "IBM Seminar for University Professors and Placement Officials" at the Dis trict 10 Education Center, Detroit, Michigan on March 12, 1959. 12 Diebold, op. cit., p. 5. 51
Considerations for Utilization of EDP: What are (or were) management's objectives? Impact on manage ment decision-making, company organization structure, employees and customers* The feasibility study. Proving out the original economic estimates. Role of outside consultants and equipment manufacturers. Vis ual record considerations. Adapting equipment to operations or vice versa. The Hardware: Needs and expectations. Availability. Special purpose and general purpose computers. Input speed and accuracy. Random access and serial operations. Service, main tenance and stand-by equipment. Purchase vs. rental. Accuracy. Hi-speed printers. Manufacturer training programs and assistance by manufacturer in the installa tion. Organization of the EDP Group: Responsibility for supervision, systems design, programming, site preparation. Relationship of EDP staff with systems group, E.A.M. groups, operating departments, multi-location personnel. Recruit ing, selecting, training, and salaries of EDP group. Planning the Installation; Modifications of original plan. Integration and control of changes and new ideas. Cen tralized vs. decentralized operation. Diagramming and coding. Debugging. Auditing system controls. System controls for accuracy. Planning delivery. Site prepara tion. Recruiting, selecting, training, and salaries of EDPM operators. Writing procedures. Employee relations and the problem of displaced employees. Changing pay levels. Conversion: Parallel operations. Pilot testing. Program modification. Storage of tapes, cards, forms, records. Additional help requirements. Scheduling cut over of applications. Normal Administration and Control of Installation: Refinement of procedures and programming. New areas of study. Opportunities for Improving the System: Applications and their economics. Automatic Frogranming. Toward "integrated" systems--the impact on traditional functions and organization structure of the company. From data processing to a vital management tool.13
In addition to the orientation seminar outlined above, the
American Management Association offered three others in operations research. The description of first of these, Operations Research—
13 American Management Association, American Management Association Program. August - November, 1958 (New York: By the Author, 1958), p. 61. 52
Application of 0. R. Techniques to Production Scheduling, is given below:
Definitions: Scope of production scheduling problems and how operations research techniques may be used to effect their solution. Priority Rules in Production Scheduling. Element of Pro duction Planning: Process lead-times, operation times, set-up time, transit time, replenishment times, dispatching, expediting--relationship to inventory control. Production Leveling and Pro gramming : Feedback concepts applied to produc tion systems. Relation of economic lot size to scheduling. Case presentation of an actual application. Use of linear Programming Approach in Production Scheduling. Load Capacity Analysis by a Special-Purpose Analog Computer. Line Balancing. Computer Simulation: Concept of a model. Actual application. Application of Queuing (Waiting Line) Theory to Production Scheduling. Scheduling and Explosion.
The second orientation seminar was Operations Research— Explained with Applications and was designed primarily to "clear up the mystery that surrounds operations research . . . to show where and how 0. R. techniques can be, and have been, successfully applied in industry and management •
The description of this orientation seminar was as follows:
What is Operations Research: 0. R. as the application of scientific and mathematical tech niques to management research problems for the purpose of providing executives with a more quantitative and factual basis for making de cisions. Analysis and discussion of operations research in management, rather than mathematical, terms. Basic Concepts: Definition of terms. Explanation by operating exeoutive in non-technical language of the "over-all" or "team" approach as applied to common business problems. Examples of Applications: Discussion of specific cases.
i4Ibid., p. 25. 15Ibid., p. 25. 53
Recognition and selection of problems amenable to 0. R. techniques. Translation of the appli cations and experience of the speakers to the problems of others. Operations Research Tech niques : Review of some 0. R. techniques with minimum stress on mathematical formulas. Organization of an Operations Research Program: Where to place 0. R. in a company's structure. Staffing.16
The third in this series, Operations Research— Linear Program ming, presented "a basic background in the philosophy of operation research as applied to both linear and non-linear problems."
Its description was as follows:
Definitions: Scientific method. Concept of a model. Mathematical Programming: General approach to management research problems for the purpose of providing executives with a more factual or quantitative basis for making de cisions. Linear Programming: Principal elements. Means of action.' Restrictions. Goals. Cut-and- try methods. Areas of application. Simplex Method: Outline of method. Solution of simple problem. Machine Scheduling Problem: Formula tion of problem. Solution of problem (using Simplex Method). Transportation Method: Out line of method. Solution of problem. Produc tion Line Scheduling Problem (Actual Case): Formulation of a problem. Solution of prob lem (using Transportation Method). Assignment Method: Outline of method. Solution of simple problem. Product Mix Problem (Actual Case): Formulation of problem. Solution of problem (using Simplex Method). Case Studies: Application of Linear Programming to Expansion of Plant Facilities and Distribution Pattern. Limitation of Industrial Applications of Linear Programming. Determining Warehousing Require ments and Locations.
During the previous year, the American Management Association devoted a two-day conference to the topic of operations research. Some
16Ibid. 17Ibid. 54 indication of the content of this conference is seen from the topics of the various speeches and panel presentations:
1. Future Horizons for Scientific Analysis in Management
2. Status of Industrial Operations Research— Here and Abroad
3. Operations Research in Business--Pro and Con
4. The Use of Operations Research in Small Companies
5. The Effective Use of Operations Research
6. Operations Research in Cost Control, Budgeting, and Economic Planning
7. Inventory Control and Distribution
8. Loading and Scheduling
9. Scheduling a Company Cafeteria Operation
10. Plant Location--Operations Research Sharpens the Answer
11. Operations Research in Distribution
12. Forecasting Trends in Your Business
13. What Top Management should Expect of Opera tions Research.
In addition, four 3-day seminars were sponsored as a part of the conference:
1. Time Series Analysis, Regression Theory, & Forecasting Techniques
2. Application of 0. R. techniques to Inventory Control
18 American Management Association, Inc., Special Conference: Operations Research, November 25-27, 1957, Palmer House, Chicago, Illinois (New York: American Management Association, 1957). 55
3. Advanced Techniques
4. Operations Research— Explained with Appli cations^
National Office Management training program.--The interest of the National Office Management Association in training personnel for electronic data processing was indicated by its spring, 1958, schedule of "NOMA Pre-Computer Clinics," for five United States and Canadian cities. These two-day clinics considered topics such as (1) The mean ing of automation, (2) The survey of present procedures,and (3) Iraple- 20 mentation of the system.
The Systems and Procedures Association training programs.--
The Systems and Procedures Association of America has also been active in electronic data processing education. Members of this organization have a special interest in electronic data processing, as the installa tion of a computer is invariably preceded by a thorough study of the systems and procedures of the company by the systems personnel. The fact that the bulk of their 500-page report, Proceedings of the Eighth
Annual Systems Meeting, was devoted to electronic data processing is 21 indicative of their interest in this new development.
The table of contents of the Proceedings, listing the speeches and seminars pertaining to electronic data processing, follows.
20 National Office Management Association, 1958 Spring Schedule: NOMA Pre-Computer Clinics (Willow Grove, Pennsylvania: National Office Management Association, 1958). 21 Systems and Procedures Association of America, Workshop for Management: Proceedings of the 8th Annual Systems Meeting (Greenwich, Conn.: Management Publishing Corp., 1956). 56
1. Organizing for an Electronics Survey
2. A Survey of General Purpose Electronic Computers for Electronic Data Processing
3. Training Personnel for Electronic Applications to Business Problems
4. Experience in Installing a Large-Scale Electronic Computer
5. A Magnetic Tape Electronic Data Processing Machine System
6. Application of Electronic Data Processing to Pro duction Planning and Material Control
7. Application of Electronic Data Processing to Billing and Accounting
8. Application of Electronic Data Processing to Billing and Accounting in a Public Utility
9. Integrated Data Processing
10. Introduction to Operations Research
11. Organizing for Operations Research
12. Operations Research Applied to Production Control ‘
13. Operations Research Applied to Inventory Manage ment 22 14. Equipment and Applications Section
It is interesting to note that only once was training personnel for electronic data processing (Item 3) mentioned as a specific topic for discussion. This lack of attention regarding scope, content, methodology, and place of training is readily apparent to one searching the literature in the field. With a few notable exceptions, this area has been neglected in favor of considerations pertaining to hardware,
22 Ibid., p. i 57 operating and programming techniques, computer applications, feasi bility studies, and similar topics.
The National Association of Accountants training program.— The
National Association of Accountants h a s also been active in training its membership for electronic data processing. The writer attended its spring, 1957, discussion forum, The Impact of Electronics--Present &
Future, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Training Programs of Management Consulting Firms
Several consulting firms are now specializing in electronic data processing and are making a note-worthy contribution. The contributions of some of these are of special interest and are therefore included.
John Diebold & Associates program.— John Diebold & Associates provide a weekly automatic data processing service, made up of the following components:
1. Equipment Reports: Up-to-date detailed descrip tions, analyses and appraisals of available equipment
2. Methods Reports: Documenting the specific uses of ADP equipment in various industries
3. Policy Reports: Analyses of important issues of particular interest to management
4. Newsletters: Management digests of current interest
5. Orientation Material: Explaining the use and operating principles of the equipment to management
6. Special Reports and Index^
23 Diebold, op. clt., p. i. 58
One of these special reports, Electronic Data Processing Educa
tion, is of special significance to this study since it is a summation of
their survey of electronic data processing education in colleges and
universities. A discussion of this report is included under the section,
Related Research, on pages 68-71.
In addition, John Diebold & Associates conduct conferences on
topics such as Failures in Business Data Processing--and How to Avoid
Them and Management for Automatic Data Processing. The latter was
scheduled in 1958 in the cities of London, Paris, Frankfurt, Hanover,
Stockholm, Amsterdam, Toronto, Dusseldorf, Zurich, Stuttgart, and Madrid,
as well as in seventeen major North American cities.
Canning, Sisson, and Associates program.--Canning, Sisson, and
Associates is another management consulting firm making a significant
contribution to electronic data processing education. Their Data
Processing Digest, a monthly publication, reduces the great bulk of cur
rent electronic data processing literature into easily read abstract
form. The abstracts are classified under the following headings: (1)
Management Decision-Making Techniques, (2) General Information, (3) Pro gramming, (4) Applications, (5) Equipment, (6) Comment, (7) References,
(8) Training, and (9) Meetings.^
Canning, Sisson, & Associates also offer a variety of executive training conferences. A recent announcement listed a series of one-week meetings on the following topics: (1) Electronic Data Processing for
24 Automatic Data Processing Service: John Diebold & Associates, Inc. Newsletter (January 20, 1958). 25 Data Processing Digest, Vol. Ill (September, 1957), p. 1. 59
Business and Industry, (2) Planning an Electronic Data Processing System,
(3) Answers to Top Management Electronic Data Processing Questions, (4)
How Top Management Can Control an Electronic Data Processing Program,
(5) How to Get Better Electronic Data Processing Management Control, and
(6) Introduction to Business Programming and Flow Charting.^
This firm also publishes a monthly newsletter, the EDP Analyzer, and distributes it, free of charge, to qualified executives in the field of electronic data processing.
Automation Consultants, Inc. program.— The principal contribu tion of Automation Consultants is a non-technical work on office elec tronics, prepared especially for the businessman in loose leaf form so that it can be readily kept up to date. At the present, the volume has approximately five hundred pages, comprising--
1. Commercial Aspects of office automation with explanation of existing applications and oppor tunities in new fields.
2. The hardware" or the new office tools. Common and native language machines for integrated data processing.
3» Electronic and Automatic Accounting applications showing how the new machines are being used and how one can benefit thereby.
4. Sociological Aspects of Office Automation and how the Second Industrial Revolution is relieving the clerical worker from routine mental labor.
5. The New Scientific Techniques such as operations research, applied cybernetics, information theory, automatic programming, etc.
26 Executive Training Programs offered by Canning. Sisson & Associates, An advance registration form for the 1958 conferences. 60
6. Potential Applications showing how many enter prises not yet using electronics might apply them.27
Training Programs of Computer Users
In acquiring an electronic data processing staff, administrators
are faced with the choice of employing personnel from outside the organi
zation who are trained in the use of electronic computers and teaching
them the business or selecting personnel from within the organization
and giving them the necessary computer training.
Administrators are finding the latter alternative preferable
for a number of reasons. One is that the administrators know the working habits, aptitudes, and personality traits of their personnel.
Another is that the existing personnel, in turn, known the company's
organization, policies, procedures, and methods of operation. Also,
promoting existing personnel into positions of responsibility is condu
cive to high morale, while bringing in people from the outside has the
opposite effect.
Perhaps the most convincing argument in favor of training
existing personnel relates to the training time involved. Becoming
a proficient manager and getting to know a particular business can be
a lifetime undertaking, especially in our present complex, dynamic
economy. Learning how to program and operate computers, on the other hand, is less difficult.
27 R. H. Brown, Office Automation: Integrated and Electronic Data Processing (New York: Automation Consultants, Inc., 1957), p. iii. 61
Reasons such as these have encouraged computer users to train
their own personnel. Some of the specific approaches used are out
lined in the following sections*
The Consolidated Edison program.--The Consolidated Edison computer survey team, a middle-management group, started by reading
everything they could find on the subject; then they visited the plants
and laboratories of the major computer manufacturers, seeing actual
equipment under development and discussing its possible use in their own organization.28
The findings of the survey team led to the formation of a high- level management advisory committee consisting of the two vice presi dents from the accounting areas, an assistant vice president, the controller, the general commercial manager, and several associated executives. This group coordinates all major problems of electronic 29 data processing for the organization.
The first action of the committee was to send two men from the survey team, an assistant controller and the commercial manager, to the two-week Remington Rand Introduction to Computers course. Later they attended the comparable International Business Machines course and
"spent some time in similar but informative discussions with representa- 30 tives of RCA's Bizmac."
The California Packing Corporation program.--The California
Packing Corporation also used the team approach in the first phase of
o q Herbert F. Klingman, Electronics in Business (New York: Controllership Foundation, 1956), p. 52.
29Ibid. 30Ibid., pp. 52-53. 62
their training. Bergtholdt describes the composition of the team as
follows:
The programming staff: These people are responsible for equipment research, applications research, systems development (including programming and coding), and program debugging.
The systems and procedures staff: This group cooperates with the programming staff in the de velopment of systems for applications assigned to the computer. A considerable portion of the activity of this group is devoted to systems and procedures work presently outside the area of computer applications.
The internal auditing staff: Our auditors par ticipate in the development of controls to be incorporated in the EDP system. The general audi tor is also responsible for the correctness of data that are fed into the computer system.
The operating staff; Our operators are, of course, responsible for the operation of the com puter system. The superintendent of our EDP cen ter participates in discussions during the planning stage of each program.
Specialists in the department under study: These people provide the liaison between the pro gramming staff and the department being analyzed.
One group not specifically mentioned above, consisting of depart ment, division, and section managers, their assistants, and other key personnel, was given an indoctrination course in electronic data process ing. This was a ten-hour course given on the company premises by a
Cambridge University of England professor. Their objective was three fold: "to remove the mystery surrounding electronic computers; to
31 F. H. Bergtholdt, "Selecting and Training Personnel for the EDP Team," Electronics in Action: The Current Practicality of EDP. American Management Association Special Report No. 22 (New York: American Manage ment Association, 1937), p. 52. 63 stimulate Interest and ideas for applications; and to stimulate willing 32 cooperation."
The programmers were selected by determining their success in a
24-hour course in programming a theoretical computer. The course was developed by the author’s first assistant with the help of the visiting professor."
For those who liked programming and did well on the aptitude course, the company conducted a short indoctrination course in the principles of punch-card processing and a 30-hour programming course for a computer that they expected to install.
In addition to these courses, the three programmers who made the feasibility study completed programming schools offered by three manu facturers. Five other programmers received additional classroom train ing by teaching the course, which was developed by the first assistant, 35 for the University of California Extension Service.
On-the-job programming training was also required. Inexperi enced programmers were assigned to work with experienced people. The training for the former consisted of "the development of detailed block diagrams, coding, and the writing of procedures based on the planning and over-all block diagrams developed by the experienced programmers."
The two top men in the auditing staff completed the Electronic 37 Data Processing Executive Course offered by the manufacturer, and the 38 other auditors attended the University of California programming course.
32Ibid. 33Ibid., p. 53. 34Ibid. 35Ibid.. p. 54.
36Ibid., pp. 54-55. 37Ibid., p. 56. 38Ibid. 64
The top financial executives attended American Management Associ ation conferences and visited computer installations.^
The International Harvester program.--The electronic data proc essing personnel training for this company included "an indoctrination training course consisting of two half-day sessions conducted for 27 persons, including department heads and programmers," and "an advanced training course of seven half-day sessions given to 18 persons, in cluding supervisory personnel."^®
Training Programs of Colleges and Universities
The first university training programs were not concerned with business data processing but with the design and mathematical use of electronic digital computers. A short historical sketch of these early programs is given by Huskey:
The pioneering work in this activity took place at Moore School of the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The establishment of the National Bureau of Standards Institute for Numerical Analy sis on the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Office of Naval Research sup ported work of Professor P. Morton at the Univer sity of California, Berkeley, led to the establish ment of educational programs at both of these campuses.
More recent developments have tended to follow two distinct patterns. Certain universities have established computing centers, and with these a complex of courses on various aspects of automatic computation have been quickly set up. Examples of such activities are Wayne University's Computation Laboratory, the University of Michigan's Willow
39Ibid.
^Bell, op. cit. . p. 365. 65
Run Research Center, Georgia Tech's Rich Electronic Computing Center, Columbia University's Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, the University of Illinois' Computation Laboratory, New York Univer sity's Institute of Mathematical Sciences, and Purdue's Computation Laboratory.
The other pattern followed in a number of univer sities is the establishment of introductory courses and, in some universities, the planning to gradually augment their computing facilities. At the present time, training with respect to electronic digital or analog computers exists as regular courses in some thirty universities scattered over most of the United States.41
Reconmended course content.--The American Accounting Associa tion's Committee on Accounting Instruction in Electronic Data
Processing, after careful consideration of the content of the account ing curriculum as it relates to automatic data processing, formulated a number of recommendations. Among the recomnendations of the Conxnittee were that the instructional objectives of a college course in business data processing are "to define and delineate the area; to show what is possible (and also what is not possible); to give an awareness of the problems involved; to describe the experiences of others in systems analysis, design, and installation; and to develop skills in computer programming.
E. W. Martin of the School of Business, Indiana University, feels that a course in the Principles of Data Processing, including
41 H. D. Huskey, "Status of University Educational Programs Relative to High Speed Computation," Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field, ed. Arvid W. Jacobson (Detroit: Wayne University Press, 1955), pp. 22-23.
^"Report of Committee on Accounting Instruction in Electronic Data Processing," Accounting Review, Vol. XXXIV, No. 2 (April, 1959) p. 215. 66 manual systems, key-driven machines, punched-card systems, and communi cations and data recording problems, should precede a course of Intro duction to Electronic Data Processing. This latter course should in clude capabilities and limitations of the machines, an introduction to programming, illustrations of various typical applications, an intro duction to management science, the drfect of electronic data processing on the organization, and the problem of installing and using the equip- 43 ment effectively.
Recommended courses.--A comprehensive treatment of this topic is included in the next section entitled Related Research.
Advantages and disadvantages of colleges and universities for electronic data processing training.--The formal institutions of the country have many benefits to offer in educating for office automation.
Diebold lists four advantages that such institutions have to offer that manufacturers' schools and on-the-job training cannot offer.
1. Schools are ample enough in number and con veniently located to provide widespread EDP education.
2. Practically all fields of knowledge are already represented in the nation's schools, making possible teaching of EDP as it re lates to each field.
3. Many instructors already possess sufficient physics, mathematics, etc. background to en able them to understand EDP fundamentals quickly.
^ E t W. Martin, "Electronic Data Processing in the College Curriculum," American Business Education, Vol. XV, No. 1, (October, 1958), p. 22-23. 67
4. Many instructors are skilled at presenting sophisticated concept in a manner that is simple to understand.44
According to Diebold, the basic drawback of colleges and univer
sities is that few of them can meet the challenge of educating for auto mation without outside help because of their lack of facilities and
finances. Facilities are already overcrowded, instructors salaries are
low, and adequate computer installations are very costly. Money for all
of these is slow in being allocated. However, Diebold does feel that
lack of equipment is no reason for not offering courses in electronic
data processing.4"*
One method being used by colleges and universities to overcome
the lack of equipment is that of sharing equipment. The Western Data
Processing Center on the campus of the University of California at
Los Angeles is an example of this. Consisting of an IBM 709 computer, made up of 43 individual components, this center is used by UCLA and
45 other participating institutions. These institutions come from
Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New
Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.4^ Such cooperative par ticipation helps all concerned in solving their lack of equipment, and sets a good example for others to follow.
44 Diebold, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
45Ibid., pp. 8-9.
4^"Campus Computer," IBM Business Machines, Vol. XLII, No. 3, (March, 1959), p. 5. 68
Related Research
John Diebold & Associates, Inc. Survey
A survey of all accredited United States colleges and universi ties with enrollments of 1,000 or more students was made by Diebold to determine the current status of collegiate electronic data processing education. Questionnaires were mailed to 352 colleges and universi ties, from whom a 40 per cent return was r e c e i v e d . ^
Electronic data processing and related courses were reported by
86 colleges and universities, as shown on Table 5. This is almost three times the number reported by Huskey three years earlier.^"®
Digital Computer Programning was the most frequently mentioned course with about 49 per cent of the respondents reporting it. Con sidering its popularity, the possibility arises that it may have been offered as an introductory course in lieu of General Orientation to
Electronic Data Processing. The Diebold data were analyzed to check this possibility. These data revealed that of the 42 schools offering
Digital Computer Programming, 19 (or 45 per cent) did not offer General
Orientation to Electronic Data Processing. This indicates that Digital
Computer Programming was used as the introductory course by these res pondents. When both courses are offered, as in the other 23 (or 55 per cent) of the colleges, it would seem reasonable to assume that each serves a different purpose.
47 Diebold, op. cit., p. 4. 48 Supra, p. 65. 69
TABLE 5
EDP AND RELATED COURSES OFFERED BY VARIOUS COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1957
Schools Offering Course Course Content or Title Number Per Cent
TOTAL RESPONDENTS REPORTING COURSES 86 100.0
Digital Computer Programming 42 48.8
Symbolic Logic (or Boolean Algebra) 38 44.2
General Orientation to Electronic Data Processing 34 39.5
Business Applications of Digital Computers 30 34.9
Digital Computer Operation 27 31.4
Computer Design 26 30.2
Switching Theory 26 30.2
Binary Notation and Arithmetic 25 29.1
Information Theory (or Communications Theory) 24 27.9
Industrial Applications of Digital Computers 20 23.3
Data Processing Systems Design 19 22.1
Production Control with Electronic Data Processing 14 16.3
Numerical Analysis 10 11.6
Other Related Courses 8 9.3
Source: John Diebold & Associates, Inc. , EDP Education, Part II, Automatic Data Processing Policy Report 19 (New York: A. D.P. Co., Inc., 1957), pp. 27-34. 70
An analysis of the departments under which these two courses were offered indicates that General Orientation to Electronic Data
Processing was taught most frequently in business departments while
Digital Computer Programming was taught most frequently in mathematics departments
Symbolic Logic (or Boolean Algebra) was the second most fre quently mentioned course with about 44 per cent of the respondents reporting it. The departments under which the course was offered in cluded twenty-three in mathematics and seven in electrical engineering.^
Business Applications of Digital Computers followed General
Orientation to Electronic Data Processing in the number of responses, and was taught primarily in business departments.3^
Digital Computer Operation was fifth, with about 31 per cent of the respondents reporting it. It was taught in several departments, with the mathematics department leading the others by a small margin.^
In sixth and seventh place were Computer Design and Switching
Theory, taught almost exclusively by the departments of electrical 53 engineering. Information Theory (or Communications Theory), as it has been primarily applied to computer design, was also taught primar ily by departments of electrical engineering.^
Departments of industrial engineering taught most of the courses in Production Control with Electronic Data Processing,as
49 Diebold, op. cit., pp. 27-32.
30Ibid., p. 31. 51Ibid.. p. 28. 52Ibid., p. 30.
33Ibid., pp. 33-34. 54Ibid.. p. 30. 55Ibid., p. 28 71 well as a substantial portion of Industrial Applications of Digital Com- 56 puters.
Binary Notation and Arithmetic,which is usually incorporated
as part of Digital Computer Programming, and Numerical Analysis-*® were
almost exclusively taught in departments of mathematics.
Courses in Data Processing Systems Design, offered by 22 per
cent of the schools, were taught in seven business departments and five
electrical engineering departments, as well as in a few others. The
ambiguity in the title apparently made respondents from business depart ments assume it to mean "systems and procedures" and those from elec
trical engineering departments to mean "computer design."
The Leon Hay Study
A doctoral study entitled, A Study of Office Automation and the
Functions and Qualifications of Programmers for Electronic Data Process
ing, was completed in January, 1958, by Leon Hay.
Hay interviewed twenty-six people from the Los Angeles area who were interested in electronic data processing. Among these people were
six equipment manufacturers, twelve computer users, six now studying the
use of the computer, one service bureau user, and one who completed the 59 computer studies and found the computer to be uneconomical.
56 57 58 Ibid. , p. 29. Ibid., p. 32. Ibid., p. 34. 59 Leon Hay, "A Study of Office Automation and the Functions and Qualifications of Programmers for Electronic Data Processing" (unpub lished Ed.D. dissertation, School of Education, The University of Southern California, 1958), p. 116. 72
The main purpose of the study was to determine the education and training needs of programmers.^
In answer to the question, Is the field of college training an important factor in the selection of a programmer?, twelve respondents said "yes" and fourteen said "no." Within the "no" group, five respond ents considered college education important but not absolutely essential.
Others were willing to accept qualified work experience for college edu cation.*^
Table 6 shows the respondents' curricular program preferences for programmers of data processing systems.
Hay states that the five respondents selecting the curricular program of exclusive mathematics, physics, or a field of engineering with strong mathematical background training did so because of the na ture of the work, which was scientific, for the most part, and they pre ferred programmers with scientific and mathematical backgrounds.*^
Hay used three approaches in evaluating the data shown in Table
7. In the first, only "essential" ratings were included; in the second,
"essential" and "advisable" were included; and in the third a system of numerical weighting was used (a value of 2 was assigned for "essential,"
1 for "advisable," and minus 1 for "unnecessary").
The results of the three systems are shown in Table 8.
Nine of the top ten subjects are the same in all three groups.
These are mathematics, accounting, business statistics, English, symbolic logic, business letters and report writing, office management, science, and public speaking.
6°Ibid., p. 4. 61Ibid., pp. 80-81. &2Ibid.. pp. 81-83. 73
TABLE 6
RESPONDENTS' CURRICULAR PROGRAM PREFERENCES FOR PROGRAMMERS OF DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS
Responses Curricular Program Number Per Cent
Exclusive mathematics, physics, or a field of engineering with strong mathematical background training 4 19.2
Exclusive liberal arts educational background (English, logic, languages, philosophy, composi tion, psychology, science, mathe matics, etc.) 2 7.7
Exclusive general business back ground (accounting and economic principles, money and banking, business law, industrial manage ment, office management, etc.) 14 53.9
Approximately one-half liberal arts and one-half general business 4 15.4
Broad general business with special ization in one or two business fields 1 3.8
Total 26 100.0
Source: Leon Hay, "A Study of Office Automation and the Functions and Qualifications of Programmers for Electronic Data Process ing" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, School of Education, the Univer sity of Southern California, 1958), p. 82. 74
TABLE 7
PREFERENCE OF COLLEGE SUBJECTS AS ACADEMIC PREPARATION FOR PROGRAMMERS OF DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS
Number of ratings as: College subjects Essen Advis- Unnec- tial able essary Total
Account ing 20 5 0 25 Business Law 3 15 8 26 Business Letter and Report Writing 15 9 0 24 Business Statistics 19 6 0 25 English (Grammar, Literature and Composition) 18 7 0 25 Finance 5 9 9 23 Foreign Languages 2 4 18 24 History 1 10 11 22 Labor Relations 1 10 10 21 Mathematics (Algebra, Geometry, Calculus) 21 3 0 24 Marketing 1 15 7 23 Office Organization and Management 13 11 0 24 Personnel Administration 3 12 9 24 Philosophy 2 17 4 23 Political Science 0 13 10 23 Public Speaking 4 15 4 23 Purchasing 0 6 18 24 Science (Biology, Chemistry, Physics) 5 15 4 24 Social Psychology 0 13 10 23 Sociology 0 13 11 24 Symbolic Logic 17 6 1 24 Theoretical Economics 2 18 3 23
Source: Leon Hay, "A Study of Office Automation and the Functions and Qualifications of Programmers for Electronic Data Process ing" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, School of Education, the Univer sity of Southern California, 1958), p. 85. 75
TABLE 8
RANKING OF ACADEMIC BACKGROUND SUBJECTS FOR PROGRAMMERS OF DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS
Item rank as acored by three different methods: Academic subject A BC
Mathematics 1 5 1.5 Accounting 2 2 1.5 Business Statistics 3 2 3 English 4 2 4 Symbolic Logic 5 7 5.5 Business Letters and Report Writing 6 5 5.5 Office Organization and Management 7 5 7 Science 8.5 8.5 8 Finance 8.5 15 12.5 Public Speaking 10 10 9.5 Personnel Administration 11.5 14 14 Business Law 11.5 12.5 15 Philosophy 14 11 11 Theoretical Economics 14 8.5 9.5 Foreign Languages 14 21.5 21 Labor Relations 17 19.5 20 History 17 19.5 18 Marketing 17 12.5 12.5 Social Psychology * 16.5 16.5 Political Science * 18 16.5 Sociology * 16.5 19 Purchasing * 21.5 22
* Did not receive any ratings as "essential." Column headings: A - Inclusion of only "essential" ratings B - A combination of both "essential" and "advisable" ratings, excluding "unnecessary" ratings. C - Assignment of the following arbitrary numerical weights to the ratings: "Essential" plus 2, "Advisable" plus 1, 'Thmecessary" minus 1.
Source: Leon Hay, "A Study of Office Automation and the Functions and Qualifications of Programmers for Electronic Data Process ing" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, School of Education, the Univer sity of Southern California, 1958), p. 87. 76
Another question asked, What specific courses would you suggest that the colleges and universities teach to adequately prepare and train a programmer? Hay summarized the answers in four groups, as follows:
1. General knowledge and information on com puters. As a movement with tremendous social, economic, philosophic, and cultural implications, automation and the development of high-speed computing techniques in business must be explained to the prospective programmer as part of general knowledge and education.
2. Organization and manipulation of data. An introductory course in programming for the application of the computer to business prob lems.
3. Systems analysis. A course in systems and pro cedures in business.
4. More training in mathematics.
Table 9 shows the estimated percentages of kinds of utilization of computers made by the respondents. Nine of the respondents made
85 per cent or higher utilization of their computers for business data processing. Three of the respondents made 80 per cent or higher utili zation of their computers for science and research, while only one made
85 per cent or higher utilization of the computer for engineering cal culations .
The Buffalo, New York Public Schools Survey
The Buffalo Public Schools used questionnaires, followed by personal interviews, to contact seventy businesses in the cornnunity.
The purpose of the survey was to determine the status of office
63Ibid., pp. 91-92. 77
TABLE 9
ESTIMATED PERCENTAGES OF KINDS OF UTILIZATION MADE OF COMPUTERS BY COMPANIES SURVEYED
Utilization made of computers Number of companies Engineering Science and Business data reporting calculations research processing
7 100
2 100
1 10 30 60
1 85 5 10
1 50 50
1 10 90
1 50 50
1 50 50
1 15 85
1 40 50 10
1 15 80 5
Source: Leon Hay, "A Study of Office Automation and the Functions and Qualifications of Programmers for Electronic Data Process ing" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, School of Education, the Univer sity of Southern California, 1958), p. 119. 78
automation in their community, upon which curriculum changes could be 64 predicted.
Of the 70 businesses reporting, 44 used punched-card equipment.
As to the kind of training recommended for key-punch operators, 57 re
spondents recommended actual training on the machines, 9 recommended
giving information only, and 4 others did not make any recommendations.
Electronic computers were used by twenty of the respondents and
four others expected to acquire one within the next five years.^
Training for electronic data processing was not mentioned.
Enoch J. Haga Survey
In an effort to determine professional opinions on electronic
data processing, 208 business educators were sent a questionnaire.
Responses were received from 146 (or 70 per cent) of the educators.^
The first question asked whether electronic data processing will
have no, some, or tremendous effect on high school vocational education.
"Some effect" was indicated by 81 per cent of the respondents.^^
The second question asked whether electronic data processing will
make necessary no, some, or entire revision of the high school vocational
64 Bernard A. Shilt, "Office Automation: How Extensive Is It? What Are Its Implications?" The Balance Sheet, Vol. XL, No. 5 (January, 1959), p. 208. 65., . , Ibrd.
^Enoch J. Haga, "What Do Business Educators Think About Data Processing?" The Balance Sheet, Vol. XL, No. 9 (May, 1959), p. 394.
67Ibid. 79
business education. The majority of the respondents, 86 per cent,
marked "some effect."88
The third question asked whether personnel who operate and use
electronic data processing equipment could best be trained by the manu
facturer, on the job, in high school, in junior college, or some other
way, such as a combination of high school and on-the-job training.
Only 18 per cent of the respondents thought that on-the-job
training alone would be best. The rest of the respondents recommended
various combinations of on-the-job training supplemented by training in
high school, in junior college, or by the manufacturer. 69
The E. Dana Gibson Study
In 1956, Gibson surveyed 86 colleges and universities by ques
tionnaire^® and personally visited 21 of these schools and 50 business 71 and industrial firms to determine what they were doing or planning to 72 do in integrated and electronic data processing.
Of the 86 respondents from colleges and universities, 14 reported that they owned a digital computer, and 11 others reported they had
access to the use of one. Committees working on the problem of inte grated data processing were reported by 36 respondents and plans to offer data processing courses in the near future were reported by 19
68Ibid. 69Ibid.
^®E. Dana Gibson, Integrated and Electronic Data Processing in Relation to Schools of Business Administration ("South-Western Publish ing Company Monographs," Monograph C-6; Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1957), p. 10.
71Ibid., p. 18. 72Ibid., p. 9. 80 respondents. Others reported that business computer courses were being offered.73
Gibson summarized his findings concerning what business is actually doing and thinking:
1. Many businesses thinking of making a change to Inte grated and Electronic Data Processing already have punch-card equipment.
2. The bookkeeping and accounting areas seem to be most amenable to a changeover.
3. A medium-sized computer, such as the 650, seems to be the type first considered.
4. Attrition will take care of non-needed employees, but no employee need fear for his or her job. Those being re-trained will have better jobs and better pay.
5. Electronic Data Processing demands an over-all point of view.
6. Integrated Data Processing, particularly of the punched-card type, is still believed by some to be the cheapest and most efficient way of handling certain problems.
7. While there will be a continuing shortage of trained Integrated and Electronic Data Processing personnel, business expects to do its share of that training.
8. Some of the jobs that will be affected by Integrated- Electronic Data Processing are typing, filing, sales, bookkeeping, figuring and bookkeeping machine work, punched-card operation, or almost any routine, repeti tive type of job.
9. A background in Integrated-Electronic Data Processing is necessary for future office workers.
10. Many business people have already begun their training in these fields, even before a changeover was in the picture.
73Ibid., pp. 10-11. 81
11. Programming seems to be one of the bottlenecks at the present time. Business prefers to train busi ness personnel in programming than to teach busi ness to non-business people, particularly engineers.
12. Large concerns are already installing Integrated- Electronic Data Processing Equipment, such as the 650, UNIVAC, 705, etc.
13. Machines that capture data at its source are looming increasingly large in the business process.
14. Schools are getting Integrated-Electronic Data Pro cessing on a reduce-cost basis, rental or purchase, and every encouragement is given to their introduc ing Integrated-Electronic Data Processing courses into their curricula for basic and for graduate research teaching.
15. New courses, or revised and combined courses, are needed to better educate graduates for Integrated- Electronic Data Processing job entrance and advance ment. Some of the areas that the new courses should emphasize are— a. Logical thinking b. Math instruction c. Statistical methods d. Systems operation
16. Operations Research is felt to be the logical approach to the solution of future business problems, and in struction in its techniques and procedures would be a major contribution to business.
17. A broad education seems to be the type business prefers.
18. Business graduates that have an industrial management background (half business, half engineering) seem the ones best fitted to adapt to the Integrated-Electronic Data Processing changes being made.
19. A higher type or quality of business graduate is needed. Ability, in the end, permits, prohibits, or proscribes what a person will be able to do on the job.
20. Schools of business should teach the basic fundamentals of Integrated-Electronic Data Processing.
21. Business graduates must be able to communicate better than at present. ►
82
22. Schools of business must discover the new functions that business needs in the world of the future.
23. Students may well be better trained through the use of the case method of teaching, particularly if work experience is added to the requirements.
24. Schools are weak in Integrated-Electronic Data Pro cessing equipment and trained personnel.
25. The auditor and the systems may seem the ones des tined to arrive at the top of the business heap after the Integrated-Electronic Data Processing shakedown.74
Summary
Electronic data processing training programs have been developed
by computer manufacturers, computer users, colleges and universities,
professional management societies, and management consulting firms.
Computer manufacturers have found it expedient to offer a
variety of courses not only for their own personnel but also for their
customers. Courses such as Introduction to Computers, Programming, and
Logical Operation are usually offered.
Professional management societies and management consulting firms
have contributed by providing electronic data processing meetings, forums,
clinics, conferences, literature, and consultation services.
A variety of on-the-job training programs have been devised by
the computer users. Reading, visitations, formal training courses, and
other resources were used.
Colleges and universities have introduced a variety of electronic
data processing and related courses.
^Ibid., pp. 46-47. CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF REPLIES TO QUESTIONNAIRE ON
ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
Introduction
The determination of the training and educational requirements
of prospective heads of electronic data processing units and managers
of other areas who may not be directly concerned with electronic data
processing has several aspects.
One aspect concerns the work of heads of electronic data process
ing units. How much time is spent on business data processing, scien
tific and research studies, and engineering calculations? What are the
specific business data processing applications?
Another aspect concerns the equipment used by these people.
What kinds of computer systems are used? Which system is the prospec
tive electronic data processing manager most likely to encounter?
Other aspects relate to the educational requirements of elec
tronic data processing and other managers. How many years of collegiate
education, if any, does the electronic data processing manager need?
How much of this should be in business, liberal arts, mathematics, and other areas? What are his specialized training needs? What are the education and training needs of other managers who may not be directly concerned with electronic data processing? By whom should the special
ized training be given?
83 84
Answers to questions such as these by various computer users,
computer manufacturers, colleges and universities, and public accounting
firms are analyzed in this chapter. These data should be useful to guidance and counseling personnel, curriculum committees, training directors, and others who may be involved with training and education.
Prospective managers should be apprised of their electronic data pro cessing education and training needs, and opportunities should be pro vided for these needs.
Computer Applications
Electronic Computer Systems Used
Table 10 shows the number and kinds of computers used by manu facturing concerns, governmental agencies, insurance and banking firms, and public utilities. The 121 computer users reported 172 digital electronic computers of several kinds.
The IBM 650, a medium-sized, general purpose digital computer ranked first with 74 (or 43 per cent) of all computers reported.
In second place were the giant IBM 700 series computers, with
57 (or 33 per cent) of the total reported. These were followed by the Remington Rand UNIVAC I and II series with 20 (or 11.6 per cent) of the computers reported.
In third place were the Datatron computers with 5.2 per cent of the total. None of the others represented more than 2.3 per cent of the total.
These findings substantiate the International Business Machine's claim to supremacy in the computer field mentioned on page 45. 85
TABLE 10
NUMBER AND KINDS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS REPORTED BY VARIOUS COMPUTER USERS
Computer Manufac Govt. Ins. Public Per Cent Sys tem turing Agen and Utili Total of Concerns cies Banking ties Total
IBM 650 31 11 17 15 74 43.0
IBM 700 Series 26 16 8 7 57 33.1
UNIVAC I, II 6 7 6 1 20 11.6
DATATRON 2 3 4 - 9 5.2
Burroughs E101 2 1 1 - 4 2.3
IBM Ramac 305 2 - - - 2 1.2
UNIVAC File 1 1 - - 2 1.2 Computer
Others 1 1 2 - 4 2.3
Totals 71 40 38 23 172 100.0
Their policy of keeping customers happy through better service does not account entirely, however, for the popularity of the IBM 650, the "work horse" of the computer field. One of the reasons for its popu larity is the ease with which any of the numerous existing punched-card systems can be converted into the faster system. This also applies to those contemplating automating office activities who hold the viewpoint that it is "better to learn how to crawl before learning how to walk" when it comes to a choice between a complex electronic system and a relatively simple punched-card system. As the electronic computer is 86
capable of producing more errors in a matter of moments than was possi
ble in months of operation under a manual system, it is of utmost impor
tance to achieve a discipline of the systems and procedures as well as
the input data used. A punched-card system can be a logical starting
place for achieving this discipline. Once the intricacies of manipu
lating data on punched-cards with the mechanical tabulating equipment
is mastered, it is not too difficult to increase the speed and versa
tility of this data processing by introducing the IBM 650 to the system.
The same punched-cards and much of the present equipment are still used
in conjunction with the central computer. Also, once having mastered
the logic of internal stored programming with punched-cards, the transi
tion to computers using magnetic tapes would not be difficult.
Computer Uses
Tables 11, 12, and 13 show the answers of the various respondents to the question, What percentage of total computer time do you estimate for business data processing, scientific and research studies, and engineering calculations?
Table 11 shows the percentage of total computer time used for business data processing by the computer users. The responses were rounded off to the nearest 10 per cent, except where the greatest concen tration of responses occurred. These were tallied to the nearest 5 per cent. Seventy-six per cent of the computers were used for business data processing 80 to 100 per cent of the time, and only 5 per cent of the computers were not used for any business applications. A comment by one of the respondents, a member of Data Systems Research Staff (a staff off ice concerned with Army, Navy, and Air Force uses of computers for 87
TABLE 11
PER CENT OF TOTAL COMPUTER TIME USED FOR BUSINESS DATA PROCESSING BY VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Per Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public All Cent turing mental and Utilities Organi- of Concerns Agencies Banking zations Total ------Time Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 70 No. 7. No. 7, No. 7a No. 7*
100 11 21.2 10 52.6 21 70.0 13 65.0 55 45.5
95 3 5.8 2 10.5 7 23.3 1 5.0 13 10. 7
90 5 9.6 2 10.5 1 3.3 4 20.0 12 9.9
85 4 7.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 3.3
80 8 15.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 8 6. 6
70 3 5.8 0 0.0 1 3.3 0 0.0 4 3.3
60 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.7
50 4 7.7 1 5.3 0 0.0 1 5.0 6 5.0
40 2 3.8 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 2.5
30 0 0.0 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
20 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
10 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
0 5 9.6 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 6 5.0
No Answer 3 5.8 1 5.3 0 0.0 1 5.0 5 4.1
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 121 100.0 88 business), helps to confirm these findings. He stated that there were some 100 Defense computer installations that were used 100 per cent for business-type data processing.
Insurance and banking firms and public utilities used their com puters almost exclusively for business data processing. When one con siders the volume of paper work in these organizations, the need for computers can readily be appreciated.
Table 12 shows the percentage of total computer time used for scientific and research studies, and Table 13 shows the computer time used for engineering calculations. Manufacturing concerns tended to have a greater variety of uses for their computers than did the others.
Forty-six per cent of the manufacturing concerns used their computers
5 to 10 per cent of the time for scientific and research studies, and
23 per cent of these concerns used the same amount of computer time for engineering calculations.
Business Data Processing Applications
The distribution of 688 Items reported by the 121 computer users is shown in Table 14. The figures reveal that 114 users reported a total of 681 business applications of 48 varieties. This is an average of six applications per computer user. On the basis of total responses, the ten most popular computer applications, ranked in descending order, were (1) statistical analysis, (2) payroll computations, (3) customer
(premium) billing, (4) report preparation, (5) inventory control,
(6) general accounting, (7) cost accounting, (8) financial statements,
(9) budget preparations, and (10) dividend procedures. 89
TABLE 12
PER CENT OF TOTAL COMPUTER TIME USED FOR SCIENTIFIC AND RESEARCH STUDIES BY VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Per Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public All Cent turing mental and Utili- Organi- of Concerns Agencies Banking ties zations Total Time Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. 7, No. % No. %
100 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 o o
90 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
' 80 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
70 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60 0 0.0 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
50 0 0.0 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
40 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.7
O A n n n -JKJ 4. J • O 2 10.5 1 3.3 0 0.0 5 4.1
20 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.7
10 16 30.8 2 10.5 1 3.3 0 0.0 19 15. 7
5 8 15.4 1 5.3 6 20.0 4 20.0 19 15. 7
0 18 34.6 11 57.9 22 73.3 15 75.0 66 54.5
No Answer 3 5.8 1 5.3 0 0.0 1 5.0 5 4.1
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 121 100.0 90
TABLE 13
PER CENT OF TOTAL COMPUTER TIME USED FOR ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS BY VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Per Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public All Cent turing mental and Utili- Organi- of Concerns Agencies Banking ties zations Total ______Time Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. ' % No. % No. 7o No. % No. % o o 100 1 1.9 0 0 o o 0 0.0 1 0.8
90 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 -0.8
80 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.7
70 0 0.0 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
60 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.7
50 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 5.0 3 2.5
40 1 1.9 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.7
30 4 7.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 3.3
20 6 11. 5 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 5.8
10 8 15.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 8 6.6
5 4 7.7 1 5.3 0 0.0 5 25.0 10 8.3
0 18 34.6 14 73.7 30 100.0 13 65.0 75 62.0
No Answer 3 5.8 1 5.3 0 0.0 1 5.0 5 4.1
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 121 100.0 91
TABLE 14
RANK AND FREQUENCY OF BUSINESS DATA PROCESSING APPLICATIONS REPORTED BY VARIOUS COMPUTER USERS
Manu Govt. Ins. £c Public Rank Applications fact Agen Bank Utili Tot a; urers cies ing ties
1 Statistical Analysis 37 12 23 10 82 2 Payroll Computations 38 5 19 15 77 3 Customer (Premium) Billing 23 2 26 13 64 4 Report Preparation 27 9 19 7 62 5 Inventory Control 35 15 5 5 61 6 General Accounting 26 8 17 8 59 7 Cost Accounting 31 6 4 2 43 8 Financial Statements 18 2 11 5 36 9 Budget Preparation 18 7 5 2 32 10 Dividend Procedures 5 0 16 6 27 11 Material Scheduling 19 5 1 1 26 12 Loan Accounting 3 0 16 0 19 13 Sales Forecasting 10 0 1 2 13 14 Production Planning and Control 7 1 0 0 8 15 Freight & Passenger Car Accounting 0 0 0 6 6 16 Material Requirement & Procurement 1 3 0 0 4 17 Actuarial Reserves & Calculations 0 0 4 0 4 18 Estimating For Shop Loading 2 1 0 0 3 19 Manpower Forecasting 2 1 0 0 3 20 Failure Reporting (Rejected work) 2 1 0 0 3 21 Property Accounting 3 0 0 0 3 22 Agents' Commission Accounting 0 0 3 0 3 23 Others (26 separate items) 9 5 9 8 31 No Business Applica tions 3 1 0 0 4 No Answer 2 0 0 1 3
Totals 321 84 188 92 688 92
The ranking is not the same, however, when each of the four
classes of respondents is considered individually.
The most frequently reported computer application for manufac
turing concerns was payroll computations. The fact that factory employ
ees frequently are on complicated incentive pay plans which require many
tedious computations perhaps accounts for this.
Inventory control ranked first with the governmental agencies.
This is not surprising when one considers the work involved in maintaining a multi-billion dollar inventory of military supplies and equipment scat
tered all over the world.
Customer billing (called "premium billing" by insurance companies) was the most frequently reported computer application in the insurance and banking firms, and the second most frequently reported application in the public utilities. Some of the larger organizations among these may have more than a million customers whose records must be kept up to date.
This tedious task is handled efficiently by the computers.
Curricular Programs
Extent of College Education Recommended
The first question in this part asked, "How many years of col lege education do you consider desirable for the head of a company EDP unit?" The replies to this question by the various computer users, com puter manufacturers, colleges and universities, and public accounting firms are shown in Table 15.
It is interesting to note that only one respondent thought that no collegiate work was necessary. This person, a vice president of a TABLE 15
NUMBER OF YEARS OF COLLEGE EDUCATION RECOMMENDED BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS FOR THE HEAD OF A COMPANY EDP UNIT
Manufac Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili Manufac & Univer Accounting Totals Years Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms of College Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 7. No. 7. No. % No. % No. 7o No. 7. No. 7,
0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.5 1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1 1.9 0 0.0 1 3.3 2 10.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 2.2 3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 32 61.5 9 47.4 22 73.3 13 65.0 20 76.9 3 10.7 4 57.1 103 56.6 5 6 11.5 4 21.1 2 6.7 1 5.0 2 7.7 10 35.7 0 0.0 25 13.7 6 9 17.3 4 21.1 2 6.7 0 0.0 1 3.8 10 35.7 1 14.3 27 14.8 7 1 1.9 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.8 2 7.1 1 14.3 6 3.3 8 0 0.0 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.6 0 0.0 2 1.1 No Answer 3 5.8 0 0.0 3 10.0 3 15.0 2 7.7 2 7.7 1 14.3 14 7.7
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 182 100.0
VD w 94
large insurance company, qualified his recommendation, however, with the
following comments:
It's always desirable that people working in EDP have as much college education as possible, but this is not a prerequisite. People chosen to head a unit, in a business organization particularly, are not chosen on the basis of formal educational qualifications. Much more important are maturity, general aptitude, leadership qualities and experi- ence--all of which are either innate or self-acquired.
Less than 3 per cent of the respondents recommended less than four years of college education. In contrast, about 33 per cent of the total group recommend more than four years of college. However, there were great variations in the responses. For instance, 32 per cent of the respondents from colleges and 53 per cent from the governmental agencies recommended work beyond the fourth year for the prospective head of an electronic data processing unit, while only 5 per cent from the public utilities made such a recommendation.
College Curricular Pattern Recommended
The second item in this part was, "Please indicate the college curricular pattern (exclusive of specialized EDP courses) you would recom mend for a prospective head of the EDP unit by designating the percentages
(to the nearest 10%) to be taken from the following areas: Business,
Liberal Arts, Mathematics, Electrical Engineering and Others."
Table 16 shows the recommendations of the respondents concerning business courses. An inspection of the totals column reveals the median and the modal response to be at 40 per cent of the curriculum. About 72 per cent of the respondents recommended from 20 to 50 per cent of the curriculum to be devoted to business courses. TABLE 16
PER CENT OF CURRICULUM FOR A PROSPECTIVE EDP HEAD TO BE DEVOTED TO BUSINESS COURSES ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
Manufac- Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili Manufac & Univer Accounting Totals Per Cent Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms of Curriculum Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7» No. 7. No. % No. % No. 7. No. 7c No. 7. No. 7o
0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 3 5.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 5.0 1 3.8 3 10.7 0 0.0 8 4.4 20 4 7.7 3 15.8 5 16.7 2 10.0 1 3.8 9 32.1 1 14.3 25 13.7 3C) 7 13.5 4 21.1 5 16.7 2 10.0 9 34.6 6 21.4 2 28.6 35 19.2 40 13 25.0 1 5.3 6 20.0 2 10.0 5 19.2 5 17.9 4 57.1 36 19.8 50 9 17.3 5 26.3 5 16.7 7 35.0 6 23.1 3 10.7 0 0.0 35 19.2 60 6 11.5 1 5.3 6 20.0 3 15.0 2 7.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 18 9.9 70 3 5.8 1 5.3 2 6.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 6 3.3 80 6 11.5 3 15.8 0 0.0 2 10.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 11 6.0 90 0 0.0 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.6 100 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 No Answer 1 1.9 0 0.0 1 3.3 1 5.0 2 7.7 2 7.1 0 0.0 7 4.0
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 182 100.0
v O Ln 96
Individual responses varied considerably from that of the group.
The highest median and modal responses, at 50 per cent of curriculum, were from the public utilities and governmental agencies.
The responses which corresponded with the group median and mode at 40 per cent of the curriculum were from the manufacturing concerns, insurance and banking, and public accounting firms.
The smallest percentage of the curriculum devoted to business courses was recommended by the computer manufacturers and the colleges and universities, with modal responses at 30 per cent and 20 per cent of the curriculum (but median responses at 40 per cent and 30 per cent), respectively.
Table 17 shows the percentage of the curriculum for a prospec tive electronic data processing manager to be devoted to liberal arts.
The modal and median responses for the entire group were at
20 per cent of the curriculum. The highest modal and median responses, at 30 per cent of the curriculum, were from colleges and univeisities and public accounting firms. Respondents from public utilities as a group recommended the smallest percentage.
The percentage of the curriculum to be devoted to mathematics is shown in Table 18. The median for total responses was 30 per cent, but the mode was 20 per cent, of the curriculum.
Individual responses were rather consistent. The highest per centage recommended, with a mode and a median of 30 per cent, was made by governmental agencies, public utilities, and colleges and universities.
The lowest, with a mode and median of 20 per cent of the curriculum, was made by manufacturing concerns and insurance and banking firms. TABLE 17
PER CENT OF CURRICULUM FOR A PROSPECTIVE EDP HEAD TO BE DEVOTED TO LIBERAL ARTS COURSES ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili-^ Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Per Cent Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms of ______Curriculum Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7, No. 70 No. % No. %
r- 0 9 17.3 3 15.8 2 6.7 5 25.0 1 3.8 L 7.1 0 0.0 22 12.1 10 10 19.2 5 26.3 7 23.3 5 25.0 7 26.9 1 3.6 1 14.3 36 19.8 20 16 30.8 7 36.8 9 30.0 1 5.0 8 30.8 6 21.4 2 28.6 48 26.4 30 10 19.2 3 15.8 5 16.7 5 25.0 2 7.7 8 28.6 2 28.6 35 19.2 40 4 7.7 0 0.0 2 6.7 1 5.0 2 7.7 5 17.9 0 0.0 14 7.7 50 2 3.8 1 5.3 3 10.0 1 5.0 3 11.5 2 7.1 2 28.6 14 7.7 60 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 5.0 0 0.0 2 7.1 0 0.0 3 1.6 70 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.3 0 0.0 1 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.1 80-100 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 No Answer 1 1.9 0 0.0 1 3.3 1 5.0 2 7.7 2 7.1 0 0.0 7 3.8
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 182 100.0 TABLE 18
PER CENT OF CURRICULUM FOR A PROSPECTIVE EDP HEAD TO BE DEVOTED TO MATHEMATICS COURSES ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
Manufac Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili Manufac- & Univer Accounting Totals Per Cent Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms of Curriculum Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 1 No. 1 No. % No. % No. t No. % No. 1 No. %
0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0,0 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 7 13.5 3 15.8 2 6.7 2 10.0 2 7.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 16 8.8 20 19 36.5 5 26.3 13 43.3 6 30.0 10 38.5 6 21.4 3 42.9 62 34.1 30 9 17.3 8 42.1 7 23.3 9 45.0 8 30.8 13 46.4 2 28.6 56 30.8 40 9 17.3 1 5.3 3 10.0 2 10.0 4 15.4 3 10.7 1 14.3 23 12.6 50 4 7.7 1 5.3 4 13.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 7.1 1 14.3 12 6.6 60 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 7.1 0 0.0 3 1.6 70 1 1.9 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.1 80-100 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.5 No Answer 1 1.9 0 0.0 1 3.3 1 5.0 2 7.7 2 7.1 0 0.0 7 3.8
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 182 100.0
VO 00 99
The percentage of the curriculum for a prospective electronic
data processing manager to be devoted to electrical engineering is shown
in Table 19. About 46 per cent of all the respondents recommended none,
36 per cent of the respondents recommended 10 per cent, and 11 per cent
of the respondents recommended 20 per cent, of the curriculum for elec
trical engineering.
Computer manufacturers were the strongest advocates of electri
cal engineering in the curriculum. About 81 per cent of this group rec ommended from 10 to 30 per cent of the curriculum to be devoted to the subject. Their interest in computer design and other technical aspects, all of which require some knowledge of electrical engineering, may account for this.
Educational Deficiencies in Applicants
The third question in this section asked, "In which of the above areas have you observed college graduates applying for positions in EDP to be deficient?"
Table 20 shows that 53 respondents had no observations to make in regard to deficiencies. As one would expect, most of the respondents from colleges and universities could not answer this question as they are not usually the ones to hire electronic data processing personnel. How ever, on the basis of experiences in placing their graduates and from other personal contacts and observations, 15 of these people were able to reply. Some respondents said they had no basis for evaluation as they promoted from within rather than hiring college graduates directly for electronic data processing positions. Other respondents reported, however, that their applicants were not deficient in any of these areas. TABLE 19
PER CENT OF CURRICULUM FOR A PROSPECTIVE EDP HEAD TO BE DEVOTED TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING COURSES ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili- Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Per Cent Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms of Curriculum Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. I No. % No. % No. % No. % No. I No. 1 No. %
0 35 67.3 8 42.1 14 46.7 7 35.0 3 11.5 13 46.4 3 42.9 83 45.6 10 13 25.0 7 36.8 12 40.0 8 40.0 16 61.5 8 28.6 2 28.6 66 36.3 20 0 0.0 4 21.1 4 13.3 4 20.0 2 7.7 4 14.3 2 28.6 20 11.0 30 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 11.5 1 3.6 0 0.0 6 3.3 40 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.5 50-100 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 No Answer 1 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 5.0 2 7.7 2 7.1 0 0.0 6 3.3
Totals 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 182 100.0 100 TABLE 20
EDUCATIONAL DEFICIENCIES OBSERVED IN PROSPECTIVE EDP MANAGERS BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
Manufac- Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public All turing mental and Utili Manufac & Univer Accounting (Organi Area Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms ;zations of Deficiency No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. %
Mathematics 21 11 6 9 13 9 3 72 38.3 Business 13 6 12 7 6 2 2 48 25.5 Liberal Arts 13 3 4 5 6 1 2 34 18.1 Electrical Engineering 3 3 4 3 2 3 0 18 9.6 Others 6 2 3 1 2 0 2 16 8.5
Total Responses 56 25 29 25 29 15 9 188 100.0
Number Replying 42 18 19 15 19 10 6 129 70.9 No Answer 10 1 11 5 7 18 1 53 29.1
Total Respondents 52 19 30 20 26 28 7 182 100.0 102
The 129 respondents who had observed deficiencies in their
applicants checked a total of 188 items in the five categories. The
greatest area of deficiency reported was mathematics; business was the
second; and liberal arts, the third.
Following are some comments on deficiencies noted in college
graduates applying for data processing positions. These were combined in
somewhat similar groupings wherever possible.
Several comments relate to communications skills, logic, and
the liberal arts area in general.
A supervisor of electronic data processing systems development
and control for an automobile manufacturer commented that applicants were
deficient in report writing.
The chief computing engineer for an aircraft manufacturer noted
a deficiency in speaking and writing English.
The manager of systems and procedures for a bearing manufactur
ing concern identified the following deficiencies: "Lack of ability to
express themselves clearly and effectively; unable to make sound decisions
based on facts received."
A deputy for systems in a data processing division of an Air
Force installation noted a general weakness in the "ability to communi-
cate--either by writing or speaking."
A supervisor of data processing for an oil company suggested
that "greater emphasis be placed on creative thinking and ability to write and express one's ideas in a logical coherent manner."
A group engineer for a missile manufacturer said, "There is at present too much specialization in particular areas; for electronic data processing applications, a 'general scientist' is more desirable." 103
A regional manager from a computer manufacturing concern noted a deflcienty in physical sciences.
An assistant to a vice president from a computer manufacturing concern stated, "There are too many specialized courses--not enough liberal arts and humanities to serve as a basis for becoming a good manager." He suggested business skills be learned on the job or through evening courses.
A supervisor of an insurance company said:
Analytical ability, appreciation of logic and a talent for detailed clerical work are necessary for one entering this field. Statistical analy sis, sampling, linear equations are becoming appreciated by us data-processors.
The comptroller of a large insurance company stated:
What we would like to see the college give men who are aiming at management positions in business and industry--recognizing that elec tronic data processing will become even more common in the future--is training in the logic of business, in the nature of business organi zation in terms of logic. If universities can teach the students what business functions can fit into logical patterns--and what business functions cannot fit logical patterns--we would come a long way toward having the kind of men we need.
A partner from a public accounting firm said, "Analytic methods and logic as applied to data processing seem to be missing from general college curricula."
The manager of electronic data processing for a manufacturer of photographic items outlined the following needs: "Ability to reason logically, to distinguish fact from opinion, to determine the problem be fore trying to find the solution; and understanding that education does not relieve one of responsibility to work." 104
Some of the comments made by the respondents relate to deficien
cies in mathematics.
A staff consultant from a public accounting firm noted defici
encies in mathematics and logic.
An assistant to the comptroller of a railroad stated, "Among our own people that we have drawn off, the greatest deficiencies have been in an understanding of mathematical concepts and axioms."
An assistant regional sales manager for a computer manufacturer stated, "Mathematics education should at least include the calculus and a course in numerical analysis and matrix algebra, if possible."
The editor of an automatic data processing service for a manage ment consulting firm stated, "Boolean algebra, in my opinion, now deserves far more study than was previously offered in traditional 'logic' courses."
The director of the computing center of a university noted the
"lack of preparation in mathematics and quantitative economics."
An assistant chief of the applied mathematics division of a
Federal agency stated, "It seems imperative for the head of a machine com puting laboratory, even if intended solely for business purposes, to be an accomplished mathematician. It is easier for a mathematician to learn accounting than vice versa."
One of the most significant reasons for including mathematics in the curriculum of data processing managers was given by a manager of data processing for a shoe manufacturing concern: "As computer use passes beyond the early or recording phase, operations research is a natural development--hence emphasis on mathematics will need to be in creased." 105
Deficiencies in a variety of business skills were noted by
several respondents.
An auditor of manufacturing in a farm equipment manufacturing
concern stated;
The application of electronic computers to business data processing is largely in a service capacity. Consequently, one of the first and most important requisites is a thorough know ledge of the business and the overall require ments. Such an appreciation is lacking.
A partner in a public accounting firm wrote, "The basic trouble
is that electronic data processing people understand the machine but not
business organization, control, etc."
The director of tabulating systems and services for an electri
cal equipment company said, "The emphasis has been on the workings of
computers without enough training in business."
A partner in a public accounting and management consulting firm
stated that "the most common deficiency is lack of skill in devising
clerical procedures."
The manager of the computer department of a large insurance com
pany stated, "In the insurance field of data processing we need people
that know accounting rather than mathematics."
The electronic data processing manager for a chemical manufac
turer said, "We have had many applicants with mathematics backgrounds and
they fill programming positions; however, there is a shortage of people with systems backgrounds to fill jobs as analysts."
The head of a college computing center mentioned a requirement
for data processing managers which was so obvious that it must have been 106
assumed by other respondents: "The men must be able to manage as well as
have technical training."
The mathematics versus business dichotomy is emphasized by the
following respondents.
The senior computer consultant for a computer manufacturer
commented, "The head of an electronic data processing unit should have
training in the field of application of the equipment (e.g., business, for business data processing); however, adequate mathematics training is important."
The educational director for a computer manufacturer said,
"Normally the business people don’t have enough mathematics and vice versa."
The comptroller of a railroad said, "College graduates in busi ness are quite deficient in liberal arts and especially mathematics; mathematics graduates usually are short in business."
A procedures analyst for a large steel corporation said, "Busi ness graduates have not had enough mathematics and mathematics graduates have not had enough business."
A comment relating to electronic engineering was made by the manager of data processing in a shoe manufacturing concern: "There is little need for electronics theory beyond the rudiments. Computer use is a management problem."
Other comments on the curricular requirements of the prospective electronic data processing manager are as follows.
The director of electronic processing of a publishing firm said,
"Deficiencies would seem to be more in aptitudes than curricular pattern." 107
An assistant comptroller of a military supply installation said,
"We have not found any significant correlation between college and cur
ricular and programial ability."
A mathematician in atomic research and development for the U.S.
Government said:
The head of a company electronic data processing unit should have substantial training in specific field: accounting and finance, or engineering, or an area of scientific research. Such training together with broad interests in other areas seems preferable to a "survey of computer application" type education.
Specialized Electronic Data Processing Courses
Ranking of Courses
The respondents were asked to rank eleven specialized computer
courses as "essential," "desirable," or "unnecessary" for the prospec
tive electronic data processing manager. Their responses are tallied
in Tables 21 to 33. Table 21 shows a consistent and almost unanimous
agreement that General Orientation to Computers and Electronic Data
Processing is a desirable or essential course for the electronic
data processing manager. This is not surprising, however, as the title
suggests that this is a beginning or foundations course which should
precede the more advanced courses.
Table 22 shows the ranking by various respondents of Digital
Computer Programming as a course for the prospective head of an elec
tronic data processing unit. Just about as many respondents classi- l fied this in the "desirable" and "essential" category as they did the previous course, but 11.6 per cent more respondents marked it "desirable," TABLE 21
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "GENERAL ORIENTATION TO COMPUTERS AND EDP" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7o No. 7.
Manufacturers 42 80.8 8 15.4 2 3.8 0 0.0 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 16 84.2 2 10.5 0 0.0 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 30 100.0
Public Utilities 17 85.0 2 10.0 1 5.0 0 0.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 22 84.6 1 3.8 0 0.0 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 21 75.0 4 14.3 1 3.6 2 7.1 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 6 85.7 1 14.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 149 81.9 23 12.6 4 2.2 6 3.3 182 100.0 108 TABLE 22
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "DIGITAL COMPUTER PROGRAMMING" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. X No. % No. X No. % No. %
Manufacturers 35 67.3 15 28.8 2 3.8 0 0.0 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 12 63.2 6 31.6 0 0.0 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 21 70.0 9 30.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 30 100.0
Public Utilities 13 65.0 6 30.0 0 0.0 1 5.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 18 69.2 5 19.2 0 0.0 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 24 85.7 3 10.7 0 0.0 1 3.6 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 5 71.4 2 28.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 128 70.3 46 25.3 2 1.1 6 3.3 182 100.0 109 110 rather than "essential." Only 1 per cent of the respondents considered the course unnecessary.
When offered by mathematics departments, digital computer pro gramming frequently is used as the introductory course. The respon dents from the colleges and universities, liberally represented by mathematicians, tended to favor this course over General Orientation to Computers. This is evidenced by the 86 per cent response of "essen tial" for the former, compared with 75 per cent for the latter.
The weight of opinion on Advanced Programming Techniques was that it is a desirable, rather than essential, course for the elec tronic data processing manager. However, as indicated in Table 23, less than 10 per cent considered the course unnecessary. The respon dents from colleges and universities had the greatest percentage marked "essential," and surprisingly enough the computer manufacturers had the smallest percentage. College professors are noted for their love of tough courses such as Advanced Programming Techniques. Com puter manufacturers, on the other hand, perhaps do not consider their equipment so complex as to really require an advanced course.
Table 24 indicates that Digital Computer Operation was con sidered slightly superior to Advanced Programming Techniques, in that
5 per cent more respondents marked the former "essential" than they did the latter. This gain can be credited mostly to the computer manufac turers, as 30 per cent more respondents from this group marked Digital
Computer Operation "essential" than they did Advanced Programming
Techniques. This was sufficient to offset the smaller percentage of TABLE 23
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "ADVANCED PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. 1 No. 7o No. %
Manufacturers 16 30.8 26 50.0 8 15.4 2 3.8 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 6 31.6 10 52.6 2 10.5 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 12 40.0 ' 14 46.7 3 10.0 1 3.3 30 100.0
Public Utilities 7 35.0 11 55.0 2 10.0 0 0.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 4 15.4 17 65.4 1 3.8 4 15.4 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 15 53.6 11 39.3 0 0.0 2 7.1 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 3 42.9 3 42.9 1 14.3 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 63 34.6 92 50.5 17 9.3 10 5.5 182 100.0 TABLE 24
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "DIGITAL COMPUTER OPERATION" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. % No. 1 No. 7o No. 7<,
Manufacturers 21 40.4 23 44.2 7 13.5 1 1.9 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 3 15.8 13 68.4 2 10.5 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 12 40.0 16 53.3 2 6.7 0 0.0 30 100.0
Public Utilities 8 40.0 8 40.0 3 15.0 1 5.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 12 46.2 8 30.8 3 11.5 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 13 46.4 12 42.9 2 7.1 1 3.6 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 3 42.9 2 28.6 2 28.6 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 72 39.6 82 45.1 21 11.5 7 3.8 182 100.0 112 113
"essential” ratings for the former course from governmental agencies and colleges and universities.
Table 25 indicates that Business Applications of Digital Com puters is strongly recommended for the electronic data processing mana ger. Only about 2 per cent considered it unnecessary, while about 59 per cent considered it essential and 33 per cent considered it desir able. Frequently the content of this course is incorporated in General
Orientation to Computers and Digital Computer Programming.
Table 26 shows that the respondents considered Business Systems
Analysis and Design also to be highly important as only 1.6 per cent marked it "unnecessary." Public accounting firms, especially, are appreciative of the need for this course as they are very much in volved with designing, improving, and installing accounting systems for computer applications for their clients. The prevalent attitude is that the various paperwork systems should be carefully reviewed, and modified, if necessary, prior to the installation of an electronic computer. In fact, the head of the systems department of an organiza tion is frequently chosen to head a newly-formed electronic data pro cessing department.
Industrial Applications of Digital Computers was recommended as a desirable course by the majority of the respondents. Table 27 shows, however, that the various respondents had differing views as to its importance. Those from manufacturing concerns, who are much involved with industrial applications, naturally considered the course more essential than did representatives from other organizations such as insurance and banking and public accounting firms. TABLE 25
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. % No. 7o No. %
Manufacturers 34 65.4 15 28.8 1 1.9 2 3.8 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 12 63.2 6 31.6 0 0.0 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 16 53.3 13 43.3 0 0.0 1 3.3 30 100.0
Public Utilities 10 50.0 8 40.0 1 5.0 1 5.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 16 61.5 7 26.9 0 0.0 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 15 53.6 8 28.6 2 7.1 3 10.7 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 4 57.1 3 42.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 107 58.8 60 33.0 4 2.2 11 6.0 182 100.0 114 TABLE 26
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "BUSINESS SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN FOR EDP" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. % No. 7= No. 7.
Manufacturers 34 65.4 15 28.8 : 2 3.8 1 1.9 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 12 63.2 6 31.6 0 0.0 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 19 63.3 9 30.0 1 3.3 1 3.3 30 100.0
Public Utilities 13 65.0 7 35.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 16 61.5 6 23.1 0 0.0 4 15.4 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 16 57.1 9 32.1 0 0.0 3 10.7 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 6 85.7 1 14.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 116 63.7 53 29.1 3 1.6 10 5.5 182 100.0 115 TABLE 27
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable. Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. % No. % No. 1
Manufacturers 20 38.5 28 53.8 4 7.7 0 0.0 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 3 15.8 12 63.2 1 5.3 3 15.8 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 2 6.7 12 40.0 14 46.7 2 6.7 30 100.0
Public Utilities 2 10.0 11 55.0 5 25.0 2 10.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 7 26.9 15 57.7 0 0.0 4 15.4 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 5 17.9 19 67.9 1 3.6 3 10.7 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 0 0.0 5 71.4 2 28.6 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 39 21.4 102 56.0 27 14.8 14 7.7 182 100.0 116 117
Table 28 shows the ranking by various respondents of Numerical
Analysis and Methods in High-Speed Computation as a course for the
prospective head of an electronic data processing unit. Just about as
many respondents marked this course "unnecessary” as they did "essen
tial," and about 55 per cent marked it "desirable." Respondents from
colleges and universities rated this as one of the more important
courses for the electronic data processing manager, as only one res
pondent considered the course unnecessary. In contrast, the respon
dents from insurance and banking firms considered the course to be
much less important, as about 43 per cent of the respondents marked the
course "unnecessary." Here again, the respondents were influenced by
the problems peculiar to their organizations and how they regard the
computer in the solution of these problems. In the case of the finan
cial institutions, the problem is that of processing great masses of
paper work, such as in premium billing and accounting. They need people who are able to adapt computers or some other form of automation to the
processing of this paper work. On the other hand, people from colleges
and universities, and to a great extent from manufacturing concerns,
are not confronted with such a pressing demand from a single area. To
these people, the computer is a versatile tool to be used in a variety
of applications.
Table 29 shows the ranking by various respondents of Operations
Research and Linear Programming as a course for the prospective elec
tronic data processing manager. The pattern of responses to this course
is somewhat similar to Numerical Analysis shown in Table 28 in that the
respondents primarily concerned with paper work processing minimized it TABLE 28
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "NUMERICAL ANALYSIS; METHODS IN HIGH-SPEED COMPUTATION" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary NoAnswer Total
Respondeat Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7, No. 1 No. 7. No. % No. X
Manufacturers 14 26.9 25 48.1 11 21.2 2 3.8 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 2 10.5 14 73.7 2 10.5 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 2 6.7 12 40.0 13 43.3 3 10.0 30 100.0
Public Utilities 2 10.0 14 70.0 3 15.0 1 5.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 4 15.4 16 61.5 3 11.5 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 11 39.3 15 53.6 1 3.6 1 3.6 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 1 14.3 4 57.1 2 28.6 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 36 19.8 100 54.9 35 19.2 11 6.0 182 100.0 118 TABLE 29
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "OPERATIONS RESEARCH AND LINEAR PROGRAMMING" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary NoAnswer Total Respondent
Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 1 No. % No. 1 No. 7c No. 7.
Manufacturers 9 17.3 34 65.4 8 15.4 1 1.9 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 0 0.0 16 84.2 2 10.5 1 5.3 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 0 0.0 19 63.3 930.0 2 6.7 30 100.0
Public Utilities 2 10.0 15 75.0 2 10.0 1 5.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 5 19.2 14 53.8 3 11.5 4 15.4 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 7 25.0 17 60.7 1 3.6 3 10.7 28 ioo.;o
Public Accounting Firms 0 0.0 7 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 23 12.6 122 67.0 25 13.7 12 6.6 182100.0 119 120
as an essential course. However, a greater percentage of the respondents marked Operations Research ''desirable" than they did Numerical Analysis.
All the respondents from the public accounting firms considered the former desirable.
Table 30 shows that the majority of the respondents considered
Methods and Applications of Analog Computing unnecessary for the pros pective head of an electronic data processing unit. Perhaps the reason for this is that analog computers are limited mainly to engineering and scientific applications and are not used for the wide range of applica tions of the digital computers, and, therefore, are considered too tech nical or too specialized for the electronic data processing manage r*
Table 31 shows that about 74 per cent of the respondents consid ered Analog and Digital Computer Design unnecessary for the prospective head of an electronic data processing unit. Less than 2 per cent of the respondents considered it essential and only about 16 per cent consid ered it desirable. The prevalent viewpoint is that one does not have to be an expert in the mechanical and electronic design of the equip ment to know how to use it.
Table 32 lists ten other courses suggested by the respondents.
Punched Card Systems were recommended by four respondents; Organization and Administration of an Electronic Data Processing Unit, Selection and
Training of Electronic Data Processing Personnel, and Logic were each recommended by three respondents.
A summary of the recommendations for all the special computer courses (except the miscellaneous courses listed in the preceding table) is shown in Table 33. TABLE 30
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "METHODS AND APPLICATIONS OF ANALOG COMPUTING" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
— ———— — — — — — I ■ * — ■ I I ■ ^ m.m. iLJL g' ■ ^-1 ' .Ml — .1 « ■ ■ « - ^ 1^1 ,1 II ■ y 111^. ■.■II.
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. 7o No. 7. No. % No. %
Manufacturers 1 1.9 22 42.3 28 53.8 1 1.9 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 1 5.3 5 26.3 11 57.9 2 10.5 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 0 0.0 5 16.7 22 70.3 3 10.0 30 100.0
Public Utilities 2 10.0 1 5.0 15 75.0 2 10.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 1 3.8 7 26.9 15 57.7 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 2 7.1 10 35.7 13 46.4 3 10.7 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 0 0.0 1 14.3 6 85.7 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 7 3.8 51 28.0 110 60.4 14 7.7 182 100.0 121 TABLE 31
RANKING BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS OF "ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPUTER DESIGN" AS A COURSE FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Essential Desirable Unnecessary No Answer Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7o No. 1 No. % No. % No. %
Manufacturers 0 0.0 8 15.4 41 78.8 3 5.8 52 100.0
Governmental Agencies 1 1.9 5 26.3 11 57.9 2 10.5 19 100.0
Insurance and Banking 0 0.0 5 16.7 23 76.6 2 6.7 30 100.0
Public Utilities 0 0.0 0 0.0 18 90.0 2 10.0 20 100.0
Computer Manufacturers 1 3.8 4 15.4 18 69.2 3 11.5 26 100.0
Colleges and Universities 1 3.6 7 25.0 17 60.7 3 10.7 28 100.0
Public Accounting Firms 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 100.0 0 0.0 7 100.0
Totals 3 1.6 29 15.9 135 74.2 15 8.2 182 100.0 122 123
TABLE 32
OTHER SPECIALIZED EDP COURSES RECOMMENDED FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Course Responses No. 7.
Punched Card Systems 4 20.0
Organization and Administration of an EDP Unit .... 3 15.0
Selection and Training of EDP Personnel 3 15.0
L o g i c 3 15.0
Information T h e o r y 2 10.0
Game Theory ...... 1 5.0
Boolean Algebra 1 5.0
Binary N o t a t i o n 1 5.0
Supporting Equipment ...... 1 5.0
Total 20 100.0
Three different methods were used to obtain a numerical value to represent the total response for a particular course. These are shown in columns 1, 2, and 3. These values were used to rank the courses as shown in column 4.
In the first column only "essential" ratings were included.
These were not weighted.
In the second column "essential" and "desirable" ratings were included. The "essential" ratings were arbitrarily assigned a value of two in order to reflect their greater importance. 124
TABLE 33
RANKING OF SPECIALIZED COURSES FOR THE PROSPECTIVE HEAD OF AN EDP UNIT
Course value as determined Course by three different methods Rank Course
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Gen. Orientation to Computers and EDP 149 321 317 1
Digital Computer Programming 128 302 300 2
Bus. Systems Analysis & Design for EDP 116 285 282 3
Bus. Applications of Digital Computers 107 274 270 4
Digital Computer Operation 72 226 205 5
Advanced Programming Techniques 63 218 201 6
Industrial Applications of Digital Computers 39 180 153 7
Numerical Analysis & Methods in High- Speed Computation 36 172 137* 8
Operations Research & Linear Program ming 23 168 143* 9
Methods and Applications of Analog Computing 7 65 - 55 10
Analog and Digital Computer Design 3 35 -100 11
Column headings:
1. Only "essential" (value of 1) ratings included.
2. "Essential" (value of 2) plus "desirable" (value of 1) ratings included.
3. A combination of "essential" (value of 2) plus "desirable" (value of 1) minus "unnecessary" (value of 1) ratings.
*Not in order of rank. 125
In the third column "essential," "desirable," and "unnecessary"
ratings were included. These carry values of plus two, plus one, and
minus one, respectively.
It is interesting to note that in each of the three methods the
rank of the courses remained the same, with one exception. Operations
Research outranked Numerical Analysis under the third method.
The third method also produced four distinct clusters or group
ings of values. In the high range, with values of 317, 300, 282, and
270, were (1) General Orientation to Computers, (2) Digital Computer
Programming, (3) Business Systems Analysis, and (4) Business Applica tions of Digital Computers. In the next range, with values of 205 and
201, were (5) Digital Computer Operation, and (6) Advanced Programming.
In the third range, with values of 153, 137, and 143, were (7) Indus trial Applications of Digital Computers, (8) Numerical Analysis, and
(9) Operations Research. In the last range, with values of minus 55 and minus 100 were (10) Methods and Applications of Analog Computer and
(11) Analog and Digital Computer Design.
The top three groupings could very well constitute three stages of the prospective electronic data processing manager's specialized training. The first stage would consist of the minimum essentials for starting in electronic data processing and the next two stages would help expand the manager's competence in the field.
As for the fourth grouping, the low values indicate that these two courses are unnecessary for the prospective electronic data process ing manager. 126
Recommended Training Place for Specialized Computer Courses
The second part of the first question on special computer
courses asked the respondents to indicate their first choice of where or
by whom this training should be given.
In making their recommendations, a number of respondents marked
more than one training agency as their "first" choice. As these mul
tiple "first" choices were sufficiently numerous so that their exclu
sion would distort the results, they were tallied on a fractional basis;
i.e., two choices at 1/2 point each, three choices at 1/3 point each,
etc. Also, whenever a respondent marked a course "unnecessary," any
recommendations as to training place for the course was ignored.*"
The recommendations concerning the training place for General
Orientation to Computers are shown in Table 34. Of the respondents,
54 per cent recommended the colleges and universities, 20.5 per cent recommended the computer manufacturers, 11.4 per cent recommended on- the-job programs, and 11.2 per cent recommended the high schools.
All groups indicated colleges and universities as their first choice. Among these, the respondents from colleges and universities and computer manufacturers were the strongest advocates of the former as the training agency.
Respondents from public utilities and insurance and banking firms were the strongest advocates of computer manufacturers as the second choice of training agency.
*"The several respondents who made such designations indicated that colleges and universities were the logical training places for these unnecessary courses^ TABLE 34
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR GENERAL ORIENTATION TO COMPUTERS AND EDP ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 70
Manufacturing Concerns 25.8 51.7 6.8 13.7 11.8 23.7 4.5 9.0 1.0 2.0 50 100
Governmental Agencies 7.5 41.7 3.0 16.7 3.5 19.4 3.0 16.7 1.0 5.6 18 100
Insurance and Banking 15.2 50.6 2.2 7.2 8.7 28.9 2.0 6.7 2.0 6.7 30 100
Public Utilities 7.2 37.7 3.3 17.5 6.0 31.6 2.5 13.2 0.0 0.0 19 100
Computer Manufacturers 15.5 67.4 1.5 6.5 3.0 13.0 3.0 13.0 0.0 0.0 23 100
Colleges and Universities 18.3 73.0 1.8 7.0 1.8 7.0 2.3 9.0 1.0 4.0 25 100
Public Accounting Firms 3.5 50.0 1.0 14.2 0.5 7.1 2.0 28.5 0.0 0.0 7 100
Totals 92.9 54.0 19.6 11.4 35.3 20.5 19.3 11.2 5.0 2.9 172 100
to 128
The recommendations concerning the training place for Digital
Computer Programming are shown in Table 35. Computer manufacturers
received the highest response, 56.1 per cent. Next were the colleges
and universities with 27.1 per cent, followed by on-the-job programs
with 11.9 per cent, of the responses.
The 81.6 per cent response from the public utilities was the
largest in favor of computer manufacturers as the training agency.
This is in sharp contrast to their 0.5 per cent response for colleges
and universities. All the groups preferred the computer manufacturer
as the training agency except respondents from colleges and universi
ties, who favored their own institutions.
Several factors contribute to the popularity of equipment manu
facturers' training programs. The training generally is excellent,
and frequently is provided at no additional cost to the purchaser of
the equipment. The training is given on the manufacturers' premises where the actual equipment is available for instructional purposes.
Table 36 shows that about 50 per cent of the respondents recom mended that Advanced Programming Techniques also be taught by the com puter manufacturers. The second choice was on-the-job training programs which had two more advocates than the college and university programs.
The 35.7 per cent responses from manufacturing concerns was the highest
recommending on-the-job programs. This is in sharp contrast to their
recommendation for Digital Computer Programming in which only 6 per cent
recommended that it be taught on the job.
The respondents from the public utilities were the strongest advocates of having the two programming courses taught by the computer TABLE 35
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR DIGITAL COMPUTER PROGRAMMING ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7, No. 7. No. 7c No. t No. 7, No. 7.
Manufacturing Concerns 16.0 32.0 3.0 6.0 30.0 60.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 50 100
Governmental Agencies 1.8 10.2 3.3 18.5 11.8 65.7 0.0 0.0 1.0 5.6 18 100
Insurance and Banking 5.8 19.3 4.8 16.0 17.3 57.7 0.0 0.0 2.0 6.7 30 100
Public Utilities 0.5 2.6 3.0 15.8 15.5 81.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19 100
Computer Manufacturers 5.7 24.8 2.3 10.0 12.7 55.2 2.3 10.0 0.0 0.0 23 100
Colleges and Universities 16.3 60.2 3.3 12.0 6.3 23.1 0.3 0.9 1.0 3.7 27 100
Public Accounting Finns 1.0 14.3 1.0 14.3 4.0 57.1 1.0 14.3 0.0 0.0 7 100
Totals 47.1 27.1 20.7 11.9 97.6 56.1 3.6 2.1 5.0 2.9 174 100 129 TABLE 36
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PUCE FOR ADVANCED PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 1 No. % No. % No. % No. %
Manufacturing Concerns 5.0 11.9 15.0 35.7 21.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.4 42 100
Governmental Agencies 3.8 23.9 2.3 14.6 7.8 48.9 0.0 0.0 2.0 12.5 16 100
Insurance and Banking 5.0 19.2 7.5 28.8 11.5 44.2 0.0 0.0 2.0 7.7 26 100
Public Utilities 0.5 2.8 4.0 22.2 13.0 72.2 0.5 2.8 0.0 0.0 18 100
Computer Manufacturers 6.0 28.6 4.5 21.4 10.5 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21 100
Colleges and Universities 12.8 49.3 2.8 10.9 8.3 32.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 7.7 26 100
Public Accounting Firms 1.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 5.0 83.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6 100
Totals 34.2 22.1 36.2 23.4 77.2 49.8 0.5 0.3 7.0 4.5 155 100 130 131 manufacturers and the weakest for having these taught by the colleges and universities.
The responses for Digital Computer Operation, as shown in Table
37, followed a pattern similar to Advanced Programming Techniques, with equipment manufacturer programs indicated as a first choice, the compu ter users' on-the-job programs indicated as the second choice, and col lege and university programs indicated as the third choice. The first two programs, however, gained at the expense of the third.
The recommendations concerning the training agency for Business
Applications of Digital Computers are shown in Table 38. About 60 per cent of the respondents favored the colleges and universities as the place of training. The computer users' on-the-job programs were the second choice with 21 per cent, and equipment manufacturers were the third choice with 12 per cent, of the total responses.
Table 39 shows that the responses for Business Systems Analysis and Design follow a pattern quite similar to that of Business Applica tions of Digital Computers in that colleges and university programs were first, the computer users' on-the-job programs were second, and the equipment manufacturers' programs were third. The first two, however, gained slightly at the expense of the third.
Table 40 shows that the total responses relating to the training agency for Industrial Applications of Digital Computers to be almost identical with that of Business Applications of Digital Computers shown in Table 38.
Table 41 shows that almost 84 per cent of the respondents favor TABLE 37
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR DIGITAL COMPUTER OPERATION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 70 No. 7, No. % No. % No. 70
Manufacturing Concerns 6.0 13.6 17.0 38.6 21.0 47.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 44 100
Governmental Agencies 0.5 3.1 5.0 31.3 9.0 56.3 0.5 3.1 1.0 6.3 16 100
Insurance and Banking 2.0 7.1 7.5 26.8 15.5 55.4 0.0 0.0 3.0 10.7 28 100
Public Utilities 0.0 0.0 3.0 18.8 12.0 75.0 1.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 16 100
Computer Manufacturers 3.5 17.5 3.0 15.0 13.5 67.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20 100
Colleges and Universities 6.5 26.0 6.5 26.0 11.0 44.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 4.0 25 100
Public Accounting Firms 1.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 60.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 20.0 5 100
Totals 19.5 12.7 42.0 27.3 85.0 55.2 1.5 1.0 6.0 3.9 154 100 132 TABLE 38
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR BUSINESS APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. % No. 78 No. % No. %
Manufacturing Concerns 30.0 61.2 12.0 24.5 5.0 10.2 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.1 49 100
Governmental Agencies 11.0 61.1 3.0 16.7 1.5 8.3 0.5 2.8 2.0 11.1 18 100
Insurance and Banking 15.0 51.7 6.5 22.4 3.5 12.1 1.0 3.4 3.0 10.3 29 100
Public Utilities 8.3 46.3 7.8 43.5 1.3 7.4 0.5 2.8 0.0 0.0 18 100
Computer Manufacturers 14.3 62.0 4.8 20.7 3.3 14.1 0.8 3.3 0.0 0.0 23 100
Colleges and Universities 16.8 73.2 0.8 3.6 4.3 18.8 0.0 0.0 1.0 4.3 23 100
Public Accounting Firms 5.3 76.1 0.3 4.8 1.3 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7 100
Totals 100.7 60.3 35.2 21.1 20.2 12.1 2.8 1.7 8.0 4.8 167 100 133 TABLE 39
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PUCE FOR BUSINESS SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN FOR EDP ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 1 No. % No. % No. 7. No. % No. %
Manufacturing Concerns 28.5 58.2 15.5 31.6 3.0 6.1 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.1 49 100
Governmental Agencies 11.5 63.9 3.5 19.4 2.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 1.0 5.6 18 100
Insurance and Banking 17.0 60.7 5.5 19.6 2.5 8.9 1.0 3.6 2.0 7.1 28 100
Public Utilities 10.3 51.7 7.8 39.2 0.8 4.2 1.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 20 100
Computer Manufacturers 13.3 60.6 4.3 19.7 4.3 19.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 22 100
Colleges and Universities 20.0 80.0 3.0 12.0 1.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 4.0 25 100
Public Accounting Firms 3.5 50.0 2.5 35.7 1.0 14.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7 100
Totals 104.2 61.6 42.2 25.0 14.7 8.7 2.0 1.2 6.0 3.6 169 100 134 TABLE 40
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 7. No. % No. 7. No. 7. No. 7*
Manufacturing Concerns 26.2 54.5 14.2 29.5 5.7 11.8 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.2 48 100
Governmental Agencies 10.0 66.7 1.0 6.7 1.5 10.0 0.5 3.3 2.0 13.3 15 100
Insurance and Banking 8.5 60.7 2.5 17.9 1.0 7.1 1.0 7.1 1.0 7.1 14 100
Public Utilities 7.3 56.4 2.8 21.8 2.3 17.9 0.5 3.8 0.0 0.0 13 100
Computer Manufacturers 12.3 56.0 3.8 17.4 5.8 26.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 22 100
Colleges and Universities 14.8 61.8 4.8 20.1 1.3 5.5 0.0 0.0 3.0 12.5 24 100
Public Accounting Firms 3.3 66.7 0.3 6.7 1.3 26.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 100
Totals 82.5 58,5 29.5 20.9 19.1 13.5 2.0 1.4 8.0 5.7 141 100 135 TABLE 41
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND METHODS IN HIGH-SPEED COMPUTATION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. 7. No. 7. No. 70 No. 7,
Manufacturing Concerns 34.0 87.2 2.0 5.1 3.0 7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 39 100
Governmental Agencies 14.0 87.5 1.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 6.3 16 100
Insurance and Banking 12.0 85.7 1.0 7.1 1.0 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14 100
Public Utilities 11.0 68.8 2.5 15.6 1.0 6.3 0.5 3.1 1.0 6.3 16 100
Computer Manufacturers 16.5 82.5 0.5 2.5 3.0 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20 100
Colleges and Universities 22.3 85.9 0.3 1.3 1.8 7.0 0.5 1.9 1.0 3.8 26 100
Public Accounting Firms 4.0 80.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 100
Totals 113.8 83.7 7.3 5.4 10.8 8.0 1.0 0.7 3.0 2.2 136 100 136 137
the colleges and universities for teaching Numerical Analysis and High-
Speed Computation. As the basic mathematics courses through the cal
culus are the usual prerequisites for Numerical Analysis, it would seem
that the college mathematics department would be the logical choice for
its presentation.
Table 42 shows that the respondents made a similar recommenda
tion for Operations Research and Linear Programming as they did for
Numerical Analysis, with about 86 per cent of the respondents favoring
the colleges and universities. Much of the same reasoning applies in
this case also, as some rather sophisticated mathematics are frequently employed in operations research. However, in addition to the mathema tics, one must have a firm grasp of the circumstances surrounding the particular project under study.
Tables 43 and 44 show that the relatively few people who did recommend Methods and Applications of Analog Computing and Analog and
Digital Computer Design, as courses for the prospective head of an elec tronic data processing unit, recommended that they also be taught in the colleges and universities.
Special Electronic Data Processing Courses Recommended For Other Managers
The previous sections of this paper were concerned with the edu cational and training needs of the prospective head of an electronic data processing unit. In contrast, this section deals with the needs of other managers, regardless of their individual specialties. For this reason, the results shown in Table 45 have much wider application in that they would apply to all business administration students. TABLE 42
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR OPERATIONS RESEARCH AND LINEAR PROGRAMMING ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. X No. X No. X No. % No. X No. X
Manufacturing Concerns 34.8 81.0 2.8 6.6 2.3 5.4 0.0 0.0 3.0 7.0 43 100
Governmental Agencies 14.5 90.6 0.5 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 1.0 6.3 16 100
Insurance and Banking 16.0 84.2 0.0 0.0 1.0 5.3 0.0 0.0 2.0 10.5 19 100
Public Utilities 12.5 73.5 4.0 23.5 0.5 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 17 100
Computer Manufacturers 17.5 92.1 1.0 5.3 0.5 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19 100
Colleges and Universities 22.5 93.8 1.5 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 24 100
Public Accounting Firms 6.5 92.9 0.5 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7 100
Totals 124.3 85.7 10.3 7.1 4.3 3.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 4.1 145 100 138 TABLE 43
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR METHODS AND APPLICATIONS OF ANALOG COMPUTING ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Op inion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7o No. % No. 7a No. % No. % No. 7o
Manufacturing Concerns 15.2 66.0 1.7 7.2 4.2 18.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 8.7 23 100
Governmental Agencies 5.0 83.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0 1.0 16.7 6 100
Insurance and Banking 5.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 100
Public Utilities 2.0 66.7 0.0 0.0 1.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3 100
Computer Manufacturers 6.3 79.1 1.3 16.6 0.3 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8 100
Colleges and Universities 9.0 75.0 0.5 4.2 1.5 12.5 0.0 0.0 1.0 8.3 12 100
Public Accounting Firms 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 100
Totals 42.5 73.3 3.5 6.0 8.0 13.8 0.0 0.0 4.0 6.9 58 100 139 TABLE 44
RECOMMENDED TRAINING PLACE FOR ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPUTER DESIGN ACCORDING TO VARIOUS RESPONDENTS
College On-The-Job Computer High No & Univ. Program Mfg. School Opinion Total
Respondent Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. No. % No. 7. No. 7, No. 7o No. %
Manufacturing Concerns 4.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 37.5 0.0 0.0 1.0 12.5 8 100
Governmental Agencies 5.0 83.3 0.0 0.0 1.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6 100
Insurance and Banking 3.0 60.0 1.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 20.0 5 100
Public Utilities 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 100
Computer Manufacturers 4.0 80.0 0.5 10.0 0.5 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 100
Colleges and Universities 5.5 68.8 0.5 6.3 1.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 1.0 12.5 8 100
Public Accounting Firms 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 100
Totals 21.5 67.2 2.0 6.3 5.5 17.2 0.0 0.0 3.0 9.4 32 100 140 TABLE 45
SPECIAL EDP COURSES RECOMMENDED BY VARIOUS RESPONDENTS AS DESIRABLE FOR MANAGERS OTHER THAN EDP MANAGERS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili- Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms Course
Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. No. No. 7. No. % No. 7o No. No. No.
TOTAL RESPONDENTS 52 100.0 19 100.0 30 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 182 100.0 Gen. Orientation to Computers & EDP 49 94.2 17 89.5 27 90.0 17 85.0 19 73.1 21 75.0 7 100.0 157 86.3 Bus. Applications of Digital Computers 35 67.3 13 68.4 16 43.3 11 55.0 13 50.0 15 53.6 4 57.1 107 58.8 Ind. Applications of Digital Computers 22 42.3 5 26.3 5 15.7 2 10.0 10 38.5 10 35.7 1 14.3 55 30.2 Bus. Systems Analysis and Design 17 32.7 9 37.4 7 23.3 5 25.0 4 15.4 7 25.0 0 0.0 49 26.9 Operations Research & Linear Programming 10 19.2 2 10.5 2 6.7 6 30.0 5 19.2 7 25.0 2 28.6 34 18.7 Digital Computer Programming 1 1.9 3 15.8 1 3.3 2 10.0 2 7.7 7 25.0 0 0.0 16 8.8 Digital Computer Operation 3 5.8 0 0.0 1 3.3 3 15.0 1 3.8 3 10.7 1 14.3 12 6.6 Others 9 17.3 0 0.0 1 3.3 1 5.0 0 0.0 2 7.1 2 28.6 15 8.2 None 1 1.9 0 0.0 1 3.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.1 No Answer 0 0.0 2 10.5 1 3.3 1 5.0 6 23.1 7 25.0 0 0.0 17 9.3 t-* -P' 142
General Orientation to Computers ranks first as a desirable
course for the other managers, with 86 per cent of the respondents re
commending it. Reference to Table 21 shows this course also ranked
first for the electronic data processing managers.
Digital Computer Programming, however, which ranked second as
a course for the electronic data processing managers, ranked sixth as
a course for the other managers with only about 9 per cent of all the
respondents recommending it. Very few respondents from public account
ing, manufacturing, insurance and banking concerns recommended it. It
is the feeling, perhaps, of these respondents that Digital Computer Pro
gramming is too technical a course for the other managers. In contrast
to the foregoing are the responses from colleges and universities, with
25 per cent recommending the course. Some institutions are using Digi
tal Computer Programming as an introductory course in lieu of General
Orientation to Computers. The great majority, however, seem to favor
the latter as the introductory course for the other managers.
About 59 per cent of the respondents recommended Business Appli
cations of Digital Computers for the other managers. The same percentage
recommended this course as essential, and an additional 33 per cent re
commended it as desirable, for the prospective electronic data processing managers.
About 30 per cent of the respondents recommended Industrial
Applications of Digital Computers for the other managers, whereas about
77 per cent of the respondents recommended it for the prospective elec
tronic data processing managers.
Business Systems Analysis and Design was recommended by about 143
27 per cent of the respondents as a desirable course for the other mana
gers. In contrast, about 64 per cent recommended this course as essen
tial, and an additional 29 per cent recommended it as desirable, for
the electronic data processing managers.
Operations Research and Linear Programming was recommended by
about 19 per cent of the respondents as a desirable course for the other managers. Table 29 shows that 67 per cent of the respondents recommended this as a desirable, and an additional 12.6 per cent as an essential, course for the electronic data processing managers.
Only 6.6 per cent of the respondents recommended Digital Compu
ter Operation as a desirable course for the other managers.
The recommendations for each of the other courses were insigni ficant, as none was recommended by as much as 2 per cent of the res pondents .
Training and Educational Backgrounds of Electronic Data Processing Managers
The preceding sections of this chapter dealt with the recommended training and educational needs of prospective electronic data processing managers. In contrast, this Bection deals with the actual training and education of employed electronic data processing managers. The latter were asked questions concerning years of formal education; degrees held; collegiate curriculum, majors, and minors; and specialized computer courses taken.
The tabulations in this section total 185 instead of 182 respon dents, as each of three organizations reported heads of two separate electronic data processing units. 144
Years of College Completed and Degrees Held
The number of years of college completed by employed electronic data processing managers is shown in Table 46. An examination of the total responses reveals a modal response of four years (but a median of five years) of college education completed. The modal response was the same (but the median response was a year less) for number of years re commended for the prospective electronic data processing manager, as shown in Table 15.
Fourteen managers had no college education, compared with the qualified recommendation of only one respondent that no college educa tion is needed. Twenty-seven other managers had from one to three years of college, but only four respondents recommend this length of time for the prospective manager.
Seventy-six (or 41 per cent) of the managers had completed five or more years of college. This is in contrast to 33 per cent of the respondents recommending work beyond the fourth year.
The second part of the question related to the degrees held by the electronic data processing managers. Of the managers, 22.7 per cent did not have any degrees, but 37.3 per cent had bachelors', 16.2 per cent had masters', and 14.1 per cent had doctors', degrees.
As one might anticipate, the majority (20 out of 26) of the doc tors' degrees were held by college people. The others were distributed as follows: two in governmental agencies, three in computer manufactur ers, and one in a public accounting firm.
On the basis of graduate degrees (masters' and doctors') held TABLE 46
NUMBER OF YEARS OF COLLEGE COMPLETED BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili- Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms Years ______Completed Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 7.
0 4 7.5 0 0.0 8 25.0 2 10.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 14 7.6 1 2 3.8 0 0.0 1 3.1 1 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 2.2 2 6 11.3 5 26.3 4 12.5 1 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 16 8.6 3 1 1.9 1 5.3 1 3.1 4 20.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 3.8 4 18 34.0 2 10.5 14 43.8 4 20.0 10 38.5 1 3.6 1 14.3 50 27.0 5 11 20.7 1 5.3 2 6.3 4 20.0 8 30.8 0 0.0 1 14.3 27 14.6 6 7 13.2 4 21.5 2 6.3 1 5.0 2 7.7 1 3.6 1 14.3 18 9.7 7 2 3.8 1 5.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 7.7 3 10.7 0 0.0 8 4.3 8 1 1.9 2 10.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 7.7 17 60.7 1 14.3 23 12.4 Answer 1 1.9 3 15.8 0 0.0 3 15.0 2 7.7 6 21.4 3 42.8 18 9.7
Totals 53* 100.0 19 100.0 32* 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 185* 100.0
*More than one EDP unit head reported. 145 TABLE 47
THE HIGHEST COLLEGIATE DEGREE HELD BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili Manufac & Univer Accounting Totals Highest Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms Degree Held Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 1 No. 1 No. % No. % No. % No. % No. 1 No. %
None 14 26.4 6 31.6 14 43.8 8 40.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 42 22.7
Bachelors 26 49.1 3 15.8 15 46.9 8 40.0 13 50.0 1 3.6 3 42.8 69 37.3
Masters 12 22.6 5 26.3 3 9.4 1 5.0 8 30.8 1 3.6 0 0.0 30 16.2
Doctors 0 0.0 2 10.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 11.5 20 71.4 1 14.3 26 14.1
No Answer 1 1.9 3 15.8 0 0.0 3 15.0 2 7.7 6 21.4 3 42.8 18 9.7
Totals 53* 100.0 19 100.0 32* 100.0 20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 185* 100.0
*More than one EDP head reported. 146 147 by employed managers, the descending order of rank and the percentages were as follows: colleges and universities, 75 per cent; computer manu facturers, 42.3 per cent; governmental agencies, 36.8 per cent; manu facturing concerns, 22.6 per cent; public accounting, 14.3 per cent; insurance and banking, 9.4 per cent; and public utilities, 5 per cent.
The kinds of bachelors' degrees held are shown in Table 48.
Of the 100 bachelors' degrees reported, 30 were Bachelor of Arts, 27 were Bachelor of Science, 24 were Bachelor of Business Administration, and 15 were Bachelor of Engineering degrees.
Definite conclusions concerning the curricular content of the
Bachelor of Arts and the Bachelor of Science degrees are not possible due to the variations in requirements among the educational institutions.
However, the Bachelor of Business Administration and the Bachelor of
Engineering degrees are more specific and one can formulate some opinions concerning their content.
Table 49 consists of a similar breakdown of the graduate degrees.
The same arguments may be advanced for interpreting the data in this table as for the preceding table. However, it should be noted that there was a greater concentration in the percentage of Master of Science de grees than in Bachelor of Science degrees.
Curriculum, Majors, and Minors
Another presentation of the educational backgrounds of the mana gers is found in the next eight tables. Table 50 shows the various cur ricula taken, Business administration ranked first; liberal arts next; electrical engineering third; and mathematics fourth. However, this TABLE 48
KINDS OF BACHELORS DEGREES HELD BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili Manufac & Univer Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms Degrees Held Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. 1 No. 1 No. 7o No. 7. No. 7,
Bachelors Arts 5 13.9 4 50.0 6 37.5 3 30.0 6 33.3 5 62.5 1 25.0 30 30.0 Science 8 22.2 2 25.0 4 25.0 2 20.0 8 44.4 2 25.0 1 25.0 27 27.0 Bus. Admin. 14 38.9 1 12.5 6 37.5 1 10.0 1 5.6 0 0.0 1 25.0 24 24.0 Engineering 7 19.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 30.0 3 16.7 1 12.5 1 25.0 15 15.0 Laws 1 2.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.0 Philosophy 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 10.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.0 Education 1 2.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.0 Military 0 0.0 1 12.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.0
Totals 36 100.0 8 100.0 16 100.0 10 100.0 18 100.0 8 100.0 4 100.0 100 100.0
4> TABLE 49
KINDS OF GRADUATE DEGREES HELD BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili- Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms Degrees Held Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. % No. 1 No. % No. 1 No. 1 No. %
Masters Science 5 38.5 0 0.0 1 33.3 0 0.0 4 33.3 6 21.4 0 0.0 16 23.9 Arts 4 30.8 3 37.5 1 33.3 1 50.0 1 8.3 2 7.1 1 50.0 13 19.4 Bus. Admin. 1 7.7 1 12.5 1 33.3 0 0.0 2 16.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 7.5 Engineering 3 23.1 2 25.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 16.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 10.4
jctors Philosophy 0 0.0 2 25.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 25.0 19 67.9 1 50.0 25 37.3 Science 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.6 0 0.0 1 1.5
Totals 13 100.0 8 100.0 3 100.0 2 ;100.0 12 100.0 28 100.0 2 100.0 67 100.0 149 TABLE 50
VARIOUS CURRICULA REPORTED BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili- Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms S u b j e c t ______Area Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. % No. 7. No. 7. No. % No. %
Bus. Admin. 20 57.1 8 53.3 12 63.2 b 50.0 4 22.2 0 0.0 1 33.3 51 43.6
Liberal Arts 8 22.9 4 26.7 6 31.6 6 50.0 7 38.9 4 26.7 1 33.3 36 30.8
Mathematics 1 2.9 2 13.3 1 5.3 0 0.0 2 11.1 7 46, 7 0 0.0 13 11.1
Engineering 6 17.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 22.2 3 20.0 1 33.3 14 12.0
Others 0 0.0 1 6.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 5.5 1 6.7 0 0.0 3 2.6
Totals 35 100.0 15 100.0 19 100.0 12 100.0 18 100.0 15 100.0 3 100.0 117 100,0 150 151
is not an accurate representation of mathematics as many majors In this
area reported, and rightly so, the liberal arts curriculum.
The subject areas from which majors were taken are shown in
Table 51. Sixteen more majors than curricula were reported, as several managers had more than one major. These dual majors were sufficiently numerous in liberal arts to cause slight variations in the percentages
for the majors and their corresponding curricula.
Business administration majors ranked first with 41.6 per cent of the total. This compares with 43.6 per cent of the curricula re ported in Table 50. Public utilities and insurance and banking firms
reported the highest percentages of business majors.
Mathematics is finally shown in its true perspective. The 30*7 per cent figure places mathematics second in rank. A comparison of majors with curricula can be made by combining mathematics and liberal arts. The percentages for the combination are 43.1 for the majors and
41.9 for the curricula. The highest percentages of the mathematics majors were from the colleges and universities.
In third place were the majors in liberal arts (other than mathematics) with 12.4 per cent of the total. Respondents from colleges and universities reported seven of the seventeen majors.
In fourth place were the engineering majors with 11.7 per cent of the total. This compares with the 12 per cent reporting the engineer
ing curriculum.
Of the five other majors reported, three were in law, one was in architecture, and one was in agronomy. TABLE 51
SUBJECT AREAS FROM WHICH MAJORS WERE TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac Govern Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili Manufac & Univer Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities Firms Subject Area Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. % No. 7. No. % No. % No. % No. 7> No. 7.
Business 22 50.0 4 33.3 12 63.2 10 83.3 1 30.4 0 0.0 2 50.0 57 41.6
Mathematics 10 22.7 5 41.7 5 26.3 1 8.3 8 34.8 13 56.5 0 0.0 42 30.7
Liberal Arts 2 4.5 2 16.7 2 10.5 0 0.0 3 13.0 7 30.4 1 25.0 17 12.4
Engineering 8 18.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 21.7 2 8.7 1 25.0 16 11.7
Others 2 4.5 1 8.3 0 0.0 1 8.3 0 0.0 1 4.3 0 0.0 5 3.6
Totals 44 100.0 12 100.0 19 100.0 12 100.0 23 100.0 23 100.0 4 100.0 137 100.0 152 153
Table 52 shows the specific majors taken in business. Account
ing majors were first with 59.6 per cent, followed by economics with
12.3 per cent, and general business with 7 per cent* None of the others
accounted for more than 3.5 per cent of the total.
TABLE 52
SPECIFIC BUSINESS MAJORS TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS
Responses Major No. 7.
Accounting...... 34 59.6
Economics...... 7 12.3
General Business ...... 5 8.8
Business Finance ...... 4 7.0
Business Statistics ...... 2 3.5
Management...... 2 3.5
Foreign Trade ...... 1 1.8
Coroner ce ...... 1 1.8
Marketing ...... 1 1.8
Totals 57 100.0
The high percentage of accounting majors among the respondents seems entirely reasonable when one considers the nature of the account
ant's work. The great volume of paperwork in pay roll, inventories, cus tomer billing, statement preparation, and others and the versatility of 154 the computer in processing this paperwork have motivated numerous account ants to become electronic data processing managers.
Table 53 shows the specific liberal arts majors taken. The science majors predominate. This substantiates the viewpoints previously ex pressed that people from the mathematics and science areas have taken an interest in computers and are now working as electronic data processing 2 managers.
TABLE 53
SPECIFIC LIBERAL ARTS MAJORS TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS
Responses Major No. %
Physics ...... 7 41.2
Chemistry ...... 3 17.6
English ...... 1 5.9
Latin . 1 5.9
Ancient Languages 1 5.9
History...... 1 5.9
Astronomy ...... 1 5.9
Astro-Physics ...... 1 5.9
Public Administration ...... 1 5.9
Totals 17 100.0
2 Sujgra, p. 102. 155
The specific engineering majors are shown in Table 54. As one would expect, most of these are in electrical engineering, especially those reported by computer manufacturers.
TABLE 54
SPECIFIC ENGINEERING MAJORS TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS
Responses Major No. 7.
Electrical Engineering ...... • 9 56.3
Mechanical Engineering...... 2 12.5
Chemical Engineering ...... 2 12.5
Industrial Engineering ...... 1 6.3
Mechanical Design ...... 1 6.3
Communications ...... 1 6.3
Totals 16 100.0
The next part of the question concerns the areas from which miners were taken by the electronic data processing managers. Table 55 shows that of the 153 minors reported, 54 were in liberal arts; 52 in business;
35 in mathematics; 8 in engineering; and 4 in other areas.
Governmental agencies had the highest concentration of liberal arts minors; colleges and universities had the highest concentration of mathematics minors; and public utilities had the highest concentration of business minors. TABLE 55
SUBJECT AREAS FROM WHICH MINORS WERE TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance Public Computer Colleges Public turing mental and Utili- Manufac- & Univer- Accounting Totals Concerns Agencies Banking ties turers sities FirmsSubject Area
Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. 7, No. 7. No. 7. No. 7. No. % No. 7. No. 1
Liberal Arts 16 31.4 7 50.0 7 33.3 3 25.0 13 40.6 8 44.4 0 0.0 54 35.3
Business 20 39.2 6 42.9 9 42.9 6 50.0 9 28.1 0 0.0 2 40.0 52 34.0
Mathematics 11 21.6 1 7.1 3 14.3 2 16.7 7 21.9 9 50.0 2 40.0 35 22.9
Engineering 3 5.9 0 0.0 1 4.8 0 0.0 3 9.4 0 0.0 1 20.0 8 5.2
Others 1 2.0 0 0.0 1 4.8 1 8.3 0 0.0 1 5.5 0 0.0 4 2.6
Totals 51 100.0 14 100.0 21 100.0 12 100.0 32 100.0 18 100.0 5 100.0 153 100.0 156 157
Table 56 shows that the specific liberal arts minors followed the pattern of the majors in that physics led the others with a substantial
38.9 per cent, three times as much as the next highest minor. A greater variety of minors than majors were reported.
TABLE 56
SPECIFIC LIBERAL ARTS MINORS TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS
Responses Minor No. %
Physics ...... 21 38.9 H i s t o r y 7 13.0 Chemistry ...... 5 9.3 English ...... 4 7.4 philosophy ...... 4 7.4 Political Science 3 5.6 Physical Science ..... 2 3.7 Music 2 3.7 Biology 1 1*9 Astronomy ...... 1 1.9 Sociology ...... 1 1.9 Geology ...... 1 1.9 Science ...... o...... 1 1.9 Experimental Psychology 1 1.9
Totals 54 100.0
Table 57 shows that the minors in business did not follow the pattern set by the majors. However, it is entirely reasonable that eco nomics would be first as business majors frequently are required to take an economics minor. Thus, many managers have a major in accounting and a minor in economics. 158
TABLE 57
SPECIFIC BUSINESS MINORS TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS
Responses Minor No. %
Economics ...... 17 32.7
Accounting ...... 9 17.3
F i n a n c e ...... 6 11.5
General Business ...... 5 9.6
Management ...... 4 7.7
Business Statistics...... 3 5.8
Marketing ...... 2 3.8
Business Law ...... 2 3.8
Industrial Management...... 2 3.8
Industrial Relations ...... 1 1.9
Banking ...... 1 1.9
Totals 52 100.0
Specialized Courses Taken
The last question in this section relates to the specialized courses taken by the electronic data processing managers. The replies are shown in Table 58.
The data reveal that 26 (or 14.1 per cent) of the respondents 159
TABLE 58
SPECIALIZED EDP COURSES TAKEN BY HEADS OF EDP UNITS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Manufac- Govern- Insurance turlng mental and Concerns Agencies Banking Course 1
Responses Responses Responses No. 7. No. 7. No. 7.
TOTAL RESPONDENTS 53 100.0 19 100.0 32 100.0
Gen. Orientation to Computers 46 86.8 13 68.4 21 65.6 00 ¥“4
Digital Computer Programming 43 « 15 78.9 21 65.6
Digital Computer Operation 26 49.1 7 36.8 14 43.8 s
Advanced Programming Techniques 22 41.5 3 15.8 14 43.8
Business Applications 24 45.3 10 52.6 11 34.8
Business Systems Analysis 22 41.5 8 42.1 9 28.1
Numerical Analysis & High- Speed Computation 12 22.6 3 15.8 2 6.3
Industrial Applications 12 22.6 2 10.5 4 12.5
Operations Research & Linear Programming 14 26.4 2 10.5 3 9.4
Analog and Digital Compu tation Design 7 13.2 1 5.3 0 0.0
Methods & Application of Analog Computation 8 15.1 2 10.5 0 0.0
Others 2 3.8 1 5.3 0 0.0
None 3 5.7 0 0.0 6 18.8
No Answer 3 5=7 3 15.8 2 6.3 160
TABLE 58--Continued
Public Computer Colleges Public Utili Manufac- & Univer Account Totals ties turers sities ing Firms
Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
20 100.0 26 100.0 28 100.0 7 100.0 185 100.0
15 75.0 16 61.5 11 39.2 2 28. 6 124 67.0
14 70.0 17 65.4 13 46.4 1 14.3 125 67.6
11 55.0 15 57. 7 6 21.4 1 14.3 80 43.2
9 45.0 12 46. 2 10 35. 7 1 14.3 71 38.4
7 35.0 13 50.0 4 14.3 1 14.3 70 37.8
6 30.0 11 42.3 2 7.1 0 0.0 58 31.4
4 20.0 6 23. 1 13 46.4 0 0.0 40 21. 6
3 15.0 11 42.3 4 14.3 0 0.0 36 19.5
4 20.0 3 11.5 7 25.0 0 0.0 33 17.8
10.0 26.9 7.1 0 0.0 19 10.3
1 5.0 4 15.4 3 10.7 0 0.0 18 9.7
0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 1.6
0 0.0 4 15.4 6 21.4 2 28.6 20 10.8
4 20.0 4 15.4 8 28.6 3 42. 9 26 14.1 161 did not answer and another 20 (or 10.8 per cent) had not taken any spe cialized courses. The latter seemed rather unusual, considering the number of respondents involved. A search through the questionnaires pro vided a logical explanation. Many of these people were pioneers in the field who had gained their knowledge and insight through their own ef forts. Many gained their experience before there were any formal courses.
This point was made by the president of one of the computer manufacturing concerns who appended (it seemed almost apologetically), ’They weren't offered in 1948." Also in the group were directors of university com puting and statistical centers, a consultant who had not taken a formal computer course but had taught several of the courses, the international authority on automatic programming, and authors of numerous articles on electronic data processing. The fact that these people have not taken any electronic computer courses by no means indicates a lack of knowl- e d ge of the area.
Table 58 reveals that Digital Computer Programming and General
Orientation to Computers were within one response of being the same. A fairly even distribution is noted within each of the seven groups of respondents in regard to these courses, in that just about as many took one as the other. However, considerable variation is noted among the seven groups. Electronic data processing managers from manufacturing concerns reported the highest percentages for each course, public ac counting firms and colleges and universities reported the lowest. Part of this may be accounted by the large percentage of "no answers" and
"none" from the latter. 162
A comparison of the rank of the courses taken (Table 58) with the
rank of the recommended courses (Table 33) shows that these courses are
the top two in each case. They differ to the extent that where only one more manager had taken Digital Computer Programming than General Orien
tation to Computers, 21 more respondents had recommended the latter as
"essential" than the former.
Digital Computer operation ranked third among the courses taken by the managers, but fifth among the recommended courses. The novelty
of the computers when they were first being intmduced directed the at
tention of people to the physical aspects of the hardware itself. Here was the 'Vnagic brain" that needed to be explored and "tinkered" with.
Consequently, Digital Computer Operation was much in demand.
Since that time the novelty of the computer has worn off and the computer is seen in its proper perspective--as a versatile tool to be used in the resolution of numerous problems. The problems are, there fore, getting their rightful attention. The systems analysis aspect of business data processing, which had been relegated a position of impor tance below Computer Operation and Programming Techniques, now has emerged in its proper perspective. The need and importance of Business Systems
Analysis is reflected in its third place ranking among the recommended courses.
Advanced Programming Techniques was fourth among the courses taken and sixth among the courses recommended. Much of the same reason ing applies to this course as to Digital Computer Operation.
Business Applications was fifth among the courses taken and fourth among the courses recommended. Here again, the emphasis is less 163 on the computer itself and more on computer applications.
Numerical Analysis, which was seventh among the courses taken by the managers, was ninth among reconmended courses (if the third method of ranking the recommended courses is used).
Industrial Applications, which was eighth among courses taken by electronic data processing managers, was seventh among the courses recommended for the prospective manager. This gain was the result of downgrading Numerical Analysis among the recommended courses.
Operations Research maintained its same relative position in both situations (if the third method of ranking the recommended courses is used).
Analog and Digital Computer Design, which was in tenth place, and Methods and Applications of Analog Computation, which was in eleventh place, switched their relative positions among the courses recommended.
Here again, more emphasis is recommended on what the computers will do, rather than what they are. CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Sumnary
Preliminaries
This section on preliminaries consists of a review of the pur
poses and importance of this study, its limitations, and the proce
dures used.
Purposes.--There were four main purposes of this study. The
first was to determine the kinds of computers owned and the uses made of these computers. The second was to determine the training and educa
tional requirements of prospective heads of electronic data processing units and of prospective managers of other areas who may not be directly
concerned with electronic data processing. The third purpose was to
determine what part of these requirements should be provided in the collegiate school or department of business and what should be provided elsewhere. The fourth purpose was to suggest ways in which collegiate schools or departments of business may meet those requirements that fall within their jurisdiction.
Importance of this study.--The expansion of automation into office and other activities has been accelerated by the development of digital electronic computers. The rate at which computers have been put into use has created a need for great numbers of people skilled in elec tronic data processing. 164 165
This need can be met only by training and educating present and
prospective data processing personnel in these new skills and under
standings. Questions arise immediately concerning the character and
extent of this training and education. What kinds of computers are used
on what kinds of applications? How much and what kind of training is
needed to manage an electronic data processing unit? What training is
needed by managers, other than the above, whose work may be affected by
the new developments? Who should provide this training?
Answers to these and similar questions are needed for counseling,
guidance, and curriculum and program development by the various training and educational agencies.
This study wa3 initiated to obtain some answers to these questions, and in this manner make a contribution to the body of needed research on electronic data processing.
Procedures used.--The writer acquired background on electronic data processing by reviewing the literature, attending meetings and con ferences, taking a programming course, and by organizing and teaching an introductory course entitled "Integrated Data Processing."
The formal investigation began with the preparation of a trial questionnaire which was sent to several authorities in the field for their suggestions and criticism. These suggestions and criticisms were used in the formulation of the final questionnaire.
The final questionnaire was sent to heads of data processing units in colleges and universities, public accounting and management consulting firms, computer manufacturers, and a variety of business and industrial firms using computers. 166
The results were compiled in numerous tables.
Limitations.--The study was limited to a sampling of people in
the United States who were concerned with electronic digital computer
data processing. Punched-card and other electro-mechanical equipment
(also used for data processing) and analog computers (used primarily for
engineering and scientific calculations) were therefore not reported by
the respondents.
Computers Used and Computer Applications
Computers used.--The computer users (manufacturing concerns,
public utilities, and governmental agencies) were asked which computer
they were using. The purpose of this question was to determine the rank
of the more popular computers. This is important as time limitations on
instruction make it impossible to give adequate consideration to every
make of computer. Therefore it would seem sensible to concentrate on
the more frequently used computers— the ones that prospective managers most likely would encounter on the job.
For the programming course it would be desirable to know which is
the most popular computer, as teaching the programming of more than one
kind of computer in a single course is usually out of the question.
The survey of the literature and the analysis of the question naires show the IBM 650, a medium-sized digital computer, is the leader
in the field.
Computer applications.— Electronic computers have been used for numerous business data processing and other applications. Some of the more popular ones are statistical analysis, payroll computations, customer 167
billing, report preparation, inventory control, general accounting, cost
accounting, financial statements, budget preparations, dividend proce
dures, material scheduling, loan accounting, and sales forecasting.
These should be included in the course or unit on computer
applications. While it is desirable that students get an overview of
all possible kinds of computer applications and be encouraged to search
for new ones, from the standpoint of time limitations it would seem expedient to concentrate on the more popular ones.
Curricular Programs
General educational requirements.— The respondents were asked their opinions concerning the extent and content of a desirable colle giate program for the prospective electronic data processing manager.
Less than 3 per cent recommended less than four years of college, but about 33 per cent recommended more than four years of college. The majority recommended the fourth year.
The recommendations as to curricular content are based on the modal and median points of the responses.
The modal and median responses for business courses were 40 per cent of the curriculum, which places business courses first.
Mathematics was next with a median response of 30 per cent (but a modal response of 20 per cent) of the curriculum.
Liberal arts was third with a modal and median response of 20 per cent of the curriculum.
In fourth place was electrical engineering with a median response of 10 per cent (but a modal response of 0 per cent) of the curriculum. 168
Deficiencies.--Of Che tocal deficiencies reported, about 38 per cent were in mathematics; 26 per cent, in business; 18 per cent, in liberal arts; 10 per cent, in electrical engineering; and 9 per cent, in other areas. Mathesiatlcs deficiencies were noted among business students and vice versa.
Specialized Training Requirements
Ranking of courses for electronic data processing managers.--
The specialized computer courses recommended for the prospective elec tronic data processing manager fell into four groupings.
Those recommended most highly were General Orientation to Com puters and Electronic Data Processing, Digital Computer Programming,
Business Systems Analysis and Design, and Business Applications.
In the next group were Digital Computer Operation and Advanced
Programming Techniques. These were recommended as "essential" or
"desirable" for the prospective manager by about 85 per cent of the respondents.
In the third group were Industrial Applications, Numerical Analy sis, and Operations Research. These were rated as "essential" or
"desirable" by about 75 per cent of the respondents.
In the fourth group were Methods and Applications of Analog Com puting and Analog and Digital Computer Design. The majority of the respondents considered these unnecessary for the prospective electronic data processing manager.
Courses recommended for other managers.--The respondents were asked to indicate which of the preceding courses they considered desirable 169
for other managers (such as sales, production, and personnel managers)
who may not be directly concerned with electronic data processing.
The courses in descending order of rank and the percentages of
respondents recommending them are as follows: General Orientation to
Computers, 86 per cent; Business Applications, 59 per cent; Industrial
Applications, 30 per cent; Business Systems Analysis, 27 per cent;
Operations Research, 19 per cent; Digital Computer Programming, 9 per
cent; and Digital Computer Operation, 7 per cent.
Digital Computer Programming, which was rated second for prospec
tive data processing managers, was sixth for other managers.
Recommended training place for specialized computer courses.--
Colleges and universities were selected as the first choice (based on
receiving the largest percentage of recommendations) of training agency
for General Orientation to Computers, Business Applications, Business
Systems Analysis, Industrial Applications, Numerical Analysis, Operations
Research, Hathods and Applications of Analog Computing, and Analog and
Digital Computer Design.
Computer manufacturers were indicated as first choice of training
agency for Digital Computer Programming, Advanced Programming Techniques, and Digital Computer Operation.
Neither company on-the-job nor high school programs were indicated as the first choice of training agency for any of the courses.
Actual Training and Education of Employed Data Processing Kanagers
Extent of college education.— Of the employed electronic data processing managers, about 8 per cent did not have any college education 170 and about 15 per cent had less than four years of college. This is in sharp contrast to the number of years recommended for the prospective manager. Only one respondent said no college education was required and only four respondents recomnended less than four years of college. On the other hand, 41 per cent of the employed managers had college beyond the fourth year as compared to 33 per cent of the respondents recommend ing as much for the prospective manager. This figure, however, was in flated by 20 (or 17 per cent) of the respondents from colleges and uni versities with doctors' degrees. A proportionate share of doctors' de grees was not recommended for the prospective manager, as the assump tion was that he would manage a company data processing unit and not a collegiate computing center.
Degrees held.--Thirty per cent of the employed managers had graduate degrees, 37 per cent had bachelors' degrees, and 23 per cent did not have any degrees.
Bachelors' degrees in arts, science, and business administra tion were most frequently reported.
More masters' degrees were in science than any other area.
Collegiate majors.— Among the areas from which majors were taken, business ranked first with the largest percentages reported by public utilities and insurance and banking firms. Mathematics ranked second with the largest percentages reported by colleges and universities and governmental agencies. Liberal arts ranked third with the highest per centage reported by colleges and universities.
Engineering majors ranked fourth with most of the respondents from computer manufacturers and other manufacturing concerns. 171
About 60 per cent of the business majors were in accounting, and about 41 per cent of the liberal arts majors were in physics.
Collegiate minors.— The areas from which minors were taken, in descending order of rank, were liberal arts, business, mathematics, engi neering, and others.
Within the individual areas, physics outranked the other liberal arts minors with a substantial majority; and economics outranked the other business minors, also by a substantial majority.
Computer courses taken.--The special computer courses taken by employed electronic data processing managers, in order of descending rank, were Digital Computer Programming, General Orientation to Computers,
Digital Computer Operations, Advanced Programming Techniques, Business
Applications, Business Systems Analysis, Numerical Analysis, Industrial
Applications, Operations Research, Analog and Digital Computer Design,
Methods and Applications of Analog Computation, and others.
The rank of courses recommended for prospective managers compared with the rank of courses taken by employed managers reflect a trend away from the physical aspects of the computer itself and toward the uses that can be made of the computers. Thus, among the recommended courses,
Business Systems Analysis, Business Applications, and Industrial Applica tions were ranked higher, and Digital Computer Operation and Advanced Pro gramming Techniques were ranked lower, than they were among the courses taken by employed managers. 172
Conclusions and Recommendations
Qualifying Statements
In formulating conclusions concerning a collegiate curriculum
for electronic data processing and other managers, one is confronted
with a number of considerations.
First it is recognized that this survey on electronic computer
data processing covered only a facet of the larger problem of office
automation. Numerous business concerns of all sizes, but especially
the smaller ones, are using punched-tape machines, punched-card equip ment, or key driven electro-mechanical computers. Some organizations with electronic computers also use this smaller equipment on certain
applications.
As the data processing manager has the responsibility (usually
as the head of a feasibility team) of investigating the various levels
of automation and recommending the appropriate level to be incorporated
in his organization, he needs to be familiar with all kinds of equipmeit, not just electronic computers.
Therefore, any recommendations concerning electronic computer
courses should include consideration of their relationship to the lessee
forms of office automation.
It is also recognized that perhaps no two data processing posi
tions are exactly alike. Great differences may exist in data processing
requirements between an insurance firm and an industrial concern, for
instance. Even greater differences may exist between data processing and scientific computation. 173
These differences require variations in the curricular pattern
of prospective managers whose proclivities for certain types of work vary from those of the others.
Another consideration is the nature of this kind of research
itself. Opinions may be based on emotional attitudes rather than on objective analysis of adequate information.
Also, the opinion of a successful manager in regard to curricu
lum tends to be biased in favor of his own educational pattern. There fore, the recommendations of an individual, or of a certain hemogenious grouping of individuals, need to be judged accordingly.^
Conclusions
The main conclusion, which relates to the major purpose of this study, is that schools and departments of business should educate their students in electronic data processing. This is predicated on several specific conclusions which follow.
1. Computers are being installed at an unprecedented rate to provide managers with more and better data faster and at lower cost, as shown in the first part of Chapter I under Growth of the Office Function and The Role of the Electronic Computer in Reducing and Controlling Office Costs. The specific kinds of data provided managers are listed in the latter part of Chapter II under Computer Applications and Operations Research and in the first part of Chapter IV under Computer Applications.
2. Personnel need to be trained in the knowledge, skills, and understandings of computers and electronic data
In an effort to minimize some of the negative aspects of opinion research, an attempt was made to survey those people who were in leader ship positions, the ones most likely to have done some disciplined think ing about problems relating to electronic data processing. These people are listed in Appendix D. 174
processing* This is evidenced by the training activi ties and recommendations of equipment manufacturers, computer users, colleges and universities, and others.
3. Electronic data processing managers should receive, as a minimal requirement, training in the following specialized courses highly recommended by the respon dents :
a. General Orientation to Computers and EPF. This is an introductory course which lays the founda tion for more advanced work.
b. Business Systems Analysis and Design for EDP. Since electronic data processing must be in corporated within the paper work and communica tions systems, they should be devised according to accepted systems principles for the greatest efficiency.
c. Business and Other Applications of Digital Computers. Electronic data processing managers should know the possibilities and limitations of the equipment.
d. Digital Computer Programning. Flow charting a sequence of operations in a particular application and coding it into machine language is an essen tial phase of electronic data processing.
4. Electronic data processing managers, to increase their competence, should receive training in the following courses:
a. Digital Computer Operation. The electronic data processing manager should know how to operate the computer as he supervises, and may have to train, the operators.
b. Advanced Programming Techniques. This course is desirable especially for the manager who has charge of a large computer system. As these sys tems are more complex and costly, additional train ing helps assure optimal utilization of the com puter.
c. Numerical Analysis. Quantitative methods are be coming increasingly more important in management decision making. This course provides background in topics such as the numerical solution of alge braic and ordinary differential equations, numerical 175
differentiation and integration, and pre paration of problems for large scale computa tion.
d. Operations Research. As shown in the last part of Chapter II, operations research techniques are being applied to business and industrial problems at an accelerated rate. These tech niques are more reliable than rule-of-thumb measures for management decision making.
5. General Orientation to Computers and EDP and Business Applications should be made available to all business administration students. Table 45 shows that about 86 per cent of the respondents recommended the former and about 59 per cent recommended the latter as desirable courses for other managers. The fact that the computer is an efficient data processing and operations research tool for all areas of business and industry accounts for this recommendation. Account ants and office managers, as they are very much involved with data processing, should be required to take these two courses.
6. General Orientation to Computers and EDP, Business Systems Analysis, and Computer Applications should be taught in departments of business. This follows the recommendations of the respondents as shown in Tables 34, 38, 39, and 40. College professors, in teaching these courses, have the advantage of being able to take a broad, detached viewpoint in each subject. They would not be hindered with the necessity for promoting a cer tain kind of computer or limiting themselves to computer applications of a certain kind of business as would the computer manufacturer or the computer user.
7. Numerical Analysis and Operations Research Techniques should be taught in departments of mathematics because of their content. Operations Research Applications could very well be taught in business departments, how ever.
8. Digital Computer Programming, Advanced Programming Techniques, and Digital Computer Operation should be taught by the equipment manufacturer. This follows the recommendations of the respondents as shown in Tables 35, 36, and 37. The manufacturers have the advantage of having the equipment and qualified instruc tors available for instructional purposes. It would also seem reasonable that the electronic data processing manager take these courses on equipment his company uses. 176
9. The data processing manager should have a minimum of four years of college education. This was the concensus among the respondents as shown in Table 15. In fact, a large percentage of the respondents had graduate degrees and recommended the same level of accomplishment for prospective electronic data processing managers. The feeling is that in today's complex dynamic econmy, the manager needs greater levels of competence.
10. Business competence is the major requisite for suc cess for the prospective head of an electronic data processing unit. This is reflected in the respond ents ' recommendation that 40 per cent of the curricu lum be devoted to business courses, and in the widely held viewpoint that it is easier to train a business person as a computer specialist than vice-versa.
11. Mathematics is becoming increasingly more important to electronic data processing and other managers. The use of operations research, which employs some sophisticated mathematical techniques, is gaining in popularity as a more effective approach to business problems.
Recommendat ions
Based on the conclusions outlined above and subject to the qualifications in the previous section, the following is recommended.
1. The resources of the university in general and the school of business in particular should be marshaled to institute a program in electronic data processing.
2. A director of the program should be appointed and given the responsibility of investigating, organiz ing, coordinating, and promoting a university-wide program.
3. The director should be released from routine duties so that he can devote his full attention to the task at hand.
4. The director's duties would include--
a. Getting himself trained in electronic data pro cessing
b. Forming an advisory group 177
c. Enlisting the cooperation of equipment repre sentatives, leaders in the community, univer sity staff, and others.
d. Surveying the computer personnel needs of the area serviced by the school
e. Surveying the resources (personnel and equip ment) in the school and the surrounding communi ties
f. Instituting the necessary curricular changes
g. Acquiring qualified teaching personnel by hiring or by training members on the staff
h. Acquiring the necessary physical resources such as electronic data processing equipment, class rooms, library materials, audio-visual materials, etc.
i. Promoting the program; recruiting students
j. Providing continuing leadership in electronic data processing through writing; lecturing; sponsoring seminars, workshops, conferences; and other pro fessional activities.
5. The best possible electronic data processing program com patible with the circumstances should be offered as soon as possible.
6. The business student desiring to become an electronic data processing manager should have as a minimal re quirement the completion of a four-year college program.
7. The student should be encouraged to continue his educa tion by (1) completing his master's degree (either be fore employment as a full-time student or during em ployment by taking Saturday and evening classes); (2) taking computer manufacturers' courses, attending meet ings and conferences, and taking on-the-job training; or (3) taking some combination of each of these.
8. About 40 per cent of the four-year program should be devoted to business courses; 25 per cent, to mathema tics; 20 per cent, to liberal arts, and the remainder to electives. 178
9. The business curriculum should consist of courses in the basic areas recommended by the American Association of Collegiate Schools of Business, electronic data processing courses, and speciali zation in an area to meet major requirements.
a. The areas recommended by AACSB are accounting, economics, finance, law, management, marketing, and statistics.
b. The electronic data processing courses should include at least Introduction to Office Auto mation,^ General Orientation to EDP, Systems and Procedures, and Business Applications.
c. A major in accounting or office management should be given preference.
10. Basic mathematics courses at least through calculus, plus Numerical Analysis and Operations Research should be taken by the prospective electronic data processing manager.
11. Courses in liberal arts such as conmunications, logic, and physics should be given preference.
12. Digital Computer Programming, Advanced Programming Techniques, and Digital Computer Operation should be taken from the equipment manufacturer if the university does not have a computer.
Suggested Programs
The recommendations for the inclusion of electronic data pro cessing courses in the business curriculum of schools or departments of business should include, in addition to the qualifications previously mentioned, considerations for their implementation. Factors relating to staff, physical facilities, curriculum, student body, aims and purposes of the school, and others need to be considered. Also, there are stages
^This course is outlined in the next section. 179 of development to be considered. It may not be feasible to start immedi ately with an extensive electronic data processing program. The following recommendations therefore start with the minimal requirements and continue with successive stages of development.
Plan A .--A business school or department that has not previously offered data processing courses could start with an introductory course in office automation. The first part of the course should include, among other considerations, a survey of mechanical desk calculators, punched-tape machines, punched-card equipment, and key driven electro-mechanical com puters. The integrated data processing concept should be stressed.
The second part should relate to electronic data processing and should include elements of the following topics: Basic parts of computers, special purpose versus general purpose computers, digital versus analog computers, programming, computer applications, systems and procedures, and computer feasibility studies (selecting and training the feasibility team, selecting a computer, site preparation, dual operation, etc.).
An instructor, feeling a lack of competence, may hesitate teach ing the course for the first time. However, both the instructor and the class can have a rewarding experience the first time the class is offered if use is made of the many resources that are usually available. Local managers from companies such as Friden, National Cash Register, Burroughs,
Remington Rand, International Business Machines, and Royal-McBee are usually willing resource people for lecturing, showing films and filmstrips, and otherwise conducting class sessions.
The lack of a good textbook on the subject should not deter the offering of the course. Literally hundreds of articles on the subject 180
are found in the periodicals, and several dozen reference books are
now available.
The lack of equipment should not be a deterrent factor either.
Equipment manufacturers and computer users are usually quite willing to
conduct field trips through their premises. Some may make their equip
ment available for class projects.
In the second stage of development, Introduction to Office Auto
mation should be split into two courses: Introduction to Office Automa
tion and General Orientation to Computers and Electronic Data Processing.
A more comprehensive treatment of the same topics is now possible.
In the third stage of development, a full course in systems and
procedures is added. More time would be allocated to programming in the
Introduction to Computers course and industrial and operations research
applications would be added. Business applications would be covered in
each of the three courses.
Plan B.--Plan B, a much more extensive program, is recommended
for a larger institution which would have the necessary staff and facili
ties. An electronic computer would be necessary. It is suggested that
this be a university-wide undertaking involving departments such as busi
ness, mathematics, science, and electrical engineering. Organized as a
computing center, the facilities would be used for instruction, demonstra
tion, and research.
The business department would offer Introduction to Office Auto mation, General Orientation to Electronic Data Processing, and Systems and Procedures, as before. 181
The mathematics department would offer Digital Computer Program" ming, Advanced Programming Techniques, Digital Computer Operation, Nu merical Analysis, Operations Research, and other related courses.
The electrical engineering department would offer some basic electronic courses and others that relate to computers. Among the latter might be Analog and Digital Comprt er Design and Methods and Applications of Analog Computation.
This arrangement would meet not only the training needs of prospective electronic data processing and other business managers, but also those of programmers, computer operators, maintenance technicians, and engineers. In addition, the university would have available an excellent research tool.
The student who plans to become an electronic data processing manager would be advised to take, in addition to the three courses in business, Digital Computer Programming, Advanced Programming Techniques,
Digital Computer Operation, Numerical Analysis, and Operations Research.
Accounting and office management majors, whether or not they intend to become electronic data processing managers, should be encour aged to take Introduction to Office Automation, General Orientation to
Electronic Data Processing, and Systems and Procedures. Because of the nature of their work, it will be difficult for them to escape considera tion of some level of office automation and systems work.
Business majors from other areas should be encouraged to take at least General Orientation to Electronic Data Processing. Some leeway for individual interests should be permitted in the course. For instance, students majoring in industrial management could concentrate on industrial 182
applications on an individual project basis; students in sales management,
on sales applications; etc. It is desirable that a unit in operations
research be introduced as it has Important implications for the prospec
tive manager's work.
Recommended Research
As this study was concerned with electronic data processing and
its implications on the business curriculum, studies should be made of
the needs of those who intend to specialize in scientific and engineering computations, which involves the use of analog as well as digital com puters.
Continuing study should be made of operations research as it has profound implications for the administrative function.
With the advent of automatic programming, the status of Digital
Computer Programming should be revaluated in the near future.
Status studies of the various levels of office automation should be made periodically. APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF EDP TERMINOLOGY
183 APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF EDP TERMINOLOGY
ACCESS TIME That time required to call a number from storage and make it available to the arithmetic section.
ADDRESS A symbol, numerical or alphabetic, designating the storage location of one number or word.
ANALOG COMPUTER A computer in which numbers are represented by physical magnitudes, such as the amount of rotation of a shaft or a quantity of electrical voltage or current.
ARITHMETIC Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and OPERATIONS division.
ARITHMETIC That part of the machine in which the arithmetic UNIT operations are performed.
AUTOMATIC DATA The continuous and integrated operation of data PROCESSING (ADP) processing, using automatic machines such as electronic computers.
BINARY DIGIT, General name for either of the symbols in the BIT binary system.
BINARY NUMBER A number system using the base two. There are SYSTEM only two symbols: one or zero ("on" or "off"). Digit values reading from right to left are: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.
CATHODE RAY TUBE An electronic tube, something like a television (electrostatic stor picture tube, used for storing information in age tube) some machines.
CONTROL The section of a data processing machine which controls all operations of the machine. If may be compared with a fully automatic telephone exchange.
DATA PROCESSING A general name for machines which can store MACHINES and process numerical and alphabetic information.
184 185
DE-BUGGING A colorful term widely used in computer circles to denote the process of auditing or checking the accuracy of a program thought to be completed.
DIGITAL COMPUTER A computer to process data consisting of clearly defined numbers as opposed to physical quantities processed in an analogue computer.
ELECTRONIC DATA Automatic processing of information by electronic PROCESSING computer.
HARDWARE A popular name for computers and other related equipment.
INPUT Information (instructions or data) delivered to the machine.
INSTRUCTION An order to the machine to perform some opera tion. The instruction usually contains also the storage address of one or more numbers which are to be used in the operation.
INTEGRATED DATA The effective production, through the systematic PROCESSING (IDP) organization of all related clerical routines, of a coordinated and uninterrupted flow of essential data (information) needed by management in its decision-making, control and planning function.
MAGNETIC DRUM A rotating cylinder surfaced with a material which can be magnetized. This is used to store information. Information is stored by the presence or absence of magnetized spots on the drum surface.
MAGNETIC TAPE A flat ribbon of metal, plastic, or paper which is coated on one side with a material which can be magnetized. Information is stored on the tape by a combination of magnetized spots in certain patterns.
MICROSECOND One-millionth of a second.
MILLISECOND One-thousandth of a second.
OFFICE Communicating, recording, and calculating data AUTOMATION by mechanical or electronic equipment with a minimum of human intervention.
OUTPUT Information produced by a machine. 186
OUTPUT DEVICE Part of a machine which translates the intangible electrical impulses proceased by the machine into tangible permanent results.
PERMANENT The medium used to retain intermediate or final STORAGE results outside of the machine (see output device). This is usually in the form of punched cards, punched paper tape, or magnetic tape.
PRINTER, Unit of the machine which prints the results LINE PRINTER, obtained from processing some data. Numbers, SINGLE STROKE letters, or symbols may be printed, depending PRINTER on the device. A line printer records one line of symbols simultaneously. A single-stroke printer records one symbol at a time.
PROGRAMMING The technique of organizing and planning the detailed internal computer steps required to achieve accurate and uninterrupted processing of all exceptions and situations existing in the source data.
READ, The operation of transferring information from READ IN, one type or location to another type or location. READ OUT For example, punched cards or magnetic tapes may be read and the information they contain may be transferred to other storage locations within a machine.
SIGN, The symbol or* symbols which distinguish positive SIGN DIGIT (plus) numbers from negative (minus) numbers for a machine.
STORAGE A general term for either the ability to hold or the equipment for holding information.
STORED PROGRAM A characteristic of certain machines whereby instructions in the form of numbers, letters, or symbols are held within the machine. The machine refers to these instructions in a specified sequence and performs the operations specified by the instructions.
WRITE The operation of storing a number on the surface of a magnetic tape, a magnetic drum, or a cathode ray tube. APPENDIX B
COVER LETTERS
187 WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY
■ KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS
January 10, 1958
The recent development of complex electronic systems and the unprecedented growth of electronic data processing in the last few years, while showing great promise for the solution of com plex problems and the processing of large masses of repetitive business data, has at the same time presented new problems that are of concern to businessmen and educators alike. How much and what kind of formal education should the prospective EDP manager have? What are his specialized training needs? Where and by whom should this training be provided?
Those of us who are instructors in colleges and universities earnestly solicit you who are on the "firing line" to share your wealth of knowledge and experience in determining what part the school should play in this pressing problem of training people in the use of these new tools and techniques. This information will be made available to, and used by, college faculty and others who, like myself, are involved with the new problems of counseling, curriculum revision, and program development resulting from the recent developments in EDP.
Your taking a few moments to complete and return this short, check list questionnaire will be greatly appreciated.
Sincerely yours,
Leo Niemi, Assistant Professor
P.S. I shall be happy to send you an abstract of the study as soon as it is completed. Just check "yes" on the last item of the questionnaire„
188 WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY
KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS
April 11, 1958
The recent development of complex electronic systems and the unprecedented growth of electronic data processing in the last few years, while showing,great promise for the solution of com plex problems and the processing of large masses of repetitive business data, has at the same time presented new problems that are of vital concern to all of us in the teaching profession. How much and what kind of formal education should the prospective EDP manager have? What are his specialized training needs? Where and by whom should this training be provided?
To find the answers, I have surveyed over a hundred computer users among business concerns and approximately fifty representatives of the several computer manufacturers.
As the final and most important phase of this study, I am asking on behalf of all of us who are concerned with curriculum develop ment that you who have been working with EDP share your wealth of knowledge and experience with us. This information will be made available to, and used bjj businessmen as well as college professors.
Your taking a few moments to complete and return this short, check list questionnaire will be greatly appreciated.
Sincerely yours,
Leo Niemi, Assistant Professor
P.S. I shall be happy to send you an abstract of the study as soon as it is completed. Just check "yes'* on the last item of the questionnaire.
189 APPENDIX C
QUESTIONNAIRE
190 QUESTIONNAIRE ON ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
Name of Type of Company __ Business Address of Company___ Name of Person Title or Making Reply__ Position
PART A - COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Which electronic computer system are you using? (Please check item), IBM 650____ ; IBM 702____ ; IBM 705 ; UNIVAC I ; UNIVAC 120__ ; Datatron ; Burroughs E101____ ; MODAC 404___ ; Other (Please Specify) :______.
2. What percentage of tcptal computer time do you estimate for each of the following applicatiods? (Please estimate to the nearest 10%). a. Business Data Processing ...... ______b. Scientific and Research Studies ...... ______c. Engineering Calculations ...... ______TOTAL 100
3. What are your business data processing applications? (Please check items): a. Budget Preparations i. Material Scheduling b. Cost Accounting ___ j« Payroll Computations c. Customer Billing k. Premium Billing and d. Dividend Procedures Accounting e. Financial Statements___ 1. Report Preparation f. General Accounting ___ m. Sales Forecasting g- Inventory Control n. Statistical Analyses h. Loan Accounting
Others: (Please specify)
PART B - CURRICULAR PROGRAMS
1. How many years of college education do you consider desirable for the head of a company EDP unit? (Encircle appropriate year to be com pleted) : None 12345678
191 192
2. Please indicate the college curricular pattern (exclusive of special ized EDP courses) you would recommend for a prospective head of the EDP unit by designating the percentages (to the nearest 10%) to be taken from the following areas:
a. Business (Accounting, Economics, Finance, Law, Marketing, Management, etc.) ”
b. Liberal Arts (Art, Botany, Chemistry, Geography, History, Language, Logic, Literature, Music, Philosophy, Psychology, etc.)
c. Mathematics (Arithmetic, Algebra, Plane and Analytic Geometry, Trigonometry, Calculus, Differential Equa tions, etc.)
d. Electrical Engineering (Alternating Current Circuits, Circuit Theory of Electron Devices, Industrial Electronics, Electrical Engineering, etc.)
Other areas (Please specify)______% TOTAL 100 %
3. In which of the above areas have you observed college graduates apply ing for positions in EDP to be deficient? (Please encircle items): a b c d e
Comments: 193
PART C - SPECIAL EDP COURSES
1. Please rank each of Che following specialized EDP courses for Che prospecCive head of Che EDP uniC and indicaCe your firsC choice of where or by whom you Chink Chis Craining should be given. (NoCe ChaC Chis quesCion asks for your besC judgmenC, noC necessarily currenC pracCice or where you received Che Craining.)
RANKING [WHERE TRAINING SHOULD BE GIVEI E]ssen- Desir Unnec- | Col Own EquipmenC jHigh COURSES Cial able essary j lege Program Manufac- School Curer General OrienCatdon ; Co compuCers & EDP i 1 k DigiCal CompuCer i; 1i Programming j : 1 Advanced Program- j ; \ c* ming Techniques i ^ DigiCal CompuCer | ! 1 OperaCion i 1 \ Business Applica- ! j Cions of DigiCal S I CompuCers Business SysCems i ! ! f. Analysis and Design i for EDP ! ; . J f IndusCrial Applica- 1 ; | t1 g. cions of DigiCal { CompuCers i_ ___ Numerical Analysis; t h. MeChods in High- Speed CompuCaCion : : ■ 1 * ! Operacions Research 1 ; 5 i. Linear Programming < ■; MeChods and Applica- 1 ■ * ' * i' j. Cions of Analog : 3 CompuCing \ 1 Analog and DigiCal j i I \ ;■ * * CompuCer Design ' j i ! , OChers (Specify): [ 1 j i ■L* ; I V t . i..... - -- ...... ______L_._ m. s ( 1j !\ i r [ ■ i * I ! \ f n * 1 1 1 i i 194
2. Which of the above courses would you recommend as desirable for other managers (such as sales, production, and personnel managers) who may not be directly concerned with EDP? (Please encircle appropriate items) : None abcdefghijklmn
PART D TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF THE PRESENT HEAD OF YOUR EDP UNIT
1. Please indicate the general education background of the head of your EDP Unit; (Encircle the appropriate year completed and indicate degrees held): High School College and University Degrees Held 9 10 11 12 12345678
2. What were his collegiate curriculum and major and minor subject areas: Curriculum;______Minor:
Major: Minor:______
3. Which of the special EDP courses listed in Part-C has he taken? (Please encircle appropriate items): None abcdefghijklmn
Would you like an abstract of this study when it is completed? Yes No APPENDIX D
LIST OF RESPONDENTS
195 APPENDIX D
LIST OF RESPONDENTS
MANUFACTURING CONCERNS
Name of Organization Title of Respondent
A. 0. Smith Corporation Manager, Data Processing Center Milwaukee, Wisconsin
America Bosh Arma Corporation Staff Assistant to the Divi- Springfield, Massachusetts son Manager
Babcock & Wilcox Company Head, Stress Analysis and Barberton, Ohio Computer Center
Bell Aircraft Corporation Manager, Electronic Data Pro Buffalo, New York cessing
Boeing Airplane Company Chief, Electronic Data Pro Wichita, Kansas cessing
Burroughs Corporation Manager, Technical Services Detroit, Michigan
Carter Oil Company Supervisor, Data Processing Tulsa, Oklahoma
Chrysler Corporation Supervisor, Electronic Data Highland Park, Michigan Processing Systems, Deve lopment and Control
Cleveland Graphite Bronze, Division of Manager, Systems and Proce Clevite Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio dures
Douglas Aircraft Chief Computing Engineer Santa Monica, California
Dow Chemical Company Manager, Central Data Process Midland, Michigan ing
E. I. duPont deNemours & Company Superintendent, Accounting Penns Grove, New Jersey Division
E. I. duPont deNemours & Company Assistant Comptroller Wilmington, Delaware 196 197
Eastman Kodak Company Manager, Electronic Data Pro Rochester, New York cessing - Service and Re search Department
ESso Standard Oil Company Data Processing Coordinator New York, New York
Ford Motor Company Supervisor, Applied Mathema Dearborn, Michigan tics Section
General Electric Company Manager, Finance Louisville, Kentucky
General Electric Company Manager. Accounting Operations Schenectady, New York Department
General Electric - Large Steam Turbine, Manager, Computational Re Generator Department, Schenectady, search New York
General Electric T.V. & Appliance Re Manager, Computer Systems ceiver Division, Louisville, Kentucky
General Motor Corporation, Buick Motor Director, Data Processing Division, Flint, Michigan
General Motors Corporation, Oldsmobile General Supervisor, Tabulat Division, Lansing, Michigan ing and Electronic Data Processing
General Motors Corporation, Research Head, Data Processing Group Staff, Detroit, Michigan
Humble Oil & Refining Company Chief Accountant Houston, Texas
International Harvester Company Auditor of Manufacturing Mo Chicago, Illinois tor Truck Division
International Shoe Company Manager, Data Processing St. Louis, Missouri Department
Joseph T. Ryerson & Son, Inc. Manager, Systems and Pro Chicago, Illinois cedures
Lockheed Aircraft Corporation Manager, Office Methods and Marietta, Georgia Procedures
Lockheed Missile System Division Manager, Math and Computer Palo Alto, California Services Department 198
Martin Company Group Engineer, Digital Com Denver, Colorado putations
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Director of Foreign Market Company, St. Paul, Minnesota Research
Monsanto Chemical Company General Superintendent, Staff Springfield, Massachusetts Services
Monsanto Chemical Company Director, Accounting Research St. Louis, Missouri
Ohio Oil Company Assistant Controller PinHlav. Ohio ----- v r ~
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Tabulator Accountant East Hartford, Connecticut
Proctor & Gamble Company Head, Electronic Data Process Cincinnati, Ohio ing Operations
Reader's Digest Association, Inc. Director, Electronic Process Pleasantville, New York ing
Shell Oil Company Assistant Manager, Methods New York, New York & Procedures Department
Square D Company Director, Tabulating Systems Detroit, Michigan and Services
Standard Oil, Indiana Manager, Electronic Data Pro Whiting, Indiana cessing Methods
Standard Oil, Ohio Group Engineer Cleveland, Ohio
Stromberg Carlson Company, Division of Manager, Data Processing General Dynamics Corporation, Rochester, Department New York
Sunray Mid Continent Oil Company Assistant Controller Tulsa, Oklahoma
Thompson Products, Inc. Manager, Electronic Data Pro Cleveland, Ohio cessing Services
Union Carbide Corporation Manager, Electronic Data Pro New York, New York cessing
Union Carbide Corporation Assistant Manager 199
United States Steel Corporation Staff Supervisor, Accounting Duquesne, Pennsylvania Methods
United States Steel Corporation Director, Cost and Statistics Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
United States Steel Corporation, American Procedure Analyst Bridge Division, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Manager, Office Systems and East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Services
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Director, Office Methods and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Procedures
GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES
Air Materiel Command, Headquarters AMC Deputy Chief, Data Develop Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio ment Division
Air Materiel Command, Headquarters Deputy Chief, Statistical Svs Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio Division, Comptroller
Aviation Supply Office Director, Integrated Data Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Processing Division
Bureau of Old Age & Survivors Insurance, Planning and Research Social Security Administration, Officer Baltimore, Maryland
Department of Defense, Office of Secretary Staff Member, Data Systems of Defense, Pentagon, Washington, D.C. Research Staff, OASD, Comp troller
National Bureau of Standards Assistant Chief, Applied Mathe Washington, D. C. matics Division
Navy Department, Bureau of Ships Code 280 Washington, D. C.
Navy Management Office, Navy Department Data Processing Systems Washington, D. C. Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Mathematician Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Shelby Air Force Depot Chief, Logistic Systems Shelby, Ohio Development 200
Social Security Administration Assistant Director, Bureau Baltimore, Maryland of OASI
Topeka Air Force Depot Chief, Data Processing Divi Topeka, Kansas sion
United States Air Force, Headquarters Deputy for Systems, Data Pro Pentagon, Washington, D. C. cessing Division, Comptrol ler
United States Air Force, Oklahoma City Assistant for Data Processing Air Material Area, Oklahoma Comptroller
United States Air Force, Sacramento Air Chief, Statistical Services Material Area, Sacramento, California Officer
United States Air Force, Sacramento Air Chief, Electronic Data Pro Material Area, Sacramento, California cessing Office
United States Army Engineer Maintenance Chief, Data Processing Divi Columbus, Ohio sion
United States Army, Office of the Comp Director, Management Analysis troller, Washington, D. C.
United States Army Signal Supply Agency Assistant Comptroller for IDP Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
United States Naval Shipyard Philadelphia Industrial Engineering Officer Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
United States Navy, Aviation Supply Office Civilian Executive Assistant Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
INSURANCE AND BANKING FIRMS
Aetna Life Affiliated Companies Supervisor Hartford, Connecticut
Allstate Insurance Company Director, Methods Research Skokie, Illinois
American Casualty Company of Reading, Assistant Treasurer Pennsylvania, Reading, Pennsylvania
Auto Owners Insurance Company Manager, Tabulating Depart Lansing, Michigan ment
Bank of America N.T. & S.A. Vice President San Francisco, California 201
Bank of America N.T. & S.A. Vice-President San Francisco, California
Equitable Life Assurance Society of Senior Research Associate the United States, New York, New York
Farmers Underwriting Association Assistant Vice-President
Franklin Life Insurance Company Vice-President and Company Springfield, Illinois MPT
Franklin Life Insurance Company Manager, Univac Department Springfield, Illinois
Guaranty Trust Company of New York Second Vice-President New York, New York
Howard Savings Institution Senior Research Officer Newark, New Jersey
Investors Diversified Services, Inc» General Manager, Administra Minneapolis, Minnesota tive Services
John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Com Vice-President pany, Boston, Massachusetts
Mellow National Bank and Trust Company Methods Division Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Merrill Lynch Pierce Fenner & Beane Supervisor, Electronic Data New York, New York Processing Methods
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Third Vice-President New York, New York
Motorists Mutual Insurance Company Office Manager Columbus, Ohio
Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company Assistant Mathematician, Newark, New Jersey Chairman Electronic Commit tee
National Life and Accident Insurance Assistant Secretary Comp any
Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Company Comptroller Los Angeles, California
Pan-American Life Insurance Company Director of Data Processing New Orleans, Louisiana 202
Prudential Insurance Company of America Executive Director of Plan Newark, New Jersey ning and Research
St, Paul Fire & Marine Insurance Company Assistant Secretary St. Paul, Minnesota
State Farm Insurance Company Assistant Auditor, Tabula Dallas, Texas ting
State Farm Mutual Auto Insurance Company Assistant Auditor Berkeley, California
State Farm Mutual Auto Insurance Company Vice-President, Planning Bloomington, Illinois and Research
State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Auditor Company, Birmingham, Alabama
Travelers Insurance Company Secretary, Data Processing Hartford, Connecticut Department
United States Life Insurance Company Manager, Systems Division New York, New York
PUBLIC UTILITIES AND TRANSPORTATION
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Company Assistant General Superin Cleveland, Ohio tendent, Computer Division
Commonwealth Edison Company Manager of Accounting Chicago, Illinois
Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Assistant General Manager Inc., New York, New York
Consolidated Edison Company of New York General Manager, Machine Ac Inc., New York, New York counting Department
Detroit Edison Company Director of Revenue Account Detroit, Michigan ing
Detroit Edison Company Director of Electronic Data Detroit, Michigan Processing
East Ohio Gas Company Assistant Treasurer Cleveland, Ohio
Illinois Central Railroad Company Assistant Comptroller Chicago, Illinois 203
Michigan Consolidated Gas Company Department Head, Methods Detroit, Michigan
New Orleans Public Service, Inc. Assistant Treasurer New Orleans, Louisiana
New York Central Railroad Chief, Systems Analyst New York, New York
New York Central Railroad Utica, New York
New York Central System Assistant Auditor, Car Buffalo, New York Accounts
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Assistant to Comptroller New Haven, Connecticut
Pan American World Airways, Inc. Assistant Chief Accountant New York, New York
Pennsylvania Railraod Company Director, Methods and Pro Philadelphia, Pennsylvania cedures Department
Peoples Gas Light and Coke Company Superintendent, Customer Chicago, Illinois Account ing
Southern Pacific Company Vice-President and General San Francisco, California Auditor
Southern Railway System Comptroller Washington, D. C.
Wisconsin Electric Power Company Assistant to Vice-President Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Controller
COMPUTER MANUFACTURERS
ALWAC Computer Division, El-Tronics, Inc. Educational Director Hawthorne, California
Bendix Aviation Corporation Director of Marketing Los Angeles, California
Burroughs Corporation Director, Product Planning Detroit, Michigan Services
Burroughs Corporation Assistant to Vice-President, Detroit, Michigan Research and Engineering 204
Burroughs Corporation, Electro Data Systems Analyst Division, Pasadena, California
Burroughs Corporation, Electro Data Wage and Salary Analyst Division, Pasadena, California
DATAmatic - Division of Minneapolis - Supervisor, Department of Honeywell, Newton Highlands, Customer Training Massachusetts
International Business Machines Corpora Assistant Branch Manager tion, Detroit, Michigan
International Business Machines Corpora Manager of the Detroit tion, Detroit, Michigan Education Center
International Business Machines Corpora Senior Systems Representa tion, Houston, Texas tive
International Business Machines Corpora Manager, Education Center tion, Los Angeles, California
International Business Machines Corpora Manager, Customer Education tion, New York, New York
International Business Machines Corpora Field Representative tion, Seattle, Washington
Litton Industries, Inc, Director, Computers and Beverly Hills, California Controls
National Cash Register Company Manager, Electronic Machine Dayton, Ohio Sales
Panellit, Inc. Treasurer Skokie, Illinois
Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation Senior Computer Consultant Los Angeles, California
Remington Rand Univac Regional Manager Chicago, Illinois
Remington Rand Univac, Division of Sperry Director, Automatic Program Rand Corp., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ming Development
Remington Rand Univac, Division of Sperry Director, Univac Applications Rand Corp., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Research Center
Remington Rand Univac, Division of Sperry Manager, R & D Sales, Wash Rand Corp., St. Paul, Minnesota ington, D. C. 205
Royal Precision Corporation Application Engineer and Port Chester, New York Manager of Computer Labo ratory
Soroban Engineering, Inc. President Melbourne, Florida
Sperry Rand Corporation, Univac Division Programmer Instructor New York, New York
Sperry Rand Univac Assistant Regional Electron Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ics Sales Manager
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Boston University Director, Statistical Ser Boston, Massachusetts vices
Brown University Associate Professor, Applied Providence, Rhode Island Mathematics
California Institute of Technology Professor and Director, Pasadena, California Computer Center
Colorado State University Assistant Professor of Fort Collins, Colorado Mathematics
Indiana University Associate Professor, School Bloomington, Indiana of Business
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Director of Operations Cambrdige, Massachusetts
North Carolina State College Assistant Professor Raleigh, North Carolina
Oklahoma State University Associate Professor of Stillwater, Oklahoma Mathematics, Director of Computing Center
Purdue Computing Laboratory, Purdue Acting Head University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Associate Professor of Math Troy, New York ematics
Rutgers University Director of Computation New Brunswick, New Jersey Center 206
Sacramento State College Chairman, Division of Busi Sacramento, California ness Administration
San Jose State College Assistant Professor of San Jose, California Business
Southern Methodist University Co-Director, Computing Dallas, Texas Laboratory
Syracuse University Director, Computing Center Syracuse, New York
Texas A & M College Head, Computer Center College Station, Texas
University of Arizona Director Tucson, Arizona
University of California Professor, Electrical En Berkeley, California gineering
University of Houston Director Houston, Texas
University of Kansas Director, Computation Center Lawrence, Kansas
University of Michigan Director, Computation Center Ann Arbor, Michigan
University of Oklahoma Director, Scientific Compu Norman, Oklahoma tation
University of Rhode Island Associate Professor of Math Kingston, Rhode Island ematics
University of Rochester Director, Computing Center Rochester, New York
University of Washington Director, Research Computer Seattle, Washington Laboratory
Washington State College Director, Computing Center Pullman, Washington
Wayne University Director; Computation Labora Detroit, Michigan tory 207
PUBLIC ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT CONSULTING FIRMS
Anderson-Nicholas and Company Consultant on Data Process Boston, Massachusetts ing
Haskins and Sells Partner San Francisco, California
John Diebold & Associates, Inc'. Editor, Data Processing New York, New York Service
Lybrand, Ross Bros, and Montgomery Staff Consultant Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Company Partner, in charge of Manage New York, New York ment Controls Department
Price Waterhouse and Company Partner New York, New York
Touche, Niven, Bailey & Smart Partner Detroit, Michigan BIBLIOGRAPHY
208 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Becker, Esther R., and Murphy, Eugene F. The Office in Transition. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957.
Bell, William D. A Management Guide to Electronic Computers. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957.
Berkley Enterprises. The Computer Directory and Buying Guide. Newton- ville, Massachusetts: Berkley Enterprises, 1957.
Bowden, B. V., (ed.). Faster Than Thought, A Symposium on Digital Com puting Machines. London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., 1953.
Brown, Richard Hunt. Office Automation: Integrated and Electronic Data Processing. New York: Automation Consultants, Inc., 1957.
Canning, Richard G. Electronic Data Processing for Business and Industry. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956.
Carr, John Weber. Notes on Digital Computers and Data Processors. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1956.
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209 210
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Clawson, C. J. "Computer To Be Test Market of the Future," Advertising Age, XXX (January 5, 1959), 3 plus.
Clayton, C. F. "EDP in the Smaller Company," Paperwork Simplification. No. 50 (Second Quarter, 1958), 4-6.
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"Contents," Data Processing Digest, III (September, 1957), 1.
Conway, B. "Basic Steps in Programming a Computer for a Single Operation," Office Management, XIX (February, 1958), 28-9 plus.
Cox, L. M. "Requirements for Really Economical Office Automation," Office, XLVII (January, 1958), 122 plus.
Curry, R. B. "Facilities for a Large Computer Installation," Advanced Management, XXIII, No. 1 (January, 1958), 5.
Daniel, W. L. "Electronic Era Requires More Trained Machine Accountants," Office, XLVII (January, 1958), 153-54.
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Deering, R. P. "Making the Shift to Electronic Bookkeeping," Burroughs Clearing House, XLIII (January, 1959), 44-5 plus.
DeNault, J. B. "Impact of Computers on Multiple-Line Operations: Appraisal of Electronic Data Processing Systems, Farmers Insurance Group," Controller, XXVI (March, 1958), 116-17 plus.
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Diebold, J. "Mistakes to Avoid in Planning Automatic Data Processing," Office, XLVIII (November, 1958), 132 plus.
______. "Office Automation: Is Management Getting Its Money's Worth? " Management Review, XLVII (September, 1958), 14-8 plus.
’ "Surveys on Computers, Electronic Data Processing," Office Management. XIX (May, 1958), 6 plus; Controller, XXVI (August, 1958). 385.
______• "These Fleeting Thoughts," Office Executive, XXXIII (September. 1958), 22-3. 216
Donovan, J. H. "Successful Automation Depends upnn People," Office, XLIX (January, 1959), 124 plus.
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Catalogues and Announcements
American Management Association* American Management Association Pro gram, August-November, 1958. New York: American Management Associa tion, 1958.
______. Special Conference: Operations Research, November 25-27, 1957, Palmer House, Chicago, Illinois. New York: American Management Asso ciation, 1957.
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National Office Management Association. 1958 Spring Schedule: NOMA Pre-Computer Clinics. Willow Grove, Pennsylvania: National Office Management Association, 1958.
Remington Rand. Catalogue of Courses in Electronic Computers, 1955- 1956. New York: Remington Rand, 1955. 225
Other Sources
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Leahy Newsletter, Special Report Issue. A Leahy and Company, Incor porated Newsletter. December, 1953.
The Wall Street Journal, February 26, 1957. AUTOBIOGRAPHY AUTOBIOGRAPHY
I, Leo Niemi, was born in Humboldt, Michigan, on February 27,
1920. I received my secondary school education in the high school at
Champion, Michigan. Following graduation, I spent some seven years in sales and sales management work and three-and-a-half years in military service. In February, 1949, I started my undergraduate program in business education at Western Michigan University, which I completed
in June, 1952. In September of that year I accepted a position as business teacher at Comstock High School. The following year I was appointed coordinator of the diversified cooperative occupational train ing program which I instituted for the school. During the two years at
Comstock High School I completed the requirements for the Master of Arts degree at Western Michigan University by taking courses in the evening, on Saturdays, and in summer school. In September, 1954, two months after receiving my Master of Arts degree, I started my doctoral program at The Ohio State University. While in residence there I served as
Instructor in Business Education on a half-time basis. The following year I accepted a position as Assistant Professor of General Business at Western Michigan University, where my prinutry responsibility is the development and teaching of a program in office management and electronic data processing.
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