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Secretory Tumors of the Pituitary Gland: a Clinical Biochemistry

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Secretory Tumors of the Pituitary Gland: a Clinical Biochemistry Clin Chem Lab Med 2019; 57(2): 150–164 Review Verena Gounden, Yashna D. Rampursat and Ishwarlal Jialal* Secretory tumors of the pituitary gland: a clinical biochemistry perspective https://doi.org/10.1515/cclm-2018-0552 Abbreviations: ACTH, adrenocorticotrophin; ADH, anti- Received May 26, 2018; accepted July 16, 2018; previously published diuretic hormone; AIP, aryl hydrocarbon receptor inter- online August 18, 2018 acting protein; BIPSS, bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling; CC, carney complex; CNS, central nervous Abstract: The pituitary gland is responsible for the pro- system; CpG, cytosine linked to guanine nucleotide by duction and/or secretion of various hormones that play a phosphodiester bond; CRH, corticotrophin-releasing a vital role in regulating endocrine function within the hormone; DGSA, densely granulated somatotroph ade- body. Secretory tumors of the anterior pituitary pre- nomas; EGF, epidermal growth factor; EGFR, epidermal dominantly, pituitary adenomas, collectively account for growth factor receptor; FGF-B, fibroblast growth factor-B; 10%–25% of central nervous system tumors requiring sur- FIPA, familial isolated pituitary adenoma; FSH, follicular- gical treatment. The most common secretory tumors are stimulating hormone; GH, growth hormone; GHBP, GH prolactinomas, which can be diagnosed by basal prolac- binding protein; GHR, GH receptor; GHRH, growth hor- tin levels. Acromegaly can be diagnosed by basal insulin mone-releasing hormone; GnRH, gonadotrophin-releas- growth-like factor 1 levels and the failure of growth hor- ing hormone; HNF-4 α, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 α; mone (GH) to suppress during an oral glucose tolerance ICTP, carboxy-terminal cross linked telopeptide type 1 col- test. Cushing disease can be diagnosed by demonstrating lagen; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor 1; IPS, inferior pet- hypercortisolemia evidenced by increased salivary cor- rosal sinus; LDDST, low dose dexamethasone suppression tisol levels in the evening, increased urine free cortisol test; LH, luteinizing hormone; MCR2, melanocortin recep- excretion and failure of plasma cortisol to suppress fol- tor 2; MEN-1 syndrome, multiple endocrine neoplasia type lowing oral dexamethasone given overnight (1.0 mg). We 1 syndrome; miRNAs, micro RNAs; mRNA, messenger also discuss the diagnosis of the rarer thyroid-stimulating RNA; ODST, overnight dexamethasone suppression test; hormone and gonadotrophin secretory tumors. Morbid- PEG, polyethylene glycol; PKA, protein kinase A; POMC, ity is associated with tumor occurrence, clinical sequelae pro-opiomelanocortin; PRIH, prolactin release inhibiting as well as the related medical, surgical and radiological hormone; PRKAR1A, protein kinase, cyclic AMP-depend- management. This review focuses on the pathogenesis of ent regulatory type 1 α; PRL, prolactin; PrRP, prolactin- secretory tumors of the anterior pituitary with emphasis releasing peptide; PTTG, pituitary tumor transforming on molecular mechanisms associated with tumorigenesis gene; SGSA, sparsely granulated somatotroph adenomas; and the major role of the clinical chemistry laboratory in SHBG, sex hormone-binding globulin; T3, tri-iodothyro- diagnosis and management of these tumors. nine; T4, thyroxine; TGF-B, tumor growth factor-B; THR, Keywords: acromegaly; adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH); thyroid hormone resistance; TRH, thyrotropin releasing anterior pituitary; clinical chemistry; Cushing disease; hormone; TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone; TSHoma, growth hormone (GH); prolactin; secretory tumors; pituitary adenomas that produce TSH; UFC, urine free thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). cortisol; USP8, ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 8; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; XLAG, X-linked acrogigantism. *Corresponding author: Ishwarlal Jialal, MD, PhD, FRCPath, DABCC, Assistant Dean of Research, California North-State University, College of Medicine, Elk Grove, CA 95757, USA; and Director, Section of Clinical Chemistry, VA Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, Background USA, E-mail: [email protected] Verena Gounden and Yashna D. Rampursat: Department of Chemical Pathology, University of KwaZulu Natal and National Health The pituitary gland is responsible for the production Laboratory Services, Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital, Durban, and or secretion of various hormones that play a vital South Africa role in regulating endocrine function within the body. Gounden et al.: Secretory tumors of the pituitary gland 151 The pituitary gland consists of two lobes an anterior and Growth hormone a posterior lobe [1]. Hormones produced by the ante- rior lobe of the pituitary gland include growth hormone Somatotrophs are responsible for the secretion of GH, a (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing 191-amino acid single-chain polypeptide [8, 9]. Pit-1/Pou1 hormone (LH), follicular stimulating hormone (FSH), F1 and PROP1 are transcription factors that have been adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) and prolactin (PRL). Hor- reported to play an integral role in the organogenesis of mones stored and released from the posterior pituitary the anterior pituitary and the development of the somato- are antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin and oxy- trophs [10]. The genes responsible for the coding of pitui- tocin. ADH and oxytocin are produced by neurosecre- tary human GH, a placental variant and placental lactogen tory cells in the hypothalamus [2]. Trophic hormones are located on the long arm of chromosome 17. GH exists produced by the hypothalamus stimulate production of in various isoforms including 22-kDa form, 20-kDa form, different anterior pituitary hormones which in turn stim- etc. The 22-kDa GH is considered the most relevant isoform ulate production of hormones at the level of the target in terms of biological activity and constitutes 90% of GH organ [3]. In the case of PRL, secretion is primarily con- in the circulation [9]. Physiological actions of GH include trolled by hypothalamic suppression via dopamine or mediation of skeletal growth and regulation of carbo- prolactin release inhibiting hormone [3]. Developmental hydrate, fat and mineral metabolism [8, 11]. The growth or acquired pituitary signals may also influence pitui- hormone receptor (GHR) belongs to a family of transmem- tary growth and secretion of hormones [4]. The biology brane receptors that also includes PRL and cytokine recep- and development of secretory tumors of the pituitary is tors. Biological activity following binding of GH to the cell complex and can cause a variety of endocrine related surface receptor is mediated by dimerization with GHR and disorders. activation of JAK2-STAT tyrosine kinase signaling pathway Collectively, the prevalence rate of tumors of the [11, 12]. Many of the peripheral actions of GH are enabled pituitary has been reported to be 16.7%. Other analyses by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) which is produced examining post mortem or radiological findings esti- by the liver under the action of GH. Centrally, regulation mate prevalence rates to range between 14.4% and 22.5% of GH secretion is controlled by the hypothalamic hor- [5]. However, many reports reviewing prevalence rates mones. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) is are based on post-mortem and radiological findings and responsible for stimulating secretion of GH, whereas the may not provide a true indication of incidences of clini- hormone somatostatin inhibits GH secretion. Actions of cally apparent tumors. One study performed in Argentina GHRH include inducing GH gene transcription and thus described the standardized incidence ratio of clinically rel- secretion of GH. GHRH is also responsible for maintaining evant pituitary tumors to be 7.39/100,000/year, which was somatotroph cell function. Other hormones that stimulate more common than expected by the authors [6]. Another GH secretion include the gut-derived ghrelin which acts at report from a Swedish study described incidence rates for the levels of hypothalamus to promote GHRH secretion. prolactinomas of 1.6/100,000, acromegaly 0.35/100,000, Somatostatin also plays a role in regulating the timing and Cushing disease 0.18/100,000, and TSH-producing adeno- amplitude of GH secretion from the anterior pituitary [11]. mas of 0.03/100,000 [7]. In this review, we will examine secretory tumors of the anterior pituitary focussing on the pathogenesis of Prolactin these tumor and the biochemical aspects of diagnosis and management. PRL is a polypeptide hormone synthesized by the lac- totroph group of cells of the anterior pituitary [9, 13]. Lactotrophs and somatotrophs share the common soma- tomammatroph lineage thus the presence of GH/PRL Physiology and biochemistry pituitary tumors are frequently reported [14]. There are several isoforms/variants of PRL. The major form of PRL in Normal development of the anterior pituitary follows highly the pituitary is the 23-kDa form; 14-, 16- and 22-kDa forms specialized precursor stem cell commitment. Somatotrophs also exist. Dimerization and binding to larger molecules account for 50% of pituitary hormone secreting cells, with such as immunoglobulins results in larger isoforms of PRL lactrotrophs (10%–25%), gonadotrophs (10%), cortico- [15, 16]. Although PRL secretion is regulated by the hypo- trophs (10%–20%) and thyrotrophs (10%) accounting for thalamus, unlike other anterior pituitary hormones, the the rest [8]. hypothalamic influence is predominantly inhibitory via 152 Gounden et al.: Secretory tumors of the pituitary gland the action of dopamine. Stimulation
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