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The Geological Society of America Field Guide 52

The science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson

Marcia K. Schulmeister Earth Science Department, Emporia State University, Emporia, 66801, USA

Anna Sofi a Andeskie Kathleen C. Benison Department of and Geography, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 25605, USA

ABSTRACT

The 120-m-thick Hutchinson Salt Member of the Permian Wellington Forma- tion of central Kansas supports multiple industries. Composed of bedded , /, and minor siliciclastic mudstone, it was deposited by shallow saline waters in a warm, dry climate. Underground salt mines access the purest hori- zon, producing salt that is distributed through the and . The vast space left by supports a prosperous commercial storage enterprise and a popular underground tourist attraction. Vertical solution-mined caverns host the nation’s primary midcontinent liquid gas storage industry. This fi eld trip will explore the origin and use of the Hutchinson Salt in core samples and subsur- face outcrops while meeting in an underground salt cavern, and above ground at a solution-mined storage cavern.

INTRODUCTION The History of in Central Kansas

The Hutchinson Salt, underlying an area of ~96,000 km2 The use of salt marshes and springs by Native Americans (37,000 mi2) mainly in central and south-central Kansas, is con- and early travelers is reported in central Kansas prior to the arrival sidered a saline giant (Walters, 1978; Fig. 1). It attains a thickness of European settlers (Sawin and Buchanan, 2002). Natural salt of up to 122 m in Kansas and is composed of ~60%–80% halite licks that formed from evaporated shallow pools attracted bison, (Kulstad, 1959; Walters, 1978). Although this bedded halite deer, antelope, and elk. In turn, early hunters would use the salt deposit is one of the Earth’s most famous salt deposits, it has to preserve meat. In 1875, rock salt was discovered in Hutchin- been the subject of limited study. In particular, its depositional son by local entrepreneurs, who attempted to pump the to environment and the ’ chemistry have not been clearly a regional processing plant, evaporate it, and sell the salt to U.S. established. In addition to its scientifi c relevance, the deposit has markets (Vincent, 1915). The brine was not pure enough to evap- a rich and evolving history as an economic resource. This fi eld orate for use as table salt, however, and their endeavors failed. In guide focuses on the Hutchinson Salt in the Hutchinson, Kansas, 1887, a real estate developer drilled in search of oil on land he area. The objectives of this fi eld trip and guide are to provide had purchased in South Hutchinson. His test revealed salt an overview of the Hutchinson Salt’s industrial uses, as as instead of hydrocarbons. Solution mining salt plants were imme- to describe the past and current studies about its , diately developed in Lyons, Kingman, and Kanopolis, Kansas. diagenesis, and depositional environment. Underground mining of rock salt began in 1923, when the Carey

Schulmeister, M.K., Andeskie, A.S., and Benison, K.C., 2019, The science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson Salt, in Schulmeister, M.K., and Aber, J.S., eds., Exploring Extreme and Unusual Geology in the Stable Midcontinent: Field Excursions for the 2019 GSA South-Central, North-Central, and Rocky Mountain Sec- tions Joint Meeting: Geological Society of America Field Guide 52, p. 25–35, https://doi.org/10.1130/2019.0052(02). © 2019 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permission to copy, contact [email protected].

25 26 Schulmeister et al.

Figure 1. Aerial extent of the Hutchinson Salt Member in the subsurface of Kansas, Oklahoma, and the panhandle of (inset map). Square on inset map shows area of the fi eld-trip route (modifi ed after Walters, 1978).

Salt Mine (now the Hutchinson Salt Mine) was established. Salt Although hydrocarbons are stored in caverns at other locations mining has contributed signifi cantly to the history and economic in the United States, Kansas has more storage caverns than any vitality of the city of Hutchinson. The morning fi eld-trip stops other state. In 2013, there were nine active LPG storage facili- highlight the geologic origin of the salt deposit in the Hutchinson ties in Kansas, operating 382 active storage caverns with a total Salt Mine, as well its mining history and additional use as an storage capacity of ~73 million barrels (Kansas Department of underground storage facility and museum. Health and Environment, 2013). The signifi cant storage capac- ity and a central distribution hub in the Hutchinson region have Liquid Petroleum Storage in the Hutchinson Salt established the region as one of several large national centers for LPG transmission. The afternoon fi eld-trip stop features one such Given its impermeable, non-reactive nature, annealing prop- facility, the Enterprise Products Hutchinson Underground Stor- erties, and compressive strength similar to that of concrete, the age facility in South Hutchinson. Hutchinson Salt is well suited for the storage of liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Under pressure, salt behaves plastically, causing GEOLOGIC SETTING cracks or fi ssures to heal themselves. Halite forms an imperme- able layer that will not leak or allow entry of extraneous fl uids. Stratigraphic Context The solution mining process used to produce salt brine has been utilized since the 1950s to create storage caverns in the lower The Hutchinson Salt is a member of the Wellington For- part of the Hutchinson Salt Member for liquefi ed hydrocarbons. mation, the lowest unit of the Leonardian Sumner Group Science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson Salt 27

(Watney et al., 1988; West et al., 2010; Fig. 2). The Ninn- posed mainly of shale and gypsum/anhydrite, and the Hutchinson escah Shale and Stone Corral Formation are the middle and Salt. The Hutchinson Salt Member, the second youngest member upper units of the group. The Hutchinson Salt is the strati- in the Wellington Formation, consists of halite interbedded with graphically lowest deposit in the Permian of Kan- gray/black shale and bedded gypsum/anhydrite. The purest lay- sas. Rocks below the Wellington (the Council Group and the ers of salt are found in the lower part of the Hutchinson Member. Chase Group) are composed of siliciclastics and carbonates. The areal extent of the salt deposit is roughly circular (Fig. 1), The Council Grove rocks have been interpreted mainly as with its thickest section in the center. marine; the Chase Group represents alternating marine and The Hutchinson Salt can only be accessed by cores and salt continental rocks (e.g., Miller et al., 1996). Permian red bed mines because no modern surface exposures exist due to dissolu- siliciclastics and interpreted as continental deposits tion of halite by shallow dilute groundwater. Therefore, access (e.g., Benison and Goldstein, 2001; Benison et al., 2013; Giles to the Hutchinson Salt Mine and the core for this fi eld trip have et al., 2013) overlie the Wellington Formation. In addition to great value for understanding this major salt deposit. the Ninnescah Shale and Stone Corral Formation, the over- lying units include the Nippewalla Group, and the Quarter- Previous Sedimentological and Geochemical Studies: master Group–equivalent Whitehorse Sandstone, Day Creek Interpretations of Depositional Environment Dolomite, and Big Basin Formation. The Sumner Group is composed, from base to top, of the The Hutchinson Salt has been the subject of few sedimento- Wellington Formation, the red Ninnescah Shale, and the gypsum/ logical studies. Instead, most publications on the Hutchinson Salt anhydrite-dominated Stone Corral Formation. The Wellington used fossils, isotopes, bromide concentrations, isotopes, Formation consists of several members (Fig. 2). There are three and major to trace element geochemistry to support the hypoth- named thin limestone members, two unnamed members com- esis for a marine depositional environment (Tasch, 1960; Jones 1965; Dellwig, 1968; Holser, 1968; Claypool et al., 1980; Horita et al., 1991; Lowenstein et al., 2005). The evidence used to sup- port a marine origin of the salt beds is insuffi cient because no diagnostic marine geochemical evaporite signatures have been identifi ed (Hardie, 1984). Rare fossil fragments include pelecy- pods and one ostracod, organisms that live in both and lake waters (Jones, 1965; Tasch, 1960). Plant fossils have also been reported from shales of the Hutchinson Salt (Tasch, 1960). Limited geochemical data from the Hutchinson Salt have also been published. Hutchinson Salt have δ34S values of +12.2–13.5 and halite with 30–60 ppm Br. Fluid inclusions from

the salt are Na-Mg-K-SO4-Cl-rich (Claypool et al., 1980; Holser, 1968; Horita et al., 1991; Lowenstein et al., 2005). None of these geochemical characteristics is a diagnostic criterion, however, for marine deposition of halite. Previous sedimentological studies of the Hutchinson Salt were based on observations made in salt mine walls (e.g., Tasch, 1960; Dellwig, 1963, 1968) and on one core (Jones, 1965). The most detailed descriptions were made by Dellwig (1963, 1968), who focused on bedded halite in mine walls. Dellwig (1968) reported both beds of upward-oriented halite (aka chev- rons) and randomly oriented “hoppers” (aka cumulate crystals), and interpreted these as evidence of bottom growth and water column growth in a surface brine, respectively. Laminations and thin beds of clear and cloudy salt with clay and anhydrite impurities were noted. Some red salt was attributed to ferric iron. Mudcracks and ripple marks were observed in the inter- bedded shales and anhydrite beds. Dellwig (1968) suggested that brine levels and evaporation rates fl uctuated in the deposi- tional environment. Figure 2. Stratigraphic column representing context of Hutchinson Salt The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 2 core examined Member among Permian rocks in Kansas. Modifi ed from West et al. during this fi eld trip is being used for the fi rst modern sedimento- (2010) and Foster et al. (2014). logical evaluation of the Hutchinson Salt regarding depositional 28 Schulmeister et al.

environment and diagenetic history (Andeskie and Benison, Sedgwick, and Sumner Counties are believed to source from the 2018). The AEC 2 core was drilled in Lyons, Kansas, in Octo- Hutchinson Salt (Taft, 1946). ber 1970 and accessed the Hutchinson Salt at depths of 225.5– 355.2 m with a recovered thickness of 109.7 m. Preliminary 9:30 a.m.: STOP 2. The Hutchinson Salt Company, observations confi rm and add to Dellwig’s (1968) descriptions; Underground Vaults and Storage, and Museum in addition to chevrons and cumulates in bedded halite and mud- (3005 Ave. G, Hutchinson, Kansas; N 38° 02′ 37.71″, cracks and ripple marks in the interbedded shales, discontinuous, W 97° 52′ 03.26″) wavy beds, ripple cross-beds, and dewatering structures were also noted. Additionally, displacive halite crystals were observed Large-scale, underground mining of the Hutchinson Salt in some shale and gypsum/anhydrite beds. Preliminary obser- takes place here, where the purest salt layers are found ~200 vations indicate that during deposition, shallow brines experi- m below the surface. Known initially as the Carey Salt Mine, enced cycles of fl ooding, evapoconcentration, and desiccation this facility was established in 1923, then sold several times (Andeskie and Benison, 2018). before it was purchased by the Hutchinson Salt Company in Unaltered primary fl uid inclusions are aligned along 1990 and renamed the Hutchinson Salt Mine. Today, the com- growth bands in chevrons and cumulates in the bedded halite pany employs 28 underground miners and 20 top-side process- of the Hutchinson Salt. These inclusions may be all-liquid or ing operators (Lee Spence, 2018, personal commun.). Most liquid with solids (Andeskie and Benison, 2018). The fl uids of the salt produced is used for rock salt and livestock feed, likely represent depositional waters; the solids are crystals of but some is used for tanning hides and making aluminum. The other that existed in the brine at time of precipitation vast empty space left in the mine is ideal for storage of cli- of the halite. mate-sensitive materials. Underground Vaults and Storage Inc. There are a wide range of diagenetic features throughout the (UV&S), established in 1959, takes advantage of the secure, Hutchinson Salt. Syndepositional features include dissolution constant-climate space. Currently, UV&S employs 120 work- surfaces, pipes, and pits in the bedded halite. Displacive halite, ers and stores a wide range of objects from customers in 23 anhydrite nodules, and intergranular halite cement formed early countries. The salt mine’s rich history, rare stored items, and by saline groundwaters. Late-stage diagenetic features include unique cavernous spaces have been developed as Hutchinson’s halite dissolution pipes fi lled with clear halite cement (Andeskie latest tourist attraction. In 2007, the Reno County Historical and Benison, 2018). Society leased space for the development of “Strataca: Kansas Underground Salt Museum.” The museum has hosted more ROAD LOG than 60,000 visitors annually since it opened (Myron Marcotte, 2018, personal commun.). 7 a.m.: Depart from the Hilton Garden Inn (401 S. 3rd St., Manhattan, Kansas 66502; N 39° 10′ 30.36″, Stop 2.1. Introduction to the Permian and Depositional W 96° 33′ 37.29″). History of the Salt

8:30 a.m.: STOP 1. Hutchinson Salt Depositional Margin The halite that surrounds us in the subsurface entranceway near Lindsborg/Assaria of the mine and museum is dominated by bedded halite. The bed- (U.S. Hwy I-135; N 38° 02′ 37.71″, W 97° 52′ 03.26″) ding in the halite is visible in hand sample due to the variations in color from clear to gray to black (Fig. 3). The beds are approxi- The eastern depositional limit of the Hutchinson Salt is mately ~1–3 cm thick and contain both primary and secondary buried by Pleistocene and recent sediments east of U.S. Hwy fl uid inclusions. Some large (meter-scale) halite-fi lled dissolution I-135 near this stop (Fig. 1). Natural brine springs that emanate pipes and macropores are present as well. These veins are typi- from the salt margins, such as this one, were fi rst used by local cally cloudy-white in color and cross-cut bedded halite. There are Native Americans and early settlers to produce salt by evapora- some halite stalactites, caused from humidity in the air dissolving tion. The fi rst large-scale production of salt was established in and reprecipitating the halite. the mid-1800s in Salina, Kansas, using large kettles that were transported from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, via the , Missis- Stop 2.2. Historic and Current Mining Processes sippi, Arkansas, Grand, Kansas, and Saline Rivers. Land subsid- ence caused by salt dissolution is believed to have caused a series Over 3.9 km2 of land has been mined below the surface of sub- parallel north–south valleys near this site, which are fi lled since the fi rst mine shaft was installed in 1922. Most of the with sediment today (Fent, 1950). Subtle, dissolution-origin mining took place along U.S. Hwy 50 and south of it (Fig. 1). depressions can be observed elsewhere, such as along I-135 near Since the mine opened, more than 150 km of tunnels have been Wichita. Although many of the area’s salt marshes are believed created. The mining process is the same cut-drill-powder-shoot to be associated with the dissolution of younger Permian depos- method used since the mine’s inception. The 12-m-wide rooms its, several springs at the salt’s southeastern margin in Harvey, advance about 3 m with each mining cycle. An undercutter is Science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson Salt 29

Figure 3. Hutchinson Salt in mine walls. (A) Bedded halite with a West Virginia University student for scale. (B) White halite cement-fi lling dissolution vug in bedded halite with Emporia State University students for scale.

fi rst used to cut a 2.4–2.7 m gash into the mine face near the Stop 2.3. Radioactive Waste Storage in Salt and bottom for the wall, and 2–3-m-deep holes are drilled every 2– the AEC Project 3 m (Fig. 4A). Each hole is fi lled with a blasting cap and ammo- nium nitrate. All caps are tied to one fuse and detonated in a Natural salt has the capacity to anneal fractures by plastic single, sequenced blast. It takes about one second to blast an fl ow at relatively high temperatures and pressures. It also trans- entire wall. Cross-cuts are made every 12 m (40 ft) and are also mits heat readily and exhibits compressive strength and radiation- 12 m wide to leave 12 × 12 m pillars (Myron Marcotte, 2018, shielding properties similar to those of concrete. In 1955, a com- personal commun.). mittee of the National Academy of Sciences proposed storage

Figure 4. Equipment used in mining salt. (A) A continuous cutter is used to advance the mining face. The rock is crushed and transported to the surface via conveyer (B) and a single freight elevator. (Photo credits: P.J. Johnston; used with permission.) 30 Schulmeister et al.

of high-level radioactive waste in salt and began searching for thousands of movie fi lms. Important customers include Wolf Creek suitable locations for testing the process (Pierce and Rich, 1962). Nuclear Power Company, Warner Brothers, and Disney. Storage The potential for storage of radioactive waste was examined in space is also rented to private citizens. The space is sold by the the formerly named Carey Salt Mine by Oak Ridge National number of boxes (current rate is $2/yr per box) or by square foot of Lab and the Kansas Geological Survey on behalf of the Atomic storage. Over 5.5 million containers are stored in the mine, in more Energy Commission (Angino and Hambleton, 1971). Reposi- than 100 rooms that are 91 × 15 m (300 × 50 ft). tory conditions were simulated using heaters and instruments to record heat radiation and potential impacts to the mechanical Stop 2.8. Salt Tourism and Strataca properties of the salt. Political support in Kansas for the project decreased as technical concerns were not adequately met, and Strataca: Kansas Underground Salt Museum chronicles the radioactive waste is not stored here (Walker, 2006). history of the mine, showcases novel items stored by UV&S, and provides a unique special-event space. It is the only underground Stop 2.4. Sedimentary Depositional Features and Processes salt museum operating in an active mine in the Western Hemisphere (Strataca, 2018). Early mining equipment, transported to a depth of The bedded salt-shale layers are interrupted by cross- 198 m (650 ft) via one small, cable-lift elevator, has remained below cutting features at several locations in the mine. These are typi- ground on display, along with rail cars used to transport miners to cally present at right angles to bedding and appear to be both the blasting face. Some of Hollywood’s most famous movie cos- syndepositional and fi lling in origin. The pod at tumes and props (including costumes worn in Superman and Men this location appears to be a solution cavity that is fi lled with in Black, to name a few) are on display in the museum, along with halite cement (Tasch, 1960; Fig. 3). Elsewhere in the mine, geological explanations of the origin of the Permian salt (Strataca, mud-fi lled fractures penetrate the interbedded salt and shale 2018). The facility hosts daily tours and a variety of special events, layers, suggesting the invasion of muds along desiccation or including movie mystery dinners, weddings, 5K runs, and bike other fractures during the formation, transport, and deposition rides. In 2008, Strataca was named one of the “eight wonders of of the and muds. Kansas” by the Kansas Sampler Foundation (Penner, 2011).

Stop 2.5. Moving the Salt Lunch in the “Permian Room”: Browse the Museum Exhibits and View AEC 2 Core The crushed salt is transported to land surface via a 6.4-km- long conveyer system and elevator, where it is stored for sale and Participants of the 2019 GSA Section Meeting will have transport by truck to markets throughout the northeastern United “hands-on” time to further examine the AEC 2 core, thin sec- States in response to seasonal markets (Fig. 4B). Each elevator tions, and halite samples collected by participants as part of this bucket holds 5 tonnes (5.5 tons) of salt and travels to the surface fi eld trip earlier in the day. Field-trip leaders will help partici- every 1.5 min. The mine currently is producing ~450,000 tonnes/yr pants prepare halite samples to view with microscopes to observe (500,000 tons/yr), with the potential to produce similar volumes halite crystal types and fl uid inclusions (Fig. 5). for the next 200 years. Biodiesel is used for all mining equipment Depositional and diagenetic features and processes of the and transportation within the mine. The elevator hoist is counter- Hutchinson Salt will be presented for discussion. The AEC 2 balanced: As one bucket is lifted to the surface and unloaded, core sampled the same strata as the Hutchinson Salt Mine and an empty bucket is lowered into the mine. In 2016, the mine’s displays a variety of features seen in both hand sample and thin headframe was replaced, possibly for the fi rst time since the mine section. At fi rst glance, the most apparent sedimentary feature opened 93 years earlier. The new steel-beamed frame supports is bedded halite. Bedding is indicated by color alterations in two hoist wheels, and its pilings extend to depths of 21.3 m (70 ft). the halite and halite crystal nucleation surfaces. Bulk - Other improvements were made in 2016 to the topside processing ogy, such as halite, gypsum/anhydrite, and clays, can be distin- plant, where the 91 tonne (100 ton) salt dryers and millers were guished. Within the bedded halite, chevrons, defi ned by growth replaced (Green, 2016). bands of primary fl uid inclusions, and dissolution pipes and pits are evident. The mud units vary from gray to black and contain Stops 2.6 and 2.7. Underground Vaults and Storage mudcracks, ripples, lamina, and mud drapes. Thin sections are vital in a complete sedimentological inves- The mine’s constant 20–23 °C (68–73 °F) temperature and tigation of evaporites. One signifi cant benefi t of petrography is 40% humidity are ideal for storage of fi lms, documents, and many mineral identifi cation. Features within the bedded halite, such other items. In 1959, UV&S entered a 99-year lease with the Carey as very small dissolution surfaces, can also be observed. Fluid Salt Mine for use of the space, and UV&S currently stores items inclusion petrography is essential to discern primary from sec- in ~140,000 m2 (1.5 million ft2) of mined-out areas. Items stored ondary fl uid inclusions. Within primary fl uid inclusions, Permian include legal, tax, and insurance documents; health records; micro- depositional waters, crystals, air bubbles, and microorganisms fi lm; data tapes, artwork; seismic data; rare artifacts and photos; and can be observed (Andeskie and Benison, 2018). Science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson Salt 31

Figure 5. Bedded halite in the Hutchin- son Salt at ~299 m (980 ft) depth in the AEC 2 core at three different magnifi - cations: (A) Core slab image of bedded halite. (B) Polished chip of bedded ha- lite with chevron in center-right. Chev- rons indicate an “up direction” and pre- cipitation of halite at the sediment-water interface of shallow surface brine. (C) Petrographic image of primary fl uid in- clusions along growth bands in chevron seen in image B.

2:15 p.m.: STOP 3—Enterprise Products, using a saturated brine, which is denser than LPG being stored. Hydrocarbon Storage in the Permian Salt The caverns are kept full of liquid; when they are not fi lled with (2610 S. Mohawk Rd., Hutchinson, Kansas 67501; product, they are fi lled with brine. As LPG is pumped into the N 38° 01′ 17.59″, W 97° 59′ 34.05″ – WGS84 Datum) caverns, brine is displaced and stored in above-ground, lined brine ponds until is it re-injected into the cavern to displace the Stop 3.1. Board Room product for distribution. The LPG is received at the storage facilities via pipelines, Liquid petroleum gases are hydrocarbons that are gaseous truck, and rail (Fig. 6). A typical Kansas cavern has a volume of at normal atmospheric pressure but can be condensed to a liq- ~100,000 barrels (4.2 million gallons) and is located at a depth of uid state at normal temperature by the application of moderate ~183–284 m (600–800 ft). The Enterprise Products Hutchinson pressures. Although normally used as a gas, LPG is stored and facility has the capacity to store ~4.3 million barrels of LPG in 21 transported as liquid for convenience and ease of handling. The caverns and redeliver it to locations across the United States (Fig. underground storage of LPG in vertical salt caverns during peri- 7; Darren Dick, 2018, personal commun.). ods of low demand, and its extraction and distribution during high demand, is more economical, requires less space, and is less Stop 3.2. Well Head and Cavern Development hazardous than above-ground storage. The product is stored at pressures high enough to keep the product in liquid form in the The process of “solution mining” a salt cavern is accom- caverns. The transfer of product in and out of the caverns is done plished by injecting fresh or low-TDS (total dissolved solids) 32 Schulmeister et al.

Figure 6. Hydrocarbon gas liquid pipe- lines in the United States as of 2015 (U.S. Energy Information Adminis- tration, 2018; https://www.eia.gov/ energyexplained/index.php?page = hgls _transporting_storing, accessed 2018).

Figure 7. The Enterprise Products LPG (liquid petroleum gas) storage facility in South Hutchinson. LPG is transported by rail or truck to/from the facility’s central distribution point, and pumped to 21 storage caverns via a network of surface manifolds and underground pipes (photo courtesy of Enterprise Products Inc.). Science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson Salt 33 water, which dissolves the salt, into the proposed cavern interval. a single hanging casing is used for product injection and with- The brine is then returned to the surface. To facilitate this process, drawal (Fig. 9). During storage operations, saturated brine is used a well is drilled into the upper part of the Hutchinson Salt and to limit unwanted cavern growth so the cavern shapes and stor- multiple strings of steel casing are run and cemented in place. age volumes remain relatively constant. The Enterprise Products The casing is set at least 30.5 m (100 ft) below the top of the salt, caverns range from 198 to 290 m (650–950 ft) below ground sur- to prevent brine or LPG from entering the shallower freshwater face. The minimum distance between caverns and various other aquifer, and to seal the well for future storage of LPGs. After criteria are regulated by the Kansas Department of Health and all of the casing has been set and cemented, drilling continues Environment. into the salt layer to the appropriate depth. Two additional, un- cemented casings are then suspended in the well bore so that Stop 3.3. Brine Storage Pond fresh water can be injected, and brine returned. A blanket of mate- rial of light hydrocarbon is injected into the area just below the The recirculated brine is stored in above-ground, lined, brine fi nal cemented casing to prevent unwanted upward dissolution bonds. The brine used for product displacement must have a in that area (Fig. 8). The solution mining process continues until of greater than 90%. The salinity of brine at the Enter- the cavern reaches the desired size and it takes several months to prise facility is 97%. The ponds are lined with impermeable plas- complete. During the solution mining process, the cavern shape tic liners to prevent leakage of brine, which could contaminate is mapped using sonar technology and storage volume is calcu- the groundwater (Fig. 10). Brine returned from storage caverns lated based on the results. Once the cavern has been developed, travels through the brine degasser, where residual hydrocarbons

Figure 8. A typical storage well (not to scale; KDHE, 2013). Casing seals meet maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) requirements. 34 Schulmeister et al.

Figure 9. Storage cavern wellhead, with liquid petroleum gas and brine injec- tion inlets/outlets. More than $100,000 worth of monitoring devices, including emergency shut down (ESD) valves, are installed on each well as required by state and federal regulations (image courtesy Enterprise Products Inc.; used with permission).

are fl ared before going to the pond. Groundwater observation established and 11 salt production facilities were established wells are required at each storage facility to monitor the potential within a year. This is the location of Blanchard’s fi rst test well. migration of brine or combustible gas. Deep wells are Known today as “Salt City,” the community of Hutchinson was set at depths of ~53 m (174 ft) in the top of the Wellington For- initially founded by Blanchard’s investment company, and its mation; shallow wells are screened across the water table, ~14 economic development owes largely to the exploitation of the m (45 ft) below ground surface in the Equus Beds Formation. A Permian salt of Kansas. Class I injection well is used to dispose of any excess brine in the Arbuckle Formation ~2700 m (8858 ft) below land surface. 6:30 p.m.: Return to Hilton Garden Inn (401 S. 3rd St., Manhattan, Kansas 66502; N 39° 10′ 30.36″, 4:15 p.m.: STOP 4. The Salt Discovery Well W 96° 33′ 37.29″). (901 W. Illinois St., Hutchinson, Kansas; N 38° 00′ 49.36″, W 97° 56′ 45.02″ – WGS84 Datum) AKNOWLEDGMENTS

In 1887, real estate developer Ben Blanchard purchased this The authors are indebted to Lee Spence (president, Under- property for oil and gas development. While his initial objective ground Vaults and Storage Inc.), Myron Marcotte (mining was to develop a coal, oil, or natural gas industry, his test wells specialist, Strataca), and Darren Dick (operations coordinator, revealed salt instead of hydrocarbons. Salt mining was quickly Enterprise Products) for their many contributions to this fi eld

Figure 10. A typical brine pond. It is double-lined and holds ~1,000,000 bbls (oil barrels) of water. Science and industry of the Permian Hutchinson Salt 35 trip, and for more than a decade of instructional presentations phy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 402, p. 12–29, https://doi.org/ provided to Emporia State University students. We are grate- 10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.02.031. Giles, J.M., Soreghan, M.J., Benison, K.C., Soreghan, G.J., and Hasiotis, S.T., ful to Lynn Watney and Nikki Potter at the Kansas Geological 2013, Lakes, loess, and paleosols in the Permian Wellington Formation Survey for loaning us the AEC core used in demonstrations. of Oklahoma, U.S.A.: Implications for paleoclimate and paleogeography Careful review and suggestions for improving the manuscript of the midcontinent: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 83, p. 825–846, https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2013.59. by Dennis Powers are also appreciated. Green, J., 2016 (25 June), Salt mine owner marks 25 years with millions in new investment: The Hutchinson News, available at http://www.hutchnews .com/c693bf35-0c2a-5b0e-909e-d9678912247d.html. Hardie, L.A., 1984, Evaporites: Marine or non-marine?: American Journal of Science, v. 284, p. 193–240, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.284.3.193. Holser, W.T., 1968, Chemistry of brine inclusions in Permian salt from Hutchinson, Kansas [abs.]: Geological Society of America Special Paper 88, p. 537. Horita, J., Friedman, T.J., Lazar, B., and Holland, H.D., 1991, The composition of Permian seawater: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 55, p. 417– 432, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(91)90001-L. Jones, C., 1965, Petrography of Evaporites from the Wellington Formation near Hutchinson, Kansas: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1201-A, 70 p. 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