JNCC Report No: 585

Conceptual Ecological Modelling of Shallow Sublittoral Sand Habitats to Inform Indicator Selection

Coates, D.A., Alexander, D., Herbert, R.J.H. & Crowley, S.J.

June 2016

© JNCC, Peterborough 2016

0963-8901

List of Appendices

Appendix 1. List of Included in Project Scope Appendix 2. List of Keywords used as Literature Review Search Terms Appendix 3. Species/Biotope/Model Matrix Appendix 4. General Control Model – Shallow Sublittoral Sand Habitats Appendix 5. Sub-model 1. Suspension and Deposit Feeding Infauna Appendix 6. Sub-model 2. Small Mobile Fauna or Tube/Burrow Dwelling Crustaceans Appendix 7. Sub-model 3. Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Appendix 8. Sub-model 4. Attached Epifauna and Macroalgae Appendix 9. Confidence model 1. Suspension and Deposit Feeding Infauna Appendix 10. Confidence model 2. Small Mobile Fauna or Tube/Burrow Dwelling Crustaceans Appendix 11. Confidence model 3. Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Appendix 12. Confidence model 4. Attached Epifauna and Macroalgae Appendix 13. Description of Identified Anthropogenic Pressures Appendix 14. Sublittoral Sand CEM Literature Review and Ancillary Information

In addition to the appendices listed, a spreadsheet containing ancillary electronic information supporting the literature review also accompanies this report, as referred to within the main report sections.

JNCC Report No. 585: Development of Conceptual Ecological Models – Shallow Sublittoral Sand Habitats

Appendix 1 – List of species included in project scope

Please see accompanying spreadsheet for full species list and details of how this list was refined.

Acrocnida brachiata Saccharina latissima alba Scoloplos armiger Alcyonidium diaphanum Sertularia cupressina Ammodytes tobianus Sphaerosyllis bulbosa Ampelisca brevicornis Spio filicornis Aonides paucibranchiata Spiophanes bombyx Arenicola marina Spisula subtruncata Aricidea cerrutii fabula Asterias rubens Thracia phaseolina Astropecten irregularis Travisia forbesii Bathyporeia elegans Urothoe elegans Carcinus maenas Urticina felina Cerianthus lloydii Chaetozone setosa Crassicorophium crassicorne Diastylis rathkei cordatum Echinocyamus pusillus Eudorellopsis deformis Eurydice pulchra Flustra foliacea Gastrosaccus spinifer Glycera lapidum Goniada maculata Hydrallmania falcata Kurtiella bidentata Lanice conchilega Liocarcinus depurator Lumbrineris latreilli Magelona mirabilis Moerella pygmaea Nephtys cirrosa Nucula nitidosa Ophelia borealis Ophiura ophiura Owenia fusiformis Pagurus bernhardus Parexogone hebes pellucidus Philine quadripartita Pholoe inornata Polydora ciliata Sabella pavonina

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JNCC Report No. 585: Development of Conceptual Ecological Models – Shallow Sublittoral Sand Habitats

Appendix 2 – List of keywords used as search terms

Amphipod Holothuroidea Subtidal Annelida Hydrodynamic flow Suspension feeder Annual variation Hypoxia Suspension feeding Anoxia Infauna Temperature Bacteria Infralittoral Temporal variability Benthic Interstitial Tidal stress Biodeposition Lifespan Tolerance Bioengineering Light attenuation Trophic level Biogeochemical process Macrofauna Troughs Bioirrigation Marine Tube dwelling Biological driver Microbial activity Turbidity Biotope Mobility Variability Bioturbation Muddy sand Water chemistry Bioturbation Natural variability Water composition Bivalve Nitrogen flux Water flow Brittlestar Nutrient cycling Wave energy Burrowing Nutrient provision Circalittoral Ocean acidification Climate Organic Carbon Climate variation Organic matter Crustacea Physical driver Currents Physiographic Currents Phytoplankton Deposit feeder Depth POM Depth range Predator Diatoms Prey Dissolved oxygen Primary production Echinodermata Response Ecology Salinity Ecosystem functioning Sand Ecosystem process Sand bank Ecosystem service Sand ripples Environmental driver Sand waves Environmental position Seabed energy Epifauna Seabed mobility Feeding behaviour Seasonal variability Feeding Habits Secondary production Feeding method Sediment Filter feeding Sediment dynamics Fine sands Sediment resuspension Food resource Sediment stability Food web Sediment transport Functional group Sparse fauna In addition to the search Geology Species trait words used above, each Growth form Species trait of the selected species Habitat provision Sublittoral names were also Habitat stability Substratum searched for individually.

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JNCC Report No. 585 Appendix 3. Species Biotope Model Matrix

Submodel 4. Temporary or Submodel 2. Small Mobile Fauna and Submodel 1. Suspension and Deposit Feeding Infauna Submodel 3. Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Permanentely Attached Epifauna and Model Tube/Burrow Dwelling Crustaceans Macroalgae

Erect, Soft-bodied or shorter Small Mobile Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Predatory flexible Major functional group Bivalves Polcyhaetes Amphipods Predatory lived Macroalgae Crustaceans Scavengers Gastropods epifaunal epifau species na

Sub functional group Burrowing Bivalves Burrowing dwelling Burrow Tube building dwelling Subsurface Echinoids Amphipods dwelling Burrow Cumaceans Crustaceans Echinoderms Burrow dwelling Crawlers Hydrozoans Bryozoans Anemones Crawlers Ophiurids Amphipods Tube building Isopods Mysids Pisces Gastropods Predatory Kelp

Species Abra gallina Chamelea ensisEnsis fabula Tellina pygmaea Moerella bidentata Kurtiella nitidosa Nucula pellucidus Phaxas subtruncata Spisula phaseolina Thracia paucibranchiata Aonides marina Arenicola setosa Chaetozone mirabilis Magelona borealis Ophelia armiger Scoloplos forbesii Travisia conchilega Lanice fusiformis Owenia ciliata Polydora Spio filicornis bombyx Spiophanes pavonina Sabella cerrutii Aricidea brachiata cordatum Echinocardium pusillus Echinocyamus elegans Bathyporeia crassicorne Crassicorophium elegans Urothoe brevicornis Ampelisca Diastylis rathkei deformis Eudorellopsis pulchra Eurydice spinifer Gastrosaccus maenas Carcinus depurator Liocarcinus bernhardus Pagurus irregularis Astropecten rubens Asterias ophiura Ophiura tobianus Ammodytes lapidum Glycera maculata Goniada latreilli Lumbrineris Nephtys cirrosa bulbosa Sphaerosyllis hebes Paraexegone inornata Pholoe quadripartita Philine falcata Hydrallmania cupressina Sertularia foliacea Flustra diaphanum Alcyonidium Urticina felina lloydii Cerianthus latissima Saccharina A5.23 - Infralittoral find sand A5.231 - Infralittoral mobile clean sand with sparse fauna A5.232 - Sertularia cupressina and Hydrallmania falcata on tide-swept sublittoral sand with cobbles or pebbles A5.233 - Nephtys cirrosa and Bathyporeia spp. in infralittoral sand

A5.234 - Semi-permanent tube-building amphipods and polychaetes in sublittoral sand A5.24 - Infralittoral muddy sand A5.241 - and Ensis spp. in lower shore and shallow sublittoral slightly muddy fine sand A5.242 - and Magelona mirabilis with venerid bivalves and amphipods in infralittoral compacted fine muddy sand A5.243 - Arenicola marina in infralittoral fine sand or muddy sand A5.244 - Spisula subtruncata and Nephtys hombergii in shallow muddy sand A5.25 - Circalittoral fine sand A5.251 - Echinocyamus pusillus, Ophelia borealis and Abra prismatica in circalittoral fine sand A5.252 - Abra prismatica, Bathyporeia elegans and polychaetes in circalittoral fine sand A5.26 - Circalittoral muddy sand A5.261 - Abra alba and Nucula nitidosa in circalittoral muddy sand or slightly mixed sediment A5.262 - Amphiura brachiata with Astropecten irregularis and other echinoderms in circalittoral muddy sand JNCC Report No. 585 Appendix 4. General Control Model - Shallow Sublittoral Sand Shallow Sublittoral Sand Habitats Legend Driver Relevance to Infralittoral/Circalittoral Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule Low Relevance 1. Regional to Global Drivers Supply Infralittoral High Relevance Infralittoral Low Relevance Circalittoral High Relevance Circalittoral Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Degree of Natural Variability Chemistry & 2. Water Column Processes Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Temperature Low natural variability Moderate natural variability High natural variability

Feedback Driving Influence Food Grazing and Seabed Recruitment Positive 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Sources predation Mobility Interaction the Seabed Negative Interaction

Version 1.0 Benthic infauna Mobile Epifauna, Please see accompanying report predators and for model restrictions and 4. Habitat and Biological Suspension and Small mobile fauna Temporary or scavengers limitations Assemblage deposit feeding and tube/burrow permanently attached Sediment Type fauna dwelling crustaceans Epifauna and Macroalgae

Secondary Sediment Habitat Supply of 5. Output Processes Production processing modification Propagules

Biogeochemical 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision Microbial activity Cycling

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Sub‐model 1. Suspension and deposit feeding infauna Appendix 5. Legend Magnitude of Influence

Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule Small 1. Regional to Global Drivers Supply Medium Large

Driving Influence Positive Interaction Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Negative Chemistry & 2. Water Column Processes Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Interaction Temperature Feedback Driver Relevance to Infralittoral/Circalittoral Low Relevance Food sources Infralittoral High Relevance Seabed Recruitment 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Meio Infralittoral Plankton POM Detritus Bacteria Mobility the Seabed & Fungi fauna Low Relevance Circalittoral High Relevance Circalittoral

Degree of Natural Variability Bivalves Polychaetes Echinoderms Low natural variability 4. Habitat and Biological Burrowing Bivalves, e.g. Burrow dwelling, e.g. Tube building, e.g. Subsurface dwelling, Moderate natural variability Assemblage Abra alba, Ensis ensis, Arenicola marina, Lanice conchilega, Crawlers, e.g. Aricidea Ophiurids, e.g. e.g. Echinocardium Sublittoral Sand Kurtiella bidentata, Magelona mirabilis, Owenia fusiformis, cerrutii cordatum, High natural variability Scoloplos armiger Spiophanes bombyx Echinocyamus pusillus

Version 1.0 Please see accompanying report for model restrictions and Secondary Supply of Biodeposition Bioturbation Bioengineering limitations 5. Output Processes Production Propagules

Biogeochemical Microbial activity 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision Cycling Enhancement

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Appendix 6. Sub‐model 2. Small Mobile Fauna and Tube/Burrow Dwelling Crustaceans Legend Magnitude of Influence

Small 1. Regional to Global Drivers Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule Supply Medium Large

Driving Influence Positive Interaction Water Negative Primary Suspended Light Dissolved 2. Water Column Processes Chemistry & Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Interaction Temperature Feedback Driver Relevance to Infralittoral/Circalittoral Low Relevance Infralittoral Food sources High Relevance Seabed 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Recruitment Infralittoral Micro Small Micro Mobility the Seabed Detritus POM Low Relevance algae Invertebrates organisms Circalittoral High Relevance Circalittoral

Degree of Natural Variability Amphipods Small Mobile Crustaceans Low natural variability 4. Habitat and Biological Burrow dwelling, e.g. Sublittoral Sand Cumaceans, e.g. Assemblage Crassicorophium Tube building, e.g. Isopods, e.g. Eurydice Mysids, e.g. Moderate natural variability Diastylis rathkei, crassicorne, Urothoe Ampelisca brevicornis pulchra Gastrosaccus spinifer elegans Eudorellopsis deformis High natural variability

Version 1.0 Please see accompanying report for model restrictions and Secondary Supply of limitations 5. Output Processes Biodeposition Bioturbation Bioengineering Production Propagules

6. Local Ecosystem Functions Biogeochemical Microbial activity Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision Cycling Enhancement

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Functions Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability JNCC Report No. 585 Sub‐model 3. Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Appendix 7. Legend Magnitude of Influence

Small Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule 1. Regional to Global Drivers Supply Medium Large

Driving Influence Positive Interaction Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Negative Chemistry & 2. Water Column Processes Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Interaction Temperature Feedback Driver Relevance to Infralittoral/Circalittoral Low Relevance Infralittoral Food sources High Relevance Seabed Mobility Recruitment Infralittoral 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Phyto‐ Living POM Plankton Carrion Detritus Low Relevance the Seabed benthos Prey Circalittoral High Relevance Circalittoral

Predatory Degree of Natural Variability Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Predatory Polychaetes Gastropods Low natural variability Echinoderms; Asterias Burrow dwelling, e.g. Sublittoral Sand 4. Habitat and Biological Crustaceans, e.g. Crawlers, e.g. Crawlers, e.g. rubens, Ophiura Pisces, e.g. Glycera lapidum, Moderate natural variability Assemblage Carcinus maenas, Paraexegone hebes, Philine ophiura, Astropecten Ammodytes tobianus Nephtys cirrosa, Pagurus bernhardus Pholoe inornata quadripartita High natural variability irregularis Lumbrineris latreilli

Version 1.0 Please see accompanying report for model restrictions and Secondary Supply of limitations Biodeposition Bioturbation Bioengineering 5. Output Processes Production Propagules

Biogeochemical Population 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision Cycling Control

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Appendix 8. Sub‐model 4. Attached Epifauna and Macroalgae Legend Magnitude of Influence

Small 1. Regional to Global Drivers Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule Supply Medium Large

Driving Influence Positive Interaction Water Negative Primary Suspended Light Dissolved 2. Water Column Processes Chemistry & Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Interaction Temperature Feedback Driver Relevance to Infralittoral/Circalittoral Low Relevance Infralittoral Food sources High Relevance Grazing and Seabed Recruitment Infralittoral 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Living predation Mobility the Seabed Plankton POM Detritus Low Relevance Prey Circalittoral High Relevance Circalittoral

Degree of Natural Variability Erect, shorter lived Epifauna Soft‐bodied Epifauna Macroalgae Low natural variability 4. Habitat and Biological Sublittoral Sand Hydrozoans, e.g. Bryozoans, e.g. Flustra Anemones, e.g. Kelp, e.g. Saccharina Moderate natural variability Assemblage Hydrallmania falcata, foliacea, Alcyonidium Urticina felina, latissima Sertularia cupressina diaphanum Cerianthus lloydii High natural variability

Version 1.0 Please see accompanying report for model restrictions and Secondary Supply of limitations 5. Output Processes Biodeposition Production Bioengineering Propagules

6. Local Ecosystem Functions Biogeochemical Food Resource Nutrient Cycling cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Sub‐model 1. Suspension and deposit feeding infauna ‐ CONFIDENCE Appendix 9. Legend Low confidence Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule 1. Regional to Global Drivers Supply Medium confidence High confidence

Link informed by Literature Review Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Chemistry & Link informed by Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen 2. Water Column Processes Temperature Expert Opinion *

* Links informed by Expert Opinion do not exceed the Medium Confidence level.

Food sources Version 1.0 Seabed Recruitment Bacteria Meio Plankton POM Detritus Mobility 3. Local Processes/Inputs at & Fungi fauna Please see accompanying report the Seabed for model restrictions and limitations

Bivalves Polychaetes Echinoderms 4. Habitat and Biological Burrowing Bivalves, e.g. Burrow dwelling, e.g. Tube building, e.g. Subsurface dwelling, Sublittoral Sand Assemblage Abra alba, Ensis ensis, Arenicola marina, Lanice conchilega, Crawlers, e.g. Aricidea Ophiurids, e.g. e.g. Echinocardium Kurtiella bidentata, Magelona mirabilis, Owenia fusiformis, cerrutii Acrocnida brachiata cordatum, Phaxas pellucidus Scoloplos armiger Spiophanes bombyx Echinocyamus pusillus

Secondary Supply of Biodeposition Bioturbation Bioengineering 5. Output Processes Production Propagules

Biogeochemical Microbial activity Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Cycling Enhancement

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Sub‐model 2. Small Mobile Fauna and Tube/Burrow Dwelling Crustaceans Appendix 10. Legend Low Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule confidence 1. Regional to Global Drivers Supply Medium confidence High confidence

Link informed by Literature Review Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Chemistry & Link informed by 2. Water Column Processes Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Temperature Expert Opinion *

* Links informed by Expert Opinion do not exceed the Medium Confidence level.

Food sources Version 1.0 Seabed Recruitment 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Micro Small Micro Mobility Detritus POM the Seabed algae Invertebrates organisms Please see accompanying report for model restrictions and limitations

Amphipods Small Mobile Crustaceans Burrow dwelling, e.g. Sublittoral Sand 4. Habitat and Biological Cumaceans, e.g. Crassicorophium Tube building, e.g. Isopods, e.g. Eurydice Mysids, e.g. Assemblage Diastylis rathkei, crassicorne, Urothoe Ampelisca brevicornis pulchra Gastrosaccus spinifer elegans Eudorellopsis deformis

Secondary Supply of Biodeposition Bioturbation Bioengineering 5. Output Processes Production Propagules

Biogeochemical Microbial activity 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision Cycling Enhancement

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Sub‐model 3. Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Appendix 11. Legend Low confidence Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule Supply Medium 1. Regional to Global Drivers confidence High confidence

Link informed by Literature Review Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Link informed by Chemistry & Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Expert Opinion * 2. Water Column Processes Temperature * Links informed by Expert Opinion do not exceed the Medium Confidence level.

Food sources Version 1.0 Seabed Mobility Recruitment Please see accompanying report 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Phyto‐ Living POM Plankton Carrion Detritus for model restrictions and the Seabed benthos Prey limitations

Predatory Mobile Epifauna, Predators and Scavengers Predatory Polychaetes Gastropods Echinoderms; Asterias Burrow dwelling, e.g. Sublittoral Sand Crustaceans, e.g. Crawlers, e.g. Crawlers, e.g. 4. Habitat and Biological rubens, Ophiura Pisces, e.g. Glycera lapidum, Carcinus maenas, Paraexegone hebes, Philine ophiura, Astropecten Ammodytes tobianus Nephtys cirrosa, Assemblage Pagurus bernhardus Pholoe inornata quadripartita irregularis Lumbrineris latreilli

Supply of Secondary Bioturbation Bioengineering Biodeposition Propagules 5. Output Processes Production

Biogeochemical Population Food Resource Nutrient Cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Cycling Control

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585 Sub‐model 4. Attached Epifauna and Macroalgae ‐ CONFIDENCE Appendix 12. Legend Low confidence Geology Depth Wave Exposure Water Currents Climate Propagule 1. Regional to Global Drivers Supply Medium confidence High confidence

Link informed by Literature Review Water Primary Suspended Light Dissolved Chemistry & Link informed by 2. Water Column Processes Production Sediment Attenuation Oxygen Temperature Expert Opinion *

* Links informed by Expert Opinion do not exceed the Medium Confidence level.

Food sources Version 1.0 Grazing and Seabed Recruitment 3. Local Processes/Inputs at Living predation Mobility Plankton POM Detritus Please see accompanying report the Seabed Prey for model restrictions and limitations

Erect, shorter lived Epifauna Soft‐bodied Epifauna Macroalgae Sublittoral Sand 4. Habitat and Biological Hydrozoans, e.g. Bryozoans, e.g. Flustra Anemones, e.g. Kelp, e.g. Saccharina Assemblage Hydrallmania falcata, foliacea, Alcyonidium Urticina felina, latissima Sertularia cupressina diaphanum Cerianthus lloydii

Secondary Supply of Biodeposition 5. Output Processes Production Bioengineering Propagules

Biogeochemical 6. Local Ecosystem Functions Food Resource Nutrient Cycling cycling Sediment Stability Habitat Provision

7. Regional to Global Ecosystem Export of Biodiversity Export of Organic Matter Biodiversity Enhancement Biotope Stability Functions JNCC Report No. 585

Appendix 13 – Pressure descriptions

List of anthropogenic pressures relevant to shallow sublittoral sand habitats. Pressures and descriptions are taken from the Intercessional Correspondence Group on Cumulative Effects (ICG-C).

Pressure Benchmark (Tillin Pressure Description theme et al, 2010) By-catch associated with all fishing activities. The physical effects of fishing gear on sea bed communities are addressed by the "abrasion" pressure type so this Removal of Removal of addresses the direct removal of individuals associated features through Biological non-target with fishing/ harvesting. Ecological consequences pursuit of a target pressures species include food web dependencies, population dynamics of fishery at a fish, marine mammals, turtles and sea birds (including commercial scale survival threats in extreme cases, e.g. Harbour Porpoise in Central and Eastern Baltic). Changes in water clarity from sediment & organic particulate matter concentrations. It is related to activities disturbing sediment and/or organic particulate matter and mobilising it into the water column. Could be 'natural' land run-off and riverine discharges or from anthropogenic activities such as all forms of dredging, disposal at sea, cable and pipeline burial, secondary A change in one Physical Changes in effects of construction works, e.g. breakwaters. Particle rank on the WFD damage suspended size, hydrological energy (current speed & direction) and (Water Framework (Reversible solids (water tidal excursion are all influencing factors on the spatial Directive) scale e.g. Change) clarity) extent and temporal duration. This pressure also relates from clear to turbid to changes in turbidity from suspended solids of organic for one year origin (as such it excludes sediments - see the "changes in suspended sediment" pressure type). Salinity, turbulence, pH and temperature may result in flocculation of suspended organic matter. Anthropogenic sources mostly short lived and over relatively small spatial extents. The disturbance of sediments where there is limited or no loss of substrate from the system. This pressure is associated with activities such as anchoring, taking of sediment/geological cores, cone penetration tests, cable burial (ploughing or jetting), propeller wash from vessels, certain fishing activities, e.g. scallop dredging, beam trawling. Agitation dredging, where sediments are deliberately disturbed by and by gravity & hydraulic dredging where sediments are deliberately disturbed Abrasion/dist and moved by currents could also be associated with Physical urbance of this pressure type. Compression of sediments, e.g. from damage the substrate Damage to seabed the legs of a jack-up barge could also fit into this (Reversible on the surface features pressure type. Abrasion relates to the damage of the Change) surface of sea bed surface layers (typically up to 50cm depth). the seabed Activities associated with abrasion can cover relatively large spatial areas and include: fishing with towed demersal trawls (fish & shellfish); bio-prospecting such as harvesting of biogenic features such as maerl beds where, after extraction, conditions for recolonisation remain suitable or relatively localised activities including: seaweed harvesting, recreation, potting, aquaculture. Change from gravel to silt substrate would adversely affect herring spawning grounds. Physical Habitat Unlike the "physical change" pressure type where there Extraction of damage structure is a permanent change in sea bed type (e.g. sand to sediment to 30cm (Reversible changes - gravel, sediment to a hard artificial substrate) the JNCC Report No. 585

Change) removal of "habitat structure change" pressure type relates to substratum temporary and/or reversible change, e.g. from marine (extraction) mineral extraction where a proportion of seabed sands or gravels are removed but a residual layer of seabed is similar to the pre-dredge structure and as such biological communities could re-colonise; navigation dredging to maintain channels where the silts or sands removed are replaced by non-anthropogenic mechanisms so the sediment typology is not changed. When the natural rates of siltation are altered (increased or decreased). Siltation (or sedimentation) is the settling out of silt/sediments suspended in the water column. Activities associated with this pressure type include mariculture, land claim, navigation dredging, disposal at sea, marine mineral extraction, cable and pipeline laying and various construction activities. It can result in short lived sediment concentration gradients and the accumulation of sediments on the sea floor. This accumulation of sediments is synonymous with "light" smothering, which relates to the depth of vertical Siltation rate overburden. changes, “Light” smothering relates to the deposition of layers of Physical including sediment on the seabed. It is associated with activities up to 30cm of fine damage smothering such as sea disposal of dredged materials where material added to (Reversible (depth of sediments are deliberately deposited on the sea bed. the seabed in a Change) vertical For “light” smothering most benthic biota may be able to single event sediment adapt, i.e. vertically migrate through the deposited overburden) sediment. “Heavy” smothering also relates to the deposition of layers of sediment on the seabed but is associated with activities such as sea disposal of dredged materials where sediments are deliberately deposited on the sea bed. This accumulation of sediments relates to the depth of vertical overburden where the sediment type of the existing and deposited sediment has similar physical characteristics because, although most species of marine biota are unable to adapt, e.g. sessile organisms unable to make their way to the surface, a similar biota could, with time, re-establish. The permanent change of one marine habitat type to another marine habitat type, through the change in substatum, including to artificial (e.g. concrete). This therefore involves the permanent loss of one marine habitat type but has an equal creation of a different marine habitat type. Associated activities include the installation of infrastructure (e.g. surface of platforms or wind farm foundations, marinas, coastal defences, pipelines and cables), the placement of scour protection Physical Physical loss where soft sediment habitats are replaced by Permanent loss of change (to (Permanent hard/coarse substrate habitats, removal of coarse existing saline another Change) substrate (marine mineral extraction) in those instances habitat seabed type) where surficial finer sediments are lost, capital dredging where the residual sedimentary habitat differs structurally from the pre-dredge state, creation of artificial reefs, mariculture i.e. mussel beds. Protection of pipes and cables using rock dumping and mattressing techniques. Placement of cuttings piles from oil & gas activities could fit this pressure type, however, there may be an additional pressures, e.g. "pollution and other chemical changes" theme. This pressure excludes JNCC Report No. 585

navigation dredging where the depth of sediment is changes locally but the sediment typology is not changed. Increased levels of the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon (and iron) in the marine environment compared to background concentrations. Nutrients can enter marine waters by natural processes (e.g. decomposition of detritus, riverine, direct and atmospheric inputs) or anthropogenic sources (e.g. waste water runoff, Pollution and Compliance with Nutrient terrestrial/agricultural runoff, sewage discharges, other chemical WFD criteria for enrichment aquaculture, atmospheric deposition). Nutrients can changes good status also enter marine regions from ‘upstream’ locations, e.g. via tidal currents to induce enrichment in the receiving area. Nutrient enrichment may lead to eutrophication (see also organic enrichment). Adverse environmental effects include deoxygenation, algal blooms, changes in community structure of benthos and macrophytes. Resulting from the degraded remains of dead biota & microbiota (land & sea); faecal matter from marine ; flocculated colloidal organic matter and the degraded remains of: sewage material, domestic wastes, industrial wastes etc. Organic matter can enter Pollution and marine waters from sewage discharges, aquaculture or Organic A deposit of other chemical terrestrial/agricultural runoff. Black carbon comes from enrichment 100gC/m2/yr changes the products of incomplete combustion (PIC) of fossil fuels and vegetation. Organic enrichment may lead to eutrophication (see also nutrient enrichment). Adverse environmental effects include deoxygenation, algal blooms, changes in community structure of benthos and macrophytes.