Gouldner's Tragic Vision

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Sociology & Criminology Faculty Publications Sociology & Criminology Department

1-2002

Gouldner's tragic vision

James Chriss Cleveland State University, [email protected]

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This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Sociology & Criminology Department at EngagedScholarship@CSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sociology & Criminology Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of EngagedScholarship@CSU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. GOULDNER.S TRAGIC VISION

James J. Chriss, Cleveland State University

Abstract

Classical literature, specifically ancient Greek philosophy and especially the study of Greek tragedy, is helpful in tracing out and understanding the transitions Alvin Gouldner made during his career as a sociologist. This article argues that a latent tragic orientation or vision existed during Gouldner's early eareer as a standout in the field of industrial sociology and that this tragic vision became manifest around 1962 as Gouldner was developing more and more strident denunciations of establishment sociology. Ibis case study of Gouldner's career teaches a valuable lesson about the importance of the tragic vision in helping sociologists to understand the limita- tions of the scientific quest for knowledge.

Sociology, which became established as a scientific discipline only as recently as the end of the nineteenth century, was heir to the Enlightenment vision of science and reason. This Enlightenment vision, according to R. Bierstedt (1978), contained the follow- ing elements or propositions: explanations based on reason and science were superior to those based on religion; all social phenomena could be explained via the application of the principles and methods of the natural sciences; and the confidence in the ability of reason to solve all problems meant that the perfectibility of humankind was now attain- able and no longer merely a fanciful, utopian dream (see also Rundell 20m). By the 1940s most U.S. sociology departments had fully embraced and institutional- ized these Enlightenment propositions, and the field's theorists and practitioners were busily constructing, both conceptually and organizationally, this burgeoning science of society (Luhmann 1982; Habermas 1984; Turner and Turner 1990). For example, because of his strengths in statistical technique and methodology, William Ogburn was hired by Columbia University's sociology program in 1928 in a departmental effort to position itself as the American leader of scientific sociology (Oberschall 1972; Bannister 1987; Chriss 2001).1 Thus, by the time Alvin W. Gouldner had arrived at Columbia in 1943 to begin work on his master's degree, scientific sociology was well-established not only as a result of Ogburn's influence but also, and perhaps even more importantly, because of Robert K. Merton's presence. Gouldner, who studied under Merton (for details, see Merton 1982), was a standout in the field of industrial sociology through the 1950s and into the early 1960s, but by 1962 his commitment to the high modernism and positivism of scientific sociology came to an abrupt halt. In this article I make the case that Gouldner's turn toward a critical

Direct all correspondence to James 1. Chriss, Cleveland Stale University, Department of Sociology, 1860 East 22nd St., Cleve· land, OR 44114: e-mail: [email protected] andandand especiallyespeciallyespecially reflexivereflexivereflexive sociologysociologysociology occurredoccurredoccurred becausebecausebecause hehehe camecamecame tototo embraceembraceembrace aaa tragictragictragic visionvisionvision ofofof sciencesciencescience andandand societysocietysociety thatthatthat ininin manymanymany wayswaysways isisis deeplydeeplydeeply antitheticalantitheticalantithetical tototo Enlightenment assumptions andandand tototo thethethe practicepracticepractice ofofof "normal""normal""normal" sciencesciencescience (Kuhn(Kuhn(Kuhn 1970).1970).1970). ByByBy thethethe "tragic"tragic"tragic vision,"vision,"vision," III meanmeanmean ananan approachapproachapproach tototo ororor perspectiveperspectiveperspective ononon lifelifelife thatthatthat emphasizesemphasizesemphasizes humanhumanhuman frailty,frailty,frailty, thethethe horrorshorrorshorrors ofofof everydayeverydayeveryday existence,existence,existence, andandand thethethe sheersheersheer unpredictability ofofof lifelifelife asasas wewewe knowknowknow ititit (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1965;1965;1965; 1976,1976,1976, pp.pp.pp. 67~90). ThisThisThis tragictragictragic visionvisionvision waswaswas originallyoriginallyoriginally developeddevelopeddeveloped ininin GreeceGreeceGreece duringduringduring thethethe fifthfifthfifth centurycenturycentury B.C.,B.C.,B.C., primarilyprimarilyprimarily asasas represented ininin thethethe poetrypoetrypoetry andandand playsplaysplays ofofof GreckGreckGreck tragictragictragic theater.theater.theater. InInIn thethethe nextnextnext section,section,section, III discussdiscussdiscuss howhowhow thethethe tragictragictragic visionvisionvision isisis relatedrelatedrelated tototo thethethe scientificscientificscientific vision.vision.vision.

TRAGEDYTRAGEDYTRAGEDY ANDANDAND SCIENCESCIENCESCIENCE OverOverOver thethethe yearsyearsyears aaa numbernumbernumber ofofof authorsauthorsauthors (see(see(see especiallyespeciallyespecially WhiteheadWhiteheadWhitehead rrr1925]1925]1925] 1926;1926;1926; FryeFryeFrye 1957)1957)1957) havehavehave notednotednoted thethethe proximityproximityproximity betweenbetweenbetween thethethe appearanceappearanceappearance ofofof tragictragictragic theatertheatertheater andandand thethethe occurrenceoccurrenceoccurrence ofofof scientificscientificscientific revolutionsrevolutionsrevolutions duringduringduring twotwotwo specificspecificspecific timetimetime periodsperiodsperiods andandand places:places:places: thethethe fifthfifthfifth centurycenturycentury B.c.B.c.B.c. ininin GreeceGreeceGreece andandand thethethe earlyearlyearly seventeenth centurycenturycentury ininin Europe.Europe.Europe.222 TragicTragicTragic theatertheatertheater developeddevelopeddeveloped duringduringduring thethethe fifthfifthfifth centurycenturycentury B.c.B.c.B.c. andandand shortlyshortlyshortly thereafter,thereafter,thereafter, withwithwith thethethe riseriserise ofofof thethethe SocraticSocraticSocratic andandand Pla-Pla-Pla- tonictonictonic era,era,era, thethethe establishment ofofof academicacademicacademic philosophyphilosophyphilosophy occurred.occurred.occurred. LikewiseLikewiseLikewise ininin thethethe earlyearlyearly sev-sev-sev- enteenthenteenthenteenth century,century,century, thethethe endendend ofofof thethethe Renaissance usheredusheredushered ininin thethethe greatgreatgreat tragediestragediestragedies ofofof Shakespeare, whichwhichwhich werewerewere followedfollowedfollowed shortlyshortlyshortly thereafterthereafterthereafter bybyby thethethe dawningdawningdawning ofofof thethethe Enlighten-Enlighten-Enlighten- mentmentment andandand thethethe modernmodernmodern ageageage ofofof sciencesciencescience (Munck(Munck(Munck 2000).2000).2000). WritingWritingWriting ininin 1925,1925,1925, AlfredAlfredAlfred NorthNorthNorth WhiteheadWhiteheadWhitehead ([1925]1926, p.p.p. 10)10)10) believedbelievedbelieved thethethe riseriserise ofofof tragedytragedytragedy waswaswas merelymerelymerely aaa foreshadowing ofofof science,science,science, ininin thatthatthat bothbothboth tragedytragedytragedy andandand sciencesciencescience werewerewere ofofof thethethe samesamesame cloth,cloth,cloth, sharingsharingsharing thethethe charac-charac-charac- teristicsteristicsteristics ofofof fate,fate,fate, remorselessness, determinism, andandand indifference: "Fate"Fate"Fate ininin GreekGreekGreek tragedytragedytragedy becomesbecomesbecomes thethethe orderorderorder ofofof naturenaturenature ininin modernmodernmodern thought."thought."thought." MichaelMichaelMichael ChayutChayutChayut (1999)(1999)(1999) suggestssuggestssuggests thatthatthat bothbothboth thesethesethese periodsperiodsperiods werewerewere markedmarkedmarked bybyby aaa transitiontransitiontransition fromfromfrom "old"old"old myth"myth"myth" tototo science,science,science, twotwotwo conflictingconflictingconflicting worldviewsworldviewsworldviews thatthatthat simplysimplysimply cannotcannotcannot coexist.coexist.coexist. AccordingAccordingAccording tototo JohnJohnJohn F.F.F. DanbyDanbyDanby (1949),(1949),(1949), oldoldold mythmythmyth isisis thethethe dyingdyingdying Renaissance mythologymythologymythology repre-repre-repre- sentedsentedsented bybyby aaa traditional,traditional,traditional, hierarchicalhierarchicalhierarchical outlookoutlookoutlook ononon humanityhumanityhumanity andandand nature,nature,nature, whilewhilewhile sciencesciencescience isisis aaa rational,rational,rational, skepticalskepticalskeptical outlookoutlookoutlook representing aaa newnewnew empiricistempiricistempiricist andandand mechanistic sciencesciencescience (Chayut(Chayut(Chayut 1999,1999,1999, p.p.p. 166).166).166). ThisThisThis isisis consistentconsistentconsistent withwithwith FriedrichFriedrichFriedrich Nietzsche'sNietzsche'sNietzsche's ([1872]([1872]([1872] 1956)1956)1956) viewviewview ofofof thethethe dialectical,dialectical,dialectical, oppositional relationship betweenbetweenbetween tragedytragedytragedy andandand science.science.science. InInIn essence,essence,essence, trag-trag-trag- edyedyedy givesgivesgives birthbirthbirth tototo ananan optimistic,optimistic,optimistic, theoretical,theoretical,theoretical, andandand scientificscientificscientific criticalcriticalcritical thoughtthoughtthought andandand risesrisesrises tototo ascendancyascendancyascendancy throughthroughthrough matricide.matricide.matricide. AsAsAs thethethe dialecticdialecticdialectic progresses,progresses,progresses, forforfor tragedytragedytragedy tototo bebebe reborn,reborn,reborn, sci-sci-sci- enceenceence mustmustmust ininin itsitsits turnturnturn diediedie outoutout ororor witherwitherwither away.away.away. WeWeWe havehavehave witnessedwitnessedwitnessed thisthisthis ininin thcthcthc contcmporary era,era,era, asasas scienccscienccsciencc hashashas comecomecome undcrundcrundcr attackattackattack for,for,for, amongamongamong othcrothcrothcr things,things,things, itsitsits fetishfetishfetish ofofof quantification andandand itsitsits claimsclaimsclaims ofofof presuppositionlessness andandand value-neutrality, asasas wellwellwell asasas itsitsits allegedallegedalleged rac-rac-rac- ism,ism,ism, sexism,sexism,sexism, classism,classism,classism, heterosexism, andandand Eurocentrism (for(for(for summaries,summaries,summaries, seeseesee AlatasAlatasAlatas 2001;2001;2001; LemertLemertLemert 2001;2001;2001; RogersRogersRogers 2001).2001).2001). ItItIt wouldwouldwould appear,appear,appear, then,then,then, thatthatthat thisthisthis postmodernist environment ofofof hyperskepticism towardtowardtoward sciencesciencescience (Foucault(Foucault(Foucault 1979;1979;1979; LyotardLyotardLyotard 1984;1984;1984; MaffesoliMaffesoliMaffesoli 1993)1993)1993) repre-repre-repre- sentssentssents aaa fertilefertilefertile terrainterrainterrain forforfor thethethe returnreturnreturn ofofof thethethe tragictragictragic vision.vision.vision. InInIn thethethe traditiontraditiontradition ofofof GreekGreekGreek theater,theater,theater, Shakespeare's King Lear isisis perhapsperhapsperhaps thethethe exemplaryexemplaryexemplary tragedy.tragedy.tragedy. TheTheThe plotplotplot linelineline isisis builtbuiltbuilt ononon thethethe incompatibility betweenbetweenbetween thethethe twotwotwo contradictory viewsviewsviews ofofof naturenaturenature ofofof oldoldold mythmythmyth andandand science.science.science. OneOneOne groupgroupgroup ofofof protagonists (King(King(King Lear,Lear,Lear, thethethe DukeDukeDuke ofofof Gloucester,Gloucester,Gloucester, CordeliaCordeliaCordelia andandand theirtheirtheir followers)followers)followers) holdsholdsholds tototo thethethe oldoldold mythmythmyth viewviewview ofofof naturenaturenature andandand reality,reality,reality, wherewherewhere naturenaturenature isisis viewedviewedviewed asasas fluid,fluid,fluid, dynamic,dynamic,dynamic, andandand unstableunstableunstable (Chayut(Chayut(Chayut 1999;1999;1999; DanbyDanbyDanby 1949).1949).1949). TheTheThe groupgroupgroup ofofof villainsvillainsvillains ledledled bybyby Edmund,Edmund,Edmund, ininin contrast,contrast,contrast, isisis machiavellistic ininin orientation;orientation;orientation; theytheythey areareare ofofof thethethe ageageage ofofof scientificscientificscientific inquiryinquiryinquiry andandand industrialindustrialindustrial development, thethethe ageageage ofofof thethethe six-six-six- teenthteenthteenth centurycenturycentury andandand afterafterafter (Danby(Danby(Danby 1949,1949,1949, p.p.p. 46).46).46). ThisThisThis groupgroupgroup ofofof villainsvillainsvillains isisis describeddescribeddescribed asasas maehiavelsmaehiavelsmaehiavels becausebecausebecause theytheythey areareare giftedgiftedgifted ininin thethethe mechanicalmechanicalmechanical manipulation ofofof humanhumanhuman nature,nature,nature, whichwhichwhich hashashas aaa directdirectdirect lineagelineagelineage tototo thethethe scientist'sscientist'sscientist's abilityabilityability tototo manipulatemanipulatemanipulate physicalphysicalphysical nature.nature.nature. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, asasas DanbyDanbyDanby (1949)(1949)(1949) suggests,suggests,suggests, ininin EdmundEdmundEdmund wewewe havehavehave thethethe fusingfusingfusing ofofof twotwotwo images:images:images: thethethe politicalpoliticalpolitical machiavelmachiavelmachiavel andandand thethethe Renaissance scientist.scientist.scientist. KingKingKing LearLearLear isisis aaa tragictragictragic heroherohero becausebecausebecause hehehe isisis surroundedsurroundedsurrounded ononon allallall sidessidessides bybyby aaa newnewnew waywayway ofofof life,life,life, aaa culturecultureculture thatthatthat isisis foreignforeignforeign tototo him.him.him. AsAsAs NietzscheNietzscheNietzsche ([1872]([1872]([1872] 1956)1956)1956) suggests,suggests,suggests, everyeveryevery tragictragictragic heroherohero derivesderivesderives hishishis statusstatusstatus fromfromfrom hishishis embodiment ofofof oldoldold mythmythmyth ininin thethethe formformform ofofof thethethe godgodgod Dionysus.Dionysus.Dionysus. AllAllAll thethethe celebratedcelebratedcelebrated figuresfiguresfigures ofofof thethethe GreekGreekGreek stage-Prometheus. Oedipus,Oedipus,Oedipus, andandand sososo on-areon-areon-are butbutbut masksmasksmasks ofofof thethethe originaloriginaloriginal tragictragictragic hero,hero,hero, DionysusDionysusDionysus (ChayutI999, p.p.p. 172).172).172). DionysusDionysusDionysus isisis thethethe godgodgod ofofof winewinewine andandand revelryrevelryrevelry butbutbut alsoalsoalso thethethe godgodgod ofofof thethethe theater,theater,theater, ofofof masksmasksmasks andandand impersonation, ofofof myriadmyriadmyriad selvesselvesselves (Storm(Storm(Storm 1998,1998,1998, p.p.p. 9).9).9). InInIn Euripides'sEuripides'sEuripides's Bacchae (Bacchus(Bacchus(Bacchus beingbeingbeing thethethe RomanRomanRoman e4uivalente4uivalente4uivalent ofofof Dionysus),Dionysus),Dionysus), AgaveAgaveAgave tearstearstears apartapartapart herherher ownownown son,son,son, Pentheus,Pentheus,Pentheus, limblimblimb fromfromfrom limb,limb,limb, thenthenthen takestakestakes hishishis headheadhead andandand impalesimpalesimpales ititit ononon aaa stickstickstick forforfor allallall thethethe ThebanThebanTheban citizenrycitizenrycitizenry tototo behold,behold,behold, thinkingthinkingthinking ititit tototo bebebe thethethe headheadhead ofofof aaa lion.lion.lion. ButButBut shesheshe waswaswas mad,mad,mad, possessedpossessedpossessed bybyby Bacchus,Bacchus,Bacchus, and,and,and, standingstandingstanding beforebeforebefore herherher fatherfatherfather Cadmus,Cadmus,Cadmus, shesheshe isisis broughtbroughtbrought tototo recognitionrecognitionrecognition thatthatthat shesheshe hadhadhad justjustjust killedkilledkilled herherher son.son.son. AgaveAgaveAgave laments,laments,laments, "Now,"Now,"Now, nownownow III see:see:see: DionysusDionysusDionysus hashashas destroyeddestroyeddestroyed ususus all."all."all." ItItIt isisis oftenoftenoften thethethe casecasecase thatthatthat tragictragictragic heroes'heroes'heroes' ownownown sensesensesense ofofof selfselfself andandand identityidentityidentity areareare torntorntorn apart,apart,apart, rentrentrent andandand scatteredscatteredscattered and,and,and, likelikelike KingKingKing LearLearLear ororor Agave,Agave,Agave, theytheythey areareare leftleftleft tototo makemakemake theirtheirtheir waywayway throughthroughthrough ananan alienalienalien andandand unsureunsureunsure world,world,world, ififif indeedindeedindeed theytheythey survivesurvivesurvive atatat all.all.all. AsAsAs thethethe godgodgod ofofof wine,wine,wine, DionysusDionysusDionysus assuresassuresassures thethethe resurrection ofofof thethethe vinevinevine andandand thethethe intoxication ofofof thethethe fleshfleshflesh ininin thethethe orgiasticorgiasticorgiastic cele-cele-cele- brationsbrationsbrations tototo hishishis image.image.image. InInIn thisthisthis sensesensesense hehehe isisis thethethe godgodgod ofofof ecstacy,ecstacy,ecstacy, thethethe conditionconditioncondition ofofof transporttransporttransport beyondbeyondbeyond thethethe self.self.self. ButButBut ininin additionadditionaddition tototo thethethe powerpowerpower ofofof generation.generation.generation. DionysusDionysusDionysus alsoalsoalso wieldswieldswields thethethe powerpowerpower ofofof destruction, deliveringdeliveringdelivering somesomesome individualsindividualsindividuals tototo ecstaticecstaticecstatic rapturerapturerapture andandand othersothersothers tototo hor-hor-hor- rorrorror andandand madnessmadnessmadness (Storm(Storm(Storm 1998,1998,1998, p.p.p. 18).18).18). NietzscheNietzscheNietzsche suggestedsuggestedsuggested thatthatthat thethethe adventadventadvent ofofof tragedytragedytragedy isisis dependentdependentdependent ononon thethethe dialecticdialecticdialectic betweenbetweenbetween twotwotwo forcesforcesforces ororor movements, thethethe DionysiacDionysiacDionysiac (the(the(the artartart realmrealmrealm ofofof intoxication, freeingfreeingfreeing thethethe spiritspiritspirit fromfromfrom worldlyworldlyworldly constraintsconstraintsconstraints sososo asasas tototo accommo-accommo-accommo- datedatedate ananan ecstaticecstaticecstatic communion withwithwith primalprimalprimal unity)unity)unity) andandand thethethe ApollonianApollonianApollonian (the(the(the artartart realmrealmrealm ofofof dreamdreamdream [the[the[the dreamdreamdream ofofof reason],reason],reason], thethethe rationalrationalrational andandand measured,measured,measured, thethethe temperingtemperingtempering thatthatthat isisis necessarynecessarynecessary tototo returnreturnreturn oneoneone tototo thethethe "illusion""illusion""illusion" ofofof individualindividualindividual selfhoodselfhoodselfhood afterafterafter boutsboutsbouts ofofof rapture)rapture)rapture) (Storm(Storm(Storm 1998,1998,1998, p.p.p. 22).22).22).

PHENOMENOLOGY, POSITIVISM, ANDANDAND THETHETHE SOCIOLOGY OFOFOF KNOWLEDGE HavingHavingHaving takentakentaken notenotenote ofofof thethethe dialecticaldialecticaldialectical relationrelationrelation betweenbetweenbetween thethethe appearanceappearanceappearance ofofof tragedytragedytragedy andandand sci-sci-science,ence,ence, wewewe maymaymay conjectureconjectureconjecture asasas tototo thethethe impactimpactimpact thatthatthat certaincertaincertain textstextstexts ininin classicalclassicalclassical studies-primarily thosethosethose dealingdealingdealing withwithwith ancientancientancient GreekGreekGreek philosophy,philosophy,philosophy, GreekGreekGreek theatertheatertheater andandand tragedy,tragedy,tragedy, asasas wellwellwell asasas sec-sec-sec- ondaryondaryondary analysisanalysisanalysis ofofof thesethesethese worksworksworks bybyby NietzscheNietzscheNietzsche andandand otherotherother classicalclassicalclassical scholars-had ononon Gouldner.Gouldner.Gouldner. BeforeBeforeBefore wewewe exploreexploreexplore thisthisthis topictopictopic ininin moremoremore detaildetaildetail ininin thethethe nextnextnext section,section,section, wewewe mustmustmust firstfirstfirst notenotenote that,that,that, asasas thethethe sociologysociologysociology ofofof knowledgeknowledgeknowledge suggests,suggests,suggests, bothbothboth directdirectdirect experienceexperienceexperience ofofof thethethe socialsocialsocial worldworldworld andandand exposureexposureexposure tototo textstextstexts (or(or(or otherotherother scholars'scholars'scholars' ideas)ideas)ideas) contributecontributecontribute tototo socialsocialsocial scientists'scientists'scientists' the-the-the- oreticaloreticaloretical orientations andandand paradigmatic worldviewsworldviewsworldviews (Chriss(Chriss(Chriss 1999a,1999a,1999a, p.p.p. 110).3110).3110).3 TextsTextsTexts oftenoftenoften workworkwork merelymerelymerely tototo ratifyratifyratify aaa preexistingpreexistingpreexisting setsetset ofofof assumptions thethethe readerreaderreader holdsholdsholds aboutaboutabout thethethe world,world,world, aboutaboutabout knowledge,knowledge,knowledge, aboutaboutabout values,values,values, andandand sososo forth.forth.forth. InInIn thisthisthis sense,sense,sense, theoriststheoriststheorists oftenoftenoften gravitategravitategravitate towardtowardtoward systemssystemssystems ofofof ideasideasideas thatthatthat resonateresonateresonate withwithwith theirtheirtheir ownownown personalpersonalpersonal proclivi-proclivi-proclivities,ties,ties, thatthatthat comportcomportcomport withwithwith thethethe Weltanschaaung ofofof aaa theorytheorytheory group.group.group. ThisThisThis isisis whatwhatwhat ArthurArthurArthur O.O.O. LovejoyLovejoyLovejoy (1936)(1936)(1936) describeddescribeddescribed asasas aaa "metaphysical pathos"pathos"pathos" endemicendemicendemic tototo sciencesciencescience andandand philoso-philoso-philosophy.phy.phy. EarlyEarlyEarly ininin hishishis career,career,career, atatat thethethe timetimetime firmlyfirmlyfirmly ensconcedensconcedensconced ininin thethethe normalnormalnormal sciencesciencescience paradigmparadigmparadigm ofofof industrialindustrialindustrial sociology,sociology,sociology, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1955)(1955)(1955) chastisedchastisedchastised TalcottTalcottTalcott Parsons,Parsons,Parsons, PhilipPhilipPhilip Selznick,Selznick,Selznick, andandand othersothersothers forforfor havinghavinghaving ananan overlyoverlyoverly pessimisticpessimisticpessimistic viewviewview ofofof bureaucracy. ThisThisThis pessimisticpessimisticpessimistic viewviewview ofofof for-for-for- malmalmal organization waswaswas establishedestablishedestablished bothbothboth bybyby MaxMaxMax WcberWcberWcber (his(his(his notionnotionnotion ofofof thethethe "iron"iron"iron cage"cage"cage" ofofof bureaucracy) andandand bybyby RobertRobertRobert MichelsMichelsMichels (1915;(1915;(1915; hishishis notionnotionnotion ofofof thethethe "iron"iron"iron lawlawlaw ofofof oligarchy").oligarchy").oligarchy"). GouldnerGouldnerGouldner believedbelievedbelieved thatthatthat sociologistssociologistssociologists suchsuchsuch asasas ParsonsParsonsParsons andandand SelznickSelznickSelznick embracedembracedembraced thethethe pessi-pessi-pessi- misticmisticmistic viewviewview ofofof bureaucracy notnotnot becausebecausebecause ofofof anyanyany systcmatic,systcmatic,systcmatic, analyticalanalyticalanalytical inspectioninspectioninspection ofofof thethethe ideaideaidea perperper se,se,se, butbutbut becausebecausebecause ititit waswaswas congruentcongruentcongruent withwithwith thethethe moodmoodmood ororor sentimentssentimentssentiments ofofof thesethesethese theoriststheoriststheorists andandand ofofof thethethe eraeraera moremoremore generallygenerallygenerally (Wilson(Wilson(Wilson 1971).1971).1971). Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, muchmuchmuch thatthatthat hadhadhad beenbeenbeen writtenwrittenwritten ininin thethethe fieldfieldfield ofofof organizational sociologysociologysociology upupup tototo thatthatthat timetimetime (1955),(1955),(1955), accordingaccordingaccording tototo Gouldner,Gouldner,Gouldner, tendedtendedtended tototo blindlyblindlyblindly followfollowfollow thethethe masters'masters'masters' voicesvoicesvoices (Michels(Michels(Michels andandand especiallyespeciallyespecially Weber),Weber),Weber), andandand thethethe metaphys-metaphys-metaphys- icalicalical pathospathospathos (pessimism(pessimism(pessimism andandand fatalism)fatalism)fatalism) ofofof theirtheirtheir ideasideasideas insinuatedinsinuatedinsinuated itselfitselfitself intointointo thethethe majoritymajoritymajority ofofof contemporary writings.writings.writings. InInIn essence,essence,essence, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner arguedarguedargued thatthatthat organizational studiesstudiesstudies hadhadhad takentakentaken aaa wrongwrongwrong turnturnturn ininin embracingembracingembracing thethethe notionnotionnotion thatthatthat bureaucracy waswaswas inevitableinevitableinevitable andandand patho-patho-patho- logicallogicallogical ratherratherrather thanthanthan potentiallypotentiallypotentially humanehumanehumane andandand liberating.liberating.liberating. Further,Further,Further, thisthisthis delusiondelusiondelusion waswaswas causedcausedcaused bybyby sociologists' inattentioninattentioninattention tototo thethethe empiricalempiricalempirical realitiesrealitiesrealities ofofof organizations. DuringDuringDuring hishishis earlyearlyearly periodperiodperiod ofofof immersionimmersionimmersion ininin thethethe "normal""normal""normal" sciencesciencescience paradigmparadigmparadigm ofofof industrialindustrialindustrial sociologysociologysociology (1953(1953(1953 throughthroughthrough approximately 1962;1962;1962; seeseesee ChrissChrissChriss 1999a;1999a;1999a; 2001),2001),2001), then,then,then, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner drewdrewdrew uponuponupon LovejoyLovejoyLovejoy andandand thethethe sociologysociologysociology ofofof knowledgeknowledgeknowledge asasas aaa waywayway ofofof critiquingcritiquingcritiquing fellowfellowfellow sociol-sociol-sociol- ogistsogistsogists whowhowho werewerewere allowingallowingallowing extracognitive factorsfactorsfactors tototo encroachencroachencroach uponuponupon theirtheirtheir "scientific""scientific""scientific" work.work.work. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, ininin somesomesome wayswaysways thisthisthis strategystrategystrategy isisis similarsimilarsimilar tototo thcthcthc phenomenological critiquecritiquecritique ofofof science.science.science. Phenomcnology suggestssuggestssuggests thatthatthat standardstandardstandard sociologicalsociologicalsociological conceptsconceptsconcepts suchsuchsuch asasas role,role,role, role-role-role- making,making,making, status,status,status, andandand referencereferencereference groupsgroupsgroups developdevelopdevelop ininin parallelparallelparallel tototo thethethe truths,truths,truths, realities,realities,realities, andandand livedlivedlived convictionsconvictionsconvictions ofofof thethethe everydayeverydayeveryday lifelifelife (Berger(Berger(Berger andandand LuckmannLuckmannLuckmann 1966;1966;1966; GouldnerGouldnerGouldner 1975).1975).1975). TheTheThe unthematized horizonshorizonshorizons ofofof thethethe lifeworldlifeworldlifeworld provideprovideprovide thethethe backdropbackdropbackdrop forforfor thethethe everydayeverydayeveryday lifelifelife and,and,and, asasas aaa result,result,result, socialsocialsocial scientists'scientists'scientists' tacittacittacit knowledgeknowledgeknowledge ofofof thethethe socialsocialsocial worldworldworld isisis inexorablyinexorablyinexorably intertwinedintertwinedintertwined withwithwith theirtheirtheir attcmptsattcmptsattcmpts tototo thematizethematizethematize thesethesethese background understandings ininin thethethe formformform ofofof sci-sci-sci- entificentificentific theorytheorytheory (Chriss(Chriss(Chriss 1999b,1999b,1999b, pp.pp.pp. 68-71).68-71).68-71). BothBothBoth positivism-which GouldnerGouldnerGouldner embracedembracedembraced ininin hishishis earlyearlyearly period-andperiod-andperiod-and phenomenol- ogyogyogy believebelievebelieve thatthatthat aaa meaningfulmeaningfulmeaningful distinctiondistinctiondistinction cancancan bebebe mademademade betweenbetweenbetween sciencesciencescience andandand nonscience.nonscience.nonscience. InInIn comparisoncomparisoncomparison tototo positivism,positivism,positivism, however,however,however, phenomenology envisionsenvisionsenvisions aaa "softer""softer""softer" ororor "fuzzier""fuzzier""fuzzier" boundaryboundaryboundary betweenbetweenbetween thethethe twotwotwo insofarinsofarinsofar asasas ititit isisis possiblepossiblepossible tototo transcendtranscendtranscend thethethe tacittacittacit understandings ofofof everydayeverydayeveryday lifelifelife throughthroughthrough thethethe bracketingbracketingbracketing ofofof thethethe "natural"natural"natural attitude"attitude"attitude" (Ferguson(Ferguson(Ferguson 2001).42001).42001).4 ThisThisThis isisis aaa difficultdifficultdifficult task,task,task, however,however,however, ininin thatthatthat onlyonlyonly highly-trained phenomenologists areareare ableableable tototo sus-sus-sus- pendpendpend beliefbeliefbelief ininin thethethe taken-for-granted worldworldworld throughthroughthrough thethethe methodology ofofof bracketing,bracketing,bracketing, therebytherebythereby alertingalertingalerting scientistsscientistsscientists tototo thosethosethose aspectsaspectsaspects ofofof unthematized existenceexistenceexistence thatthatthat areareare boundboundbound upupup ininin theirtheirtheir thematizedthematizedthematized objectsobjectsobjects ofofof scientificscientificscientific inquiry.inquiry.inquiry. Phenomenology, then,then,then, isisis ininin aaa positionpositionposition tototo helphelphelp scientistsscientistsscientists understandunderstandunderstand ororor explainexplainexplain certaincertaincertain pretheoretical phenomena that,that,that, asasas mem-mem-mem- bersbersbers ofofof ananan ongoing,ongoing,ongoing, everydayeverydayeveryday lifeworld,lifeworld,lifeworld, confrontconfrontconfront themthemthem asasas subjectively experienced aspectsaspectsaspects ofofof theirtheirtheir reality.reality.reality. ByByBy doingdoingdoing this,this,this, phenomenologists andandand phenomenologically- trainedtrainedtrained scientistsscientistsscientists areareare betterbetterbetter ableableable tototo directdirectdirect theirtheirtheir attentionattentionattention tototo thethethe primacyprimacyprimacy ofofof experience,experience,experience, therebytherebythereby returningreturningreturning "to"to"to thethethe thingsthingsthings themselves" (Tiryakian(Tiryakian(Tiryakian 1973,1973,1973, p.p.p. 208).208).208). PositivismPositivismPositivism ofofof coursecoursecourse isisis equallyequallyequally concernedconcernedconcerned withwithwith phenomena, withwithwith thethethe "things"things"things them-them-themselves,"selves,"selves," butbutbut goesgoesgoes eveneveneven furtherfurtherfurther thanthanthan phenomenology ininin presumingpresumingpresuming that,that,that, bybyby followingfollowingfollowing thethethe protocolsprotocolsprotocols ofofof thethethe researchresearchresearch process,process,process, contaminating aspectsaspectsaspects ofofof thethethe everydayeverydayeveryday life-supersti- tion,tion,tion, ideology,ideology,ideology, dogma,dogma,dogma, hopes,hopes,hopes, aspirations,aspirations,aspirations, dreams,dreams,dreams, values,values,values, andandand personalpersonalpersonal proclivities-can bebebe heldheldheld ininin abeyanceabeyanceabeyance bybyby scientists,scientists,scientists, therebytherebythereby producingproducingproducing "objective""objective""objective" ororor "value-free" knowl-knowl-knowledge.edge.edge. InInIn thisthisthis sense,sense,sense, positivismpositivismpositivism seeksseeksseeks tototo gogogo beyondbeyondbeyond meremeremere "description" ororor "understanding"ing"ing" ofofof phenomena, insteadinsteadinstead providingprovidingproviding causalcausalcausal "explanations" ofofof thesethesethese phenomena. SinceSinceSince ImmanuelImmanuelImmanuel KantKantKant believedbelievedbelieved thatthatthat metaphysical knowledgeknowledgeknowledge ofofof things-in-themselves (nou-(nou-(nou- mena)mena)mena) isisis notnotnot possible,possible,possible, hehehe mademademade humanhumanhuman transcendental egoegoego thethethe measuremeasuremeasure ofofof allallall things.things.things. Fur-Fur-Fur- ther,ther,ther, asasas DavidDavidDavid BidneyBidneyBidney (1973,(1973,(1973, p.p.p. 110)110)110) explains,explains,explains, "In"In"In denyingdenyingdenying thatthatthat things-in-themselves cancancan bebebe thethethe objectobjectobject ofofof empirical,empirical,empirical, scientificscientificscientific knowledge,knowledge,knowledge, KantKantKant waswaswas responsibleresponsibleresponsible forforfor thethethe allegedallegedalleged antithesisantithesisantithesis ofofof sciencesciencescience andandand metaphysics ororor ontology-aontology-aontology-a thesisthesisthesis whichwhichwhich hehehe sharessharesshares withwithwith thethethe laterlaterlater positivismpositivismpositivism ofofof Comte."Comte."Comte." TheTheThe interestinginterestinginteresting thingthingthing aboutaboutabout Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's embraceembraceembrace ofofof positivismpositivismpositivism duringduringduring hishishis early,early,early, indus-indus-indus- trialtrialtrial sociologysociologysociology periodperiodperiod isisis thatthatthat theretherethere isisis aaa flirtationflirtationflirtation withwithwith thethethe phenomenological critiquecritiquecritique ofofof science-byscience-byscience-by waywayway ofofof LovejoyLovejoyLovejoy andandand thethethe sociologysociologysociology ofofof knowledge-without theretherethere beingbeingbeing thethethe "pathos""pathos""pathos" ororor excessexcessexcess baggagebaggagebaggage ofofof self-reflexivity thatthatthat signalssignalssignals thethethe tragictragictragic visionvisionvision moremoremore gener-gener-generally.ally.ally. AsAsAs mentionedmentionedmentioned earlier,earlier,earlier, Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's immersionimmersionimmersion ininin certaincertaincertain textstextstexts ininin philology,philology,philology, ancientancientancient GreekGreekGreek philosophy,philosophy,philosophy, andandand linguisticslinguisticslinguistics beginningbeginningbeginning ininin thethethe earlyearlyearly 1960s1960s1960s actedactedacted essentiallyessentiallyessentially asasas aaa "trigger""trigger""trigger" thatthatthat unleashedunleashedunleashed thethethe fullfullfull potentialpotentialpotential ofofof thethethe tragictragictragic visionvisionvision that,that,that, likelikelike thethethe protagonistprotagonistprotagonist ininin aaa GreekGreekGreek dramadramadrama whowhowho reachesreachesreaches thethethe statestatestate ofofof recognition, broughtbroughtbrought GouldnerGouldnerGouldner tototo recognizerecognizerecognize thethethe deficienciesdeficienciesdeficiencies of,of,of, andandand paradoxesparadoxesparadoxes containedcontainedcontained within,within,within, normalnormalnormal "establishment" sociologysociologysociology andandand science.science.science. InInIn thethethe nextnextnext sectionsectionsection III shallshallshall tracetracetrace outoutout thethethe genesisgenesisgenesis andandand growthgrowthgrowth ofofof Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's tragictragictragic vision.vision.vision.

GOUlDNER'S TRAGICTRAGICTRAGIC TURNTURNTURN AsAsAs wewewe havehavehave seen,seen,seen, althoughalthoughalthough GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1955;(1955;(1955; 1956;1956;1956; 1959a;1959a;1959a; 1959b;1959b;1959b; 1960)1960)1960) hadhadhad beenbeenbeen criticalcriticalcritical ofofof Parsons'sParsons'sParsons's structuralstructuralstructural functionalism andandand organizational scholarsscholarsscholars ininin generalgeneralgeneral forforfor theirtheirtheir metaphysical pathospathospathos ofofof pessimismpessimismpessimism concerningconcerningconcerning modernmodernmodern bureaucracy sincesincesince atatat leastleastleast thethethe mid-1950s,mid-1950s,mid-1950s, thesethesethese criticismscriticismscriticisms werewerewere nevertheless writtenwrittenwritten ininin aaa tolerant,tolerant,tolerant, scholarlyscholarlyscholarly tonetonetone thatthatthat reflectedreflectedreflected Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's continuingcontinuingcontinuing immersionimmersionimmersion ininin whatwhatwhat hehehe wouldwouldwould laterlaterlater comecomecome tototo deridederidederide asasas "establishment" sociology.sociology.sociology. ForForFor example,example,example, ininin hishishis famousfamousfamous 196019601960 paperpaperpaper ononon thethethe normnormnorm ofofof reci-reci-reciprocity,procity,procity, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1960,(1960,(1960, p.p.p. 171)171)171) stillstillstill clungclungclung tototo aaa positivisticpositivisticpositivistic viewviewview ofofof science:science:science: "The"The"The tasktasktask ofofof thethethe sociologist,sociologist,sociologist, ininin thisthisthis regard,regard,regard, parallelsparallelsparallels thatthatthat ofofof thethethe physicistphysicistphysicist whowhowho seeksseeksseeks tototo identifyidentifyidentify thethethe basicbasicbasic particlesparticlesparticles ofofof matter,matter,matter, thethethe conditionsconditionsconditions underunderunder whichwhichwhich theytheythey vary,vary,vary, andandand theirtheirtheir relationsrelationsrelations tototo oneoneone another."another."another." ThisThisThis contrastscontrastscontrasts sharplysharplysharply withwithwith thethethe positionpositionposition GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1972.(1972.(1972. p.15)p.15)p.15) tooktooktook aaa decadedecadedecade later,later,later, whenwhenwhen hehehe waswaswas becomingbecomingbecoming moremoremore sympathetic tototo hermeneutics, thisthisthis beingbeingbeing aaa methodmethodmethod ininin whichwhichwhich "the"the"the theoristtheoristtheorist isisis regardedregardedregarded asasas beingbeingbeing moremoremore likelikelike ananan artartart ororor architectural criticcriticcritic thanthanthan aaa physicist."physicist."physicist." Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, thisthisthis representsrepresentsrepresents quitequitequite aaa radicalradicalradical transitiontransitiontransition fromfromfrom aaa physicalistphysicalistphysicalist tototo aaa sym-sym-sym- bolistbolistbolist frameframeframe ofofof referencereferencereference (Chriss(Chriss(Chriss 2000a).52000a).52000a).5 Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's tragictragictragic visionvisionvision arosearosearose shortlyshortlyshortly afterafterafter hishishis 196019601960 reciprocityreciprocityreciprocity paperpaperpaper waswaswas published.published.published. ItItIt waswaswas nurturednurturednurtured andandand givengivengiven formformform beginningbeginningbeginning ininin thethethe latelatelate fifties,fifties,fifties, whichwhichwhich representsrepresentsrepresents thethethe endendend ofofof hishishis industrialindustrialindustrial sociologysociologysociology phase,phase,phase, andandand thenthenthen floweredfloweredflowered fullyfullyfully ininin 196519651965 withwithwith thethethe publication ofofof Enter Plato, aaa studystudystudy ofofof ancientancientancient GreekGreekGreek philosophyphilosophyphilosophy ininin whichwhichwhich GouldnerGouldnerGouldner soughtsoughtsought tototo tracetracetrace thethethe originsoriginsorigins ofofof modemmodemmodem socialsocialsocial theory.theory.theory. GouldnerGouldnerGouldner wantedwantedwanted tototo understandunderstandunderstand howhowhow andandand whywhywhy PlatoPlatoPlato attemptedattemptedattempted (in(in(in The Republic) tototo fashionfashionfashion aaa newnewnew rationalized approachapproachapproach tototo socialsocialsocial explana-explana-explana- tiontiontion forforfor purposespurposespurposes ofofof buildingbuildingbuilding aaa justjustjust societysocietysociety uponuponupon thethethe foundationfoundationfoundation ofofof hishishis (Plato's)(Plato's)(Plato's) "eternal"eternal"eternal forms."forms."forms." ThisThisThis newnewnew approachapproachapproach forforfor makingmakingmaking sensesensesense ofofof thethethe humanhumanhuman conditionconditioncondition andandand governinggoverninggoverning thethethe livesliveslives ofofof peoplepeoplepeople soughtsoughtsought tototo settlesettlesettle onceonceonce andandand forforfor allallall thethethe meaningsmeaningsmeanings ofofof suchsuchsuch contestedcontestedcontested termstermsterms asasas virtue,virtue,virtue, justice,justice,justice, goodness,goodness,goodness, andandand healthhealthhealth throughthroughthrough SocraticSocraticSocratic dialoguedialoguedialogue (the(the(the GreekGreekGreek dialectic),dialectic),dialectic), philosophical reflection,reflection,reflection, andandand thcthcthc sheersheersheer forceforceforce ofofof reason.reason.reason. HowHowHow diddiddid thethethe theorytheorytheory bchindbchindbchind Plato'sPlato'sPlato's Republic arisearisearise outoutout ofofof thethethe "old""old""old" waywayway ofofof makingmakingmaking sensesensesense ofofof thethethe humanhumanhuman condition,condition,condition, asasas represented ininin GreekGreekGreek tragedy?tragedy?tragedy? AsAsAs wewewe havchavchavc seen,seen,seen, thethethe majormajormajor themethemetheme ororor formformform ininin GreekGreekGreek (and(and(and laterlaterlater Shakespearean) tragedytragedytragedy isisis thethethe stagingstagingstaging ofofof aaa per-per-per- formanceformanceformance ininin whichwhichwhich aaa heroherohero ororor protagonistprotagonistprotagonist facesfacesfaces obstaclesobstaclesobstacles ininin aaa tirelesstirelesstireless searchsearchsearch forforfor truth(s),truth(s),truth(s), onlyonlyonly tototo eventuallyeventuallyeventually fail,fail,fail, thethethe failurefailurefailure ororor shortcoming servingservingserving tototo illustrateillustrateillustrate thethethe irreducibleirreducibleirreducible richnessrichnessrichness ofofof humanhumanhuman valucvalucvaluc thatthatthat attendsattendsattends tototo thatthatthat veryveryvery samesamesame heroicheroicheroic attemptattemptattempt tototo orderorderorder thethethe world.world.world. AsAsAs Christopher RoccoRoccoRocco (1997,(1997,(1997, p.p.p. 23)23)23) explains,explains,explains,

TheTheThe Republic arguesarguesargues thatthatthat aaa polispolispolis andandand aaa lifelifelife cancancan bebebe propcrlypropcrlypropcrly orderedorderedordered bybyby knowledgeknowledgeknowledge ofofof thethethe GoodGoodGood sososo asasas tototo avoidavoidavoid thethethe tragictragictragic failuresfailuresfailures ofofof humanhumanhuman progressprogressprogress adumbrated bybyby Sopho-Sopho-Sopho- clesclescles andandand sufferedsufferedsuffered bybyby hishishis Oedipus.Oedipus.Oedipus. TheTheThe Republic seemsseemsseems tototo banish,banish,banish, notnotnot onlyonlyonly tragedytragedytragedy andandand thethethe tragictragictragic poets,poets,poets, butbutbut thethethe veryveryvery conflictsconflictsconflicts bornbornborn ofofof intenseintenseintense humanhumanhuman commitment tototo irrecon-irrecon-irrecon- cilablecilablecilable values.values.values.

TragedyTragedyTragedy arguesarguesargues thatthatthat oneoneone learnslearnslearns whatwhatwhat isisis meaningfulmeaningfulmeaningful andandand importantimportantimportant aboutaboutabout thethethe socialsocialsocial worldworldworld onlyonlyonly throughthroughthrough thethethe intimateintimateintimate contextualization ofofof personspersonspersons andandand theirtheirtheir relationships asasas theytheythey riseriserise tototo victoryvictoryvictory andandand thenthenthen fallfallfall tototo defeat,defeat,defeat, andandand eventuallyeventuallyeventually suffersuffersuffer thethethe greatestgreatestgreatest humanhumanhuman tragedy,tragedy,tragedy, deathdeathdeath (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1965).1965).1965). ThereThereThere areareare nonono universaluniversaluniversal truthstruthstruths "out"out"out there,"there,"there," nonono "eternal"eternal"eternal forms"forms"forms" waitingwaitingwaiting tototo bebebe discovereddiscovereddiscovered bybyby personspersonspersons trainedtrainedtrained ininin aaa specificspecificspecific methodmethodmethod ororor holdingholdingholding aaa particularparticularparticular epistemology ororor ontology.ontology.ontology. InInIn thisthisthis sense,sense,sense, tragedytragedytragedy isisis akinakinakin tototo hermeneutics ororor empathicempathicempathic undcrstanding (Verstehen), oftenoftenoften employingemployingemploying aaa qualitative,qualitative,qualitative, casecasecase studystudystudy approachapproachapproach whosewhosewhose aimaimaim isisis "thick"thick"thick description" (Geertz(Geertz(Geertz 1(73)1(73)1(73) ofofof variousvariousvarious aspectsaspectsaspects ofofof socialsocialsocial reality.reality.reality. Conversely,Conversely,Conversely, thethethe Platonic/Socratic programprogramprogram ofofof philosophyphilosophyphilosophy andandand dialoguedialoguedialogue isisis akinakinakin tototo thethethe positivisticpositivisticpositivistic searchsearchsearch forforfor law-likelaw-likelaw-like generalizations aboutaboutabout thethethe socialsocialsocial world,world,world, thethethe aimaimaim ofofof whichwhichwhich isisis causalcausalcausal explanation ofofof thethethe factorsfactorsfactors associatedassociatedassociated withwithwith thethethe productionproductionproduction ofofof thosethosethose socialsocialsocial phenomena underunderunder investigation. WhereasWhereasWhereas tragedytragedytragedy argucdargucdargucd thatthatthat whatwhatwhat waswaswas tragictragictragic aboutaboutabout thethethe humanhumanhuman con-con-con- ditionditiondition waswaswas itsitsits utterutterutter randomness andandand unpredictability, thethethe newnewnew orientationorientationorientation ofofof thethethe SocraticSocraticSocratic eraeraera sawsawsaw thethethe universeuniverseuniverse asasas formedformedformed andandand limited,limited,limited, notnotnot chaoticchaoticchaotic andandand infinite.infinite.infinite. Tndeed,Tndeed,Tndeed, sciencesciencescience andandand philosophyphilosophyphilosophy bybyby thethethe timetimetime ofofof PlatoPlatoPlato

givesgivesgives thethethe assuranceassuranceassurance whichwhichwhich thethethe questingquestingquesting fifth-century mindmindmind increasingly lacked,lacked,lacked, thatthatthat thethethe seeminglyseeminglyseemingly infiniteinfiniteinfinite varietyvarietyvariety ofofof thethethe worldworldworld isisis notnotnot ininin factfactfact wildwildwild andandand ungoverned butbutbut openopenopen tototo understanding andandand hencehencehence tototo control.control.control. ControlControlControl wouldwouldwould ininin effecteffecteffect bebebe simplysimplysimply thethethe recognitionrecognitionrecognition andandand followingfollowingfollowing ofofof naturalnaturalnatural lawslawslaws thatthatthat existexistexist ininin anyanyany case.case.case. (Finley(Finley(Finley 1966,1966,1966, p.p.p. 93)93)93)

GouldnerGouldnerGouldner becamebecamebecame familiarfamiliarfamiliar withwithwith thethethe writingswritingswritings ofofof ancientancientancient GreekGreekGreek philosophers andandand tra-tra-tra- gedians,gedians,gedians, asasas wellwellwell asasas aaa broaderbroaderbroader secondarysecondarysecondary classicalclassicalclassical literature,literature,literature, notnotnot onlyonlyonly asasas aaa resultresultresult ofofof hishishis workworkwork ononon Enter Plato. ThreeThreeThree yearsyearsyears earlier,earlier,earlier, ininin 1962,1962,1962, Gouldner,Gouldner,Gouldner, alongalongalong withwithwith coauthorcoauthorcoauthor Rich-Rich-Rich- ardardard A.A.A. Peterson,Peterson,Peterson, publishedpublishedpublished aaa peculiarpeculiarpeculiar littlelittlelittle bookbookbook entitledentitledentitled Notes on Technology and the Moral Order. InInIn preparation forforfor thisthisthis book,book,book, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner spentspentspent timetimetime ininin workshopsworkshopsworkshops ononon quan-quan-quan- titativetitativetitative methodsmethodsmethods andandand thethethe newestnewestnewest statisticalstatisticalstatistical techniques,techniques,techniques, includingincludingincluding factorfactorfactor analysis.analysis.analysis. ThroughThroughThrough factorfactorfactor analysis,analysis,analysis, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner andandand PetersonPetersonPeterson (1962)(1962)(1962) hopedhopedhoped onceonceonce andandand forforfor allallall tototo settlesettlesettle aaa pcrsis-pcrsis-pcrsis- tenttenttent problemproblemproblem withinwithinwithin functionalfunctionalfunctional analysis,analysis,analysis, namely,namely,namely, itsitsits penchantpenchantpenchant forforfor tautology.tautology.tautology. InInIn conceptu-conceptu-conceptu- alizingalizingalizing thethethe socialsocialsocial systemsystemsystem asasas aaa systemsystemsystem ofofof interdependent partspartsparts ininin whichwhichwhich allallall partspartsparts andandand subsystemssubsystemssubsystems affectedaffectedaffected allallall thethethe othcrothcrothcr partspartsparts andandand subsystems,subsystems,subsystems, functionalism explainedexplainedexplained evcry-evcry-evcry- thing,thing,thing, therebytherebythereby explainingexplainingexplaining nothing.nothing.nothing. FactorFactorFactor analysisanalysisanalysis promisedpromisedpromised aaa waywayway ofofof holdingholdingholding constantconstantconstant certaincertaincertain keykeykey variablesvariablesvariables ininin aaa systemsystemsystem ofofof multiplemultiplemultiple variablesvariablesvariables ororor factors,factors,factors, therebytherebythereby allowingallowingallowing determination ofofof thethethe relativerelativerelative "loading""loading""loading" ororor influenceinfluenceinfluence ofofof eacheacheach variablevariablevariable ofofof interest.interest.interest. GouldnerGouldnerGouldner andandand PetersonPetersonPeterson drewdrewdrew theirtheirtheir datadatadata fromfromfrom thethethe HumanHumanHuman RelationsRelationsRelations AreaAreaArea Files,Files,Files, whichwhichwhich containedcontainedcontained information ononon seventy-one pre-pre-pre- industrialindustrialindustrial societies.societies.societies. TheyTheyThey groupedgroupedgrouped thcthcthc datadatadata intointointo variousvariousvarious factors,factors,factors, suchsuchsuch asasas factorfactorfactor LLL (lincal-(lincal-(lincal- ity),ity),ity), factorfactorfactor SDSDSD (sex(sex(sex dominance), factorfactorfactor TTT (level(level(level ofofof technology), andandand factorfactorfactor AAA (thcir(thcir(thcir mea-mea-mea- suresuresure ofofof moralitymoralitymorality whichwhichwhich theytheythey dubbeddubbeddubbed "norm-sending"). TheTheThe AAA ininin factorfactorfactor AAA stoodstoodstood forforfor Apollonianism, whichwhichwhich GouldnerGouldnerGouldner andandand PetersonPetersonPeterson appropriated directlydirectlydirectly fromfromfrom Nietzsche'sNietzsche'sNietzsche's ([1872]1956) studystudystudy ofofof tragedytragedytragedy andandand thethethe genealogygenealogygenealogy ofofof morals.morals.morals. AsAsAs GouldnerGouldnerGouldner andandand PetersonPetersonPeterson (1962,(1962,(1962, p.p.p. 51)51)51) explain,explain,explain,

ThereThereThere isisis ininin Apollonianism aaa development ofofof norm-sending institutionsinstitutionsinstitutions suchsuchsuch asasas cere-cere-cere- monialmonialmonial ororor ritualritualritual andandand ofofof codifiedcodifiedcodified laws,laws,laws, asasas wellwellwell asasas ofofof groupsgroupsgroups andandand rolesrolesroles suchsuchsuch asasas aaa powerfulpowerfulpowerful chieftainship, authoritative judges.judges.judges. aaa restrictedrestrictedrestricted council,council,council, andandand ananan organizedorganizedorganized priesthoodpriesthoodpriesthood bulwarkedbulwarkedbulwarked bybyby beliefsbeliefsbeliefs ininin thethethe attractiveness ofofof thethethe afterlife.afterlife.afterlife.

AsAsAs mentionedmentionedmentioned earlier,earlier,earlier, NietzscheNietzscheNietzsche hadhadhad suggestedsuggestedsuggested thatthatthat ancientancientancient GreekGreekGreek societysocietysociety andandand certaincertaincertain otherotherother societiessocietiessocieties ofofof antiquityantiquityantiquity werewerewere charactcrized bybyby aaa DionysianDionysianDionysian complexcomplexcomplex emphasizing thethethe pleasurespleasurespleasures ofofof thethethe flesh,flesh,flesh, rapturerapturerapture andandand intoxication, aaa tragictragictragic viewviewview ofofof thethethe world,world,world, andandand thethethe acceptanceacceptanceacceptance ofofof thethethe terrorsterrorsterrors andandand horrorshorrorshorrors ofofof existence.existence.existence. InInIn contrast,contrast,contrast, latcrlatcrlatcr morcmorcmorc rationalized societiessocietiessocieties werewerewere labeledlabeledlabeled Apollonian, whosewhosewhose primaryprimaryprimary characteristic waswaswas "impulse"impulse"impulse contro\."contro\."contro\." SomeSomeSome ofofof thethethe factorsfactorsfactors ofofof thethethe ApollonianApollonianApollonian idealidealideal typetypetype includedincludedincluded freedomfreedomfreedom fromfromfrom allallall extravagant urges,urges,urges, thethethe stressingstressingstressing ofofof cognitivecognitivecognitive modesmodesmodes ofofof experience,experience,experience, reason,reason,reason, knowledge,knowledge,knowledge, andandand science,science,science, andandand thethethe admonitionadmonitionadmonition tototo "know"know"know thyself."thyself."thyself." GouldnerGouldnerGouldner andandand PetersonPetersonPeterson foundfoundfound thatthatthat societiessocietiessocieties thatthatthat scoredscoredscored highhighhigh ononon factorfactorfactor AAA alsoalsoalso tendedtendedtended tototo scorescorescore highhighhigh ononon factorfactorfactor T,T,T, technology.technology.technology. AlthoughAlthoughAlthough GouldnerGouldnerGouldner seemedseemedseemed tototo havehavehave arrivedarrivedarrived atatat aaa newnewnew levellevellevel ofofof sophistication regardingregardingregarding functionalfunctionalfunctional analysisanalysisanalysis andandand ananan improvedimprovedimproved abilityabilityability tototo judgejudgejudge thethethe relativerelativerelative importanceimportanceimportance ofofof variablesvariablesvariables ininin contributing tototo certaincertaincertain featuresfeaturesfeatures ofofof thethethe socialsocialsocial system-here, thethethe linklinklink betweenbetweenbetween technol-technol-technol- ogyogyogy andandand morality-he alsoalsoalso realizedrealizedrealized thethethe extraordinary ironyironyirony andandand incongruityincongruityincongruity ofofof callingcallingcalling uponuponupon NietzscheNietzscheNietzsche tototo helphelphelp orderorderorder hishishis datadatadata andandand provideprovideprovide corroboration forforfor hishishis thesis.thesis.thesis. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, atatat thisthisthis pointpointpoint GouldnerGouldnerGouldner hashashas oneoneone leglegleg ininin thethethe oldoldold mythmythmyth campcampcamp ofofof thethethe DionysiacDionysiacDionysiac tragictragictragic visionvisionvision andandand thethethe otherotherother leglegleg ininin thethethe campcampcamp ofofof thethethe ApollonianApollonianApollonian scientificscientificscientific vision.vision.vision. AsAsAs GouldnerGouldnerGouldner andandand PetersonPetersonPeterson (1962,(1962,(1962, p.p.p. 32)32)32) state,state,state,

WeWeWe arcarcarc unhappilyunhappilyunhappily awareawareaware that,that,that, atatat thisthisthis point,point,point, wewewe maymaymay loseloselose somesomesome ofofof ourourour remainingremainingremaining read-read-read- ers.ers.ers. WeWeWe maymaymay loseloselose thosethosethose whowhowho feelfeelfeel thatthatthat taintedtaintedtainted philosophers havehavehave nonono placeplaceplace ininin aaa purepurepure socialsocialsocial science,science,science, ororor thosethosethose whosewhosewhose liberalliberalliberal viewsviewsviews areareare offendedoffendedoffended bybyby Nietzsche'sNietzsche'sNietzsche's seemingseemingseeming anti-anti-anti- Semitism.Semitism.Semitism. ororor thosethosethose whowhowho simplysimplysimply cannotcannotcannot bearbearbear thethethe presumably grossgrossgross incongruityincongruityincongruity ofofof jux-jux-jux- taposingtaposingtaposing philosophical poetrypoetrypoetry andandand statisticalstatisticalstatistical analysis.analysis.analysis.

LikeLikeLike oiloiloil andandand water,water,water, thethethe tragictragictragic andandand scientificscientificscientific visionsvisionsvisions simplysimplysimply dododo notnotnot mixmixmix well.well.well. AtAtAt thisthisthis criticalcriticalcritical juncture,juncture,juncture, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner optedoptedopted outoutout ofofof thethethe positivisticpositivisticpositivistic worldview,worldview,worldview, gavegavegave upupup mostmostmost ififif notnotnot allallall pre-pre-pre- tensestensestenses ofofof doingdoingdoing "science.""science.""science." andandand fromfromfrom approximately 196219621962 forwardforwardforward unleashedunleashedunleashed aaa virtualvirtualvirtual tiradetiradetirade againstagainstagainst allallall scientiftcscientiftcscientiftc systemssystemssystems ofofof thoughtthoughtthought thatthatthat lackedlackedlacked thethethe reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity tototo peerpeerpeer intointointo andandand confrontconfrontconfront thcirthcirthcir ownownown anomaliesanomaliesanomalies andandand contradictions. ThisThisThis isisis seen,seen,seen, forforfor example,example,example, ininin Gould-Gould-Gould- ner'sner'sner's blisteringblisteringblistering attacksattacksattacks ononon (1)(1)(1) thethethe doctrinedoctrinedoctrine ofofof objectivityobjectivityobjectivity andandand valuevaluevalue neutralityneutralityneutrality ininin sciencesciencescience (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1962;1962;1962; seeseesee Hammersley [2000][2000][2000] forforfor aaa summarysummarysummary andandand critiquecritiquecritique ofofof Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's posi-posi-position),tion),tion), (2)(2)(2) thethethe secretssecretssecrets ofofof organizations andandand thethethe pathological consequences ofofof thesethesethese forforfor socialsocialsocial serviceserviceservice agenciesagenciesagencies ininin particularparticularparticular (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1963),1963),1963), (3)(3)(3) partisanship forforfor thethethe dispos-dispos-dispos- sessedsessedsessed andandand downtrodden ininin society,society,society, especiallyespeciallyespecially tototo thethethe extentextentextent thatthatthat researchresearchresearch ononon suchsuchsuch popula-popula-popula- tionstionstions isisis fundedfundedfunded bybyby thethethe welfarewelfarewelfare statestatestate (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1(68),1(68),1(68), (4)(4)(4) thethethe sociologicalsociologicalsociological establishment (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1970),1970),1970), andandand ofofof coursecoursecourse (5)(5)(5) MarxismMarxismMarxism (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner ]]]974a;974a;974a; 1974b;1974b;1974b; 1977-1978;1977-1978;1977-1978; 1980;1980;1980; 1(85).1(85).1(85).

REFLEXIVITY ANDANDAND THETHETHE NEWNEWNEW CLASS:CLASS:CLASS: THETHETHE FINALFINALFINAL TRAGEDY AmidstAmidstAmidst allallall thisthisthis seemingseemingseeming negativismnegativismnegativism andandand losslossloss ofofof certitudecertitudecertitude aboutaboutabout science,science,science, GouldnerGouldnerGouldner stillstillstill retainedretainedretained oneoneone slimslimslim threadthreadthread tototo conventional science:science:science: hishishis programprogramprogram ofofof reflexivereflexivereflexive sociology.sociology.sociology. ReflexivityReflexivityReflexivity ininin generalgeneralgeneral refersrefersrefers tototo "that"that"that whichwhichwhich turnsturnsturns backbackback upon,upon,upon, ororor takcstakcstakcs accountaccountaccount of,of,of, itselfitselfitself ororor aaa person'sperson'sperson's self"self"self" (Holland(Holland(Holland 1999,1999,1999, p.p.p. 464).464).464). TheTheThe problemproblemproblem ofofof reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity forforfor sociology,sociology,sociology, accord-accord-accord- inginging tototo KieranKieranKieran M.M.M. BonnerBonnerBonner (2001,(2001,(2001, p.p.p. 267)267)267) "concerns"concerns"concerns thethethe abilityabilityability ofofof thethethe inquirerinquirerinquirer tototo taketaketake responsibility forforfor whatwhatwhat oneoneone sayssayssays whilewhilewhile simultaneously beingbeingbeing ableableable tototo saysaysay somethingsomethingsomething sub-sub-sub- stantialstantialstantial aboutaboutabout thethethe phenomenon ororor objectobjectobject ofofof inquiry."inquiry."inquiry." ThisThisThis versionversionversion ofofof reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity ininin sociologicalsociologicalsociological theorytheorytheory isisis aaa directdirectdirect reactionreactionreaction againstagainstagainst thethethe posi-posi-posi- tivisttivisttivist dictumdictumdictum thatthatthat thethethe voicevoicevoice ororor personapersonapersona ofofof thethethe theoristtheoristtheorist shouldshouldshould bebebe mutedmutedmuted andandand systemati-systemati-systemati- callycallycally excisedexcisedexcised fromfromfrom thethethe theoreticaltheoreticaltheoretical systemsystemsystem (Hertz(Hertz(Hertz 1997).1997).1997). ForForFor example,example,example, eveneveneven todaytodaytoday manymanymany scientificscientificscientific journalsjournalsjournals admonishadmonishadmonish authorsauthorsauthors tototo avoidavoidavoid thethethe useuseuse ofofof thethethe personalpersonalpersonal pronounpronounpronoun "I""I""I" ininin theirtheirtheir writings.writings.writings. AsAsAs aaa collectivecollectivecollective enterprise,enterprise,enterprise, sciencesciencescience utilizesutilizesutilizes suchsuchsuch conventions asasas blindblindblind peerpeerpeer reviewreviewreview tototo ensureensureensure thatthatthat ftndingsftndingsftndings reflectreflectreflect notnotnot merelymerelymerely thethethe idiosyncratic observations ofofof ananan inquisitiveinquisitiveinquisitive mind,mind,mind, howeverhoweverhowever giftedgiftedgifted thethethe authorauthorauthor isisis ororor isisis perceivedperceivedperceived tototo be,be,be, butbutbut insteadinsteadinstead thethethe sharedsharedshared wisdomwisdomwisdom ofofof aaa consensualconsensualconsensual communitycommunitycommunity ofofof scholars.scholars.scholars. ThisThisThis traditionaltraditionaltraditional viewviewview ofofof sciencesciencescience waswaswas handedhandedhanded downdowndown tototo ususus fromfromfrom thethethe timetimetime ofofof Plato,Plato,Plato, whosewhosewhose ownownown philosophical systemsystemsystem waswaswas builtbuiltbuilt ononon thethethe assumptionassumptionassumption thatthatthat knowledgeknowledgeknowledge isisis aaa disinterested "master""master""master" visionvisionvision ofofof formalformalformal objectsobjectsobjects (Sandywell1996a, p.p.p. 126).126).126). ReflexivityReflexivityReflexivity ininin thethethe socialsocialsocial sciencessciencessciences turnsturnsturns awayawayaway fromfromfrom thisthisthis featurefeaturefeature ofofof PlatonismPlatonismPlatonism asasas wellwellwell asasas fromfromfrom Descartes'sDescartes'sDescartes's subject-object dualism,dualism,dualism, movingmovingmoving fromfromfrom thethethe "individual"individual"individual cogito ofofof epistemology andandand thethethe rationalrationalrational 'agent''agent''agent' ofofof socialsocialsocial theorytheorytheory tototo thethethe embodied,embodied,embodied, sociallysociallysocially situatedsituatedsituated person-in relation" (Sandywell(Sandywell(Sandywell 1996a,1996a,1996a, p.p.p. 377).6377).6377).6 ThisThisThis isisis seenseenseen clearlyclearlyclearly ininin Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's (1970,(1970,(1970, p.p.p. 25)25)25) descriptiondescriptiondescription ofofof thethethe majormajormajor aimsaimsaims ofofof hishishis ownownown versionversionversion ofofof reflexivereflexivereflexive sociology:sociology:sociology:

RetJexivityRetJexivityRetJexivity 1st1st1st OrderOrderOrder 2nd2nd2nd andandand HigherHigherHigher OrderOrderOrder (Reflection) (Radical(Radical(Radical Reflexivity) ------~~- ----'-'----I----'-'----I----'-'----I -REFLEXIVE SOCIOLOGY PresentPresentPresent TRAGEDY -FEMINIST THEORYTHEORYTHEORY -ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AuthorialAuthorialAuthorial VoiceVoiceVoice -t------+--- AbsentAbsentAbsent POSITIVISTIC DECONSTRUCTION SCIENCESCIENCESCIENCE (,'death(,'death(,'death ofofof thethethe subject")subject")subject")

FIGUREFIGUREFIGURE 1.1.1. TYPESTYPESTYPES OFOFOF EXPLANATORY SYSTEMSSYSTEMSSYSTEMS BYBYBY LEVELLEVELLEVEL OFOFOF REFLEXIVITY ANDANDAND PRESENCE/ABSENCE OFOFOF AUTHORIAL VOICEVOICEVOICE TheTheThe sociologist's tasktasktask todaytodaytoday isisis notnotnot onlyonlyonly tototo seeseesee peoplepeoplepeople asasas theytheythey seeseesee themselves,themselves,themselves, nornornor tototo seeseesee themselvesthemselvesthemselves asasas othersothersothers seeseesee them;them;them; ititit isisis alsoalsoalso tototo seeseesee themselves asasas theytheythey seeseesee otherotherother people.people.people. WhatWhatWhat isisis neededneededneeded isisis aaa newnewnew andandand heightenedheightenedheightened self-awareness amongamongamong sociologists, whichwhichwhich wouldwouldwould leadleadlead themthemthem tototo askaskask thethethe samesamesame kindskindskinds ofofof questionsquestionsquestions aboutaboutabout themselvesthemselvesthemselves asasas theytheythey dododo aboutaboutabout taxicabtaxicabtaxicab driversdriversdrivers ororor doctors,doctors,doctors, andandand tototo answeransweranswer themthemthem ininin thethethe samesamesame ways.ways.ways. AboveAboveAbove all,all,all, thisthisthis meansmeansmeans thatthatthat wewewe mustmustmust acquireacquireacquire thethethe ingrainedingrainedingrained habithabithabit ofofof viewingviewingviewing ourourour ownownown beliefsbeliefsbeliefs asasas wewewe wouldwouldwould thosethosethose heldheldheld bybyby others.others.others.

IronicallyIronicallyIronically enough,enough,enough, however,however,however, thethethe ApollonianApollonianApollonian decreedecreedecree ofofof "know"know"know thyself"thyself"thyself" throughthroughthrough dialoguedialoguedialogue andandand philosophical reflectionreflectionreflection isisis centralcentralcentral asasas wellwellwell tototo Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's programprogramprogram ofofof reflexivity.reflexivity.reflexivity. InInIn thisthisthis sense,sense,sense, Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's embraceembraceembrace ofofof "cognitive"cognitive"cognitive rationality"rationality"rationality" (Parsons(Parsons(Parsons andandand PlattPlattPlatt 1973)1973)1973) sharessharesshares withwithwith PlatoPlatoPlato thethethe beliefbeliefbelief ininin thethethe beautybeautybeauty andandand dignitydignitydignity ofofof thoughtthoughtthought (Finley(Finley(Finley 1966,1966,1966, p.p.p. 97).97).97). TheTheThe newnewnew classclassclass ofofof intellectuals (and(and(and tototo aaa lesserlesserlesser extentextentextent thethethe technicaltechnicaltechnical intelligentsia) isisis thethethe bearerbearerbearer ofofof cognitivecognitivecognitive rationalityrationalityrationality ininin thethethe formformform ofofof thcthcthc culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse bybyby whichwhichwhich membersmembersmembers ofofof thisthisthis classclassclass attemptattemptattempt tototo explainexplainexplain ororor understandunderstandunderstand thcthcthc modernmodernmodern worldworldworld (Gouldner1976;] 979).979).979). GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1979,(1979,(1979, p.p.p. 28)28)28) describesdescribesdescribes thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse asasas

ananan historicallyhistoricallyhistorically evolvedevolvedevolved setsetset ofofof rules,rules,rules, aaa grammargrammargrammar ofofof discourse,discourse,discourse, whichwhichwhich (1)(1)(1) isisis concernedconcernedconcerned tototo justify itsitsits assertions,assertions,assertions, butbutbut (2)(2)(2) whosewhosewhose mode ofofof justification doesdoesdoes notnotnot proceedproceedproceed bybyby invokinginvokinginvoking authorities,authorities,authorities, andandand (3)(3)(3) prefersprefersprefers tototo elicitelicitelicit thethethe voluntary consentconsentconsent ofofof thosethosethose addressedaddressedaddressed solelysolelysolely ononon thethethe basisbasisbasis ofofof argumentsargumentsarguments adduced.adduced.adduced.

Hcnce,Hcnce,Hcnce, thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discourse,discourse,discourse, asasas thethethe languagelanguagelanguage ofofof science,science,science, isisis concernedconcernedconcerned withwithwith jus-jus-jus- tifyingtifyingtifying one'sone'sone's claims,claims,claims, notnotnot withwithwith recourserecourserecourse tototo thethethe statusstatusstatus ofofof thethethe speaker,speaker,speaker, butbutbut throughthroughthrough aaa rea-rea-rea- sonedsonedsoned dialoguedialoguedialogue betweenbetweenbetween interlocutors whowhowho agreeagreeagree ininin principleprincipleprinciple thatthatthat allallall assertionsassertionsassertions areareare openopenopen tototo discussiondiscussiondiscussion andandand problematization. AlthoughAlthoughAlthough voiceless,voiceless,voiceless, unlikeunlikeunlike tragedytragedytragedy (which(which(which includesincludesincludes thethethe voicevoicevoice ofofof thethethe speakerspeakerspeaker ororor authorauthorauthor ininin itsitsits explanatory schema),schema),schema), thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical dis-dis-dis- coursecoursecourse (positivism) isisis reflexivereflexivereflexive ininin thatthatthat ititit isisis openopenopen tototo examination ofofof itsitsits ownownown talktalktalk andandand ititit isisis willingwillingwilling tototo talktalktalk aboutaboutabout thethethe valuevaluevalue ofofof talktalktalk (Figure(Figure(Figure 1).1).1). TheTheThe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse is,is,is, ininin essence,essence,essence, thethethe deepdeepdeep ororor latentlatentlatent structurestructurestructure ofofof thethethe commoncommoncommon ideologyideologyideology ofofof thethethe newnewnew classclassclass (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1979,1979,1979, p.p.p. 28).28).28). ItItIt isisis ininin thethethe naturenaturenature ofofof sciencesciencescience tototo leaveleaveleave nothingnothingnothing tototo tacittacittacit understanding butbutbut tototo investigatt:investigatt:investigatt: anythinganythinganything thatthatthat comescomescomes tototo thethethe attentionattentionattention ofofof ananan inquisitiveinquisitiveinquisitive mind.mind.mind. ArmedArmedArmed withwithwith thethethe protocolsprotocolsprotocols ofofof scientificscientificscientific researchresearchresearch andandand assumingassumingassuming thatthatthat thethethe worldworldworld cancancan bebebe knownknownknown throughthroughthrough aaa diligentdiligentdiligent applica-applica-applica- tiontiontion ofofof thethethe stepsstepssteps ofofof thethethe researchresearchresearch processprocessprocess overseenoverseenoverseen bybyby blindblindblind peerpeerpeer review,review,review, thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse nevertheless encountersencountersencounters problemsproblemsproblems ofofof itsitsits own.own.own. SinceSinceSince allallall assertionsassertionsassertions areareare openopenopen tototo challenge,challenge,challenge, thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse mustmustmust alsoalsoalso engageengageengage ininin autocritique, andandand critiquecritiquecritique ofofof thatthatthat autoautoautocritique,critique,critique, andandand sososo on,on,on, ininin essenceessenceessence puttingputtingputting itsitsits handshandshands aroundaroundaround itsitsits ownownown throatthroatthroat andandand seeingseeingseeing howhowhow longlonglong ititit cancancan squeeze.squeeze.squeeze. "There"There"There isisis ananan unendingunendingunending regressregressregress ininin it,it,it, aaa poten-poten-poten- tialtialtial revolutionrevolutionrevolution ininin permanence; ititit embodiesembodiesembodies thatthatthat unceasingunceasingunceasing restlessnessrestlessnessrestlessness andandand 'lawlessness' thatthatthat thethethe ancientancientancient GreeksGreeksGreeks firstfirstfirst calledcalledcalled anomos andandand thatthatthat HegelHegelHegel hadhadhad calledcalledcalled thethethe 'bad'bad'bad infinity'"infinity'"infinity'" (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1979,1979,1979, p.p.p. 60).60).60). ScienceScienceScience believesbelievesbelieves thethethe complexitycomplexitycomplexity ofofof thethethe socialsocialsocial worldworldworld cancancan bebebe tamedtamedtamed bybyby aaa sobersobersober applica-applica-applica- tiontiontion ofofof reasonreasonreason monitoredmonitoredmonitored andandand checkedcheckedchecked viaviavia thethethe collectivitycollectivitycollectivity ofofof fellowfellowfellow scientistsscientistsscientists sharingsharingsharing thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse asasas theirtheirtheir specialspecialspecial speechspeechspeech variant.variant.variant. WeWeWe seeseesee thenthenthen thatthatthat sciencesciencescience requiresrequiresrequires thethethe participation ofofof like-minded others-especially asasas PlatoPlatoPlato conceptualized thisthisthis bybyby waywayway ofofof dialoguedialoguedialogue ororor thethethe GreekGreekGreek dialectic-who negotiatenegotiatenegotiate thethethe conditionsconditionsconditions ofofof theirtheirtheir exis-exis-exis- tencetencetence andandand whowhowho generategenerategenerate knowledgeknowledgeknowledge throughthroughthrough aaa reasonedreasonedreasoned searchsearchsearch forforfor "truth.""truth.""truth." Tragedy,Tragedy,Tragedy, ononon thethethe otherotherother hand.hand.hand. depictsdepictsdepicts thethethe tragictragictragic heroherohero asasas optingoptingopting tototo actactact unilaterallyunilaterallyunilaterally whenwhenwhen confrontedconfrontedconfronted withwithwith thethethe polycentrism andandand complexitycomplexitycomplexity ofofof thethethe worldworldworld (Ramos(Ramos(Ramos TorreTorreTorre 1999).1999).1999). InInIn Sophocles'sSophocles'sSophocles's Oedipus Tyrannos, forforfor example,example,example, OcdipusOcdipusOcdipus proclaimsproclaimsproclaims himselfhimselfhimself ananan independent agentagentagent freefreefree ofofof fatefatefate andandand historyhistoryhistory and,and,and, beingbeingbeing thusthusthus self-madeself-madeself-made andandand self-generating, hehehe isisis ableableable tototo seeseesee thethethe worldworldworld rationally.rationally.rationally. ButButBut asasas 1.1.1. PeterPeterPeter EubenEubenEuben (1997,(1997,(1997, p.p.p. 116)116)116) pointspointspoints out,out,out, ininin factfactfact Oedipus'sOedipus'sOedipus's "knowledge comescomescomes withwithwith ignorance,ignorance,ignorance, andandand sososo thethethe meaningmeaningmeaning ofofof hishishis actsactsacts rcmainsrcmainsrcmains bifurcatedbifurcatedbifurcated ininin aaa waywayway hehehe onlyonlyonly comescomescomes tototo understandunderstandunderstand ininin thethethe scenescenescene where,where,where, significantly enough,enough,enough, hehehe blindsblindsblinds himself."himself."himself." GouldnerGouldnerGouldner asasas tragictragictragic heroherohero isisis similarlysimilarlysimilarly "blinded""blinded""blinded" whenwhenwhen hehehe comescomescomes uponuponupon thethethe realizationrealizationrealization thatthatthat reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity asasas science'sscience'sscience's lastlastlast greatgreatgreat hopehopehope isisis alsoalsoalso deeplydeeplydeeply andandand mortallymortallymortally flawcd.flawcd.flawcd. ItItIt seemsseemsseems thatthatthat nonono mattermattermatter howhowhow hardhardhard sciencesciencescience tries,tries,tries, itsitsits emphasisemphasisemphasis ononon rellexivityrellexivityrellexivity bybyby waywayway ofofof thethethe opera-opera-opera- tionaltionaltional rulesrulesrules ofofof thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse willwillwill alwaysalwaysalways leadleadlead tototo thethethe deaddeaddead endendend ofofof self-self-self- refutationrefutationrefutation andandand self-negation thatthatthat thethethe tragictragictragic visionvisionvision knowsknowsknows andandand understands allallall tootootoo well.well.well. Tragedy,Tragedy,Tragedy, then.then.then. isisis thethethe latentlatentlatent ororor deepdeepdeep structurestructurestructure ofofof sciencesciencescience asasas aaa goinggoinggoing concern,concern,concern, readyreadyready tototo breakbreakbreak outoutout fromfromfrom latencylatencylatency wheneverwheneverwhenever someonesomeonesomeone likelikelike Gouldner,Gouldner,Gouldner, ororor MaxMaxMax Horkheimer andandand TheodorTheodorTheodor AdornoAdornoAdorno ([1944]([1944]([1944] 1972;1972;1972; secsecsec alsoalsoalso ConnertonConnertonConnerton 1980)1980)1980) beforebeforebefore him,him,him, decidesdecidesdecides tototo pushpushpush reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity tototo itsitsits upperupperupper limit.limit.limit. ThisThisThis realizationrealizationrealization ofofof thethethe bifurcatedbifurcatedbifurcated andandand dualisticdualisticdualistic naturenaturenature ofofof thethethe tragictragictragic heroherohero givesgivesgives ususus aaa newnewnew modelmodelmodel ofofof thethethe socialsocialsocial actoractoractor ininin contemporary socialsocialsocial science,science,science, namelynamelynamely homo tragicus, whomwhomwhom RamonRamonRamon RamosRamosRamos lorrelorrelorre (1999)(1999)(1999) arguesarguesargues hashashas supplantedsupplantedsupplanted earlierearlierearlier actoractoractor modelsmodelsmodels suchsuchsuch asasas homo specularis (from(from(from AdamAdamAdam Smith),Smith),Smith), homo rationalis (from(from(from eco-eco-eco- nomicsnomicsnomics andandand utilitarianism), andandand eveneveneven homo moralis (from(from(from thethethe Durkheimian tradition).tradition).tradition).

CONClUSION: TRAGEDY'S LESSONSLESSONSLESSONS Gouldncr'sGouldncr'sGouldncr's criticismcriticismcriticism andandand eventualeventualeventual abandonment ofofof conventional positivisticpositivisticpositivistic sociology,sociology,sociology, andandand hishishis laterlaterlater flirtationflirtationflirtation withwithwith MarxismMarxismMarxism whichwhichwhich hehehe foundfoundfound equallyequallyequally problematic becausebecausebecause ofofof itsitsits lacklacklack ofofof reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity andandand itsitsits tendencytendencytendency tototo lapselapselapse intointointo regimesregimesregimes ofofof terror,terror,terror, cancancan actuallyactuallyactually bebebe seenseenseen asasas ananan empiricalempiricalempirical instanceinstanceinstance ofofof aaa generalizedgeneralizedgeneralized tendencytendencytendency ininin sciencesciencescience andandand philosophyphilosophyphilosophy towardtowardtoward thethethe productionproductionproduction ofofof "nightmare"nightmare"nightmare theory"theory"theory" (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1980;1980;1980; ChrissChrissChriss 1999a).1999a).1999a). GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1980,(1980,(1980, p.p.p. 380)380)380) suggestssuggestssuggests thatthatthat everyeveryevery theoreticaltheoreticaltheoretical systemsystemsystem hashashas aaa caged,caged,caged, unartieulated, andandand repressedrepressedrepressed versionversionversion ofofof thethethe theorytheorytheory strugglingstrugglingstruggling tototo getgetget out.out.out. InInIn effect,effect,effect, allallall theoriestheoriestheories shareshareshare thethethe nightmarenightmarenightmare thatthatthat thethethe cagedcagedcaged systemsystemsystem willwillwill breakbreakbreak out.out.out. AsAsAs muchmuchmuch asasas anything,anything,anything, Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's programprogramprogram ofofof reflexivereflexivereflexive sociologysociologysociology waswaswas ananan attemptattemptattempt tototo alertalertalert theoriststheoriststheorists tototo thethethe hiddenhiddenhidden ororor tacittacittacit dimensionsdimensionsdimensions ofofof theirtheirtheir theories.theories.theories. Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's (1980,(1980,(1980, pp.pp.pp. 380-389)380-389)380-389) discussiondiscussiondiscussion ofofof "nightmare"nightmare"nightmare Marxism"Marxism"Marxism" waswaswas thethethe culmination ofofof hishishis analysisanalysisanalysis ofofof thethethe hidden,hidden,hidden, indeedindeedindeed paradoxical, dimensionsdimensionsdimensions ofofof MarxismMarxismMarxism residingresidingresiding ininin itsitsits infrastructure. Specifically,Specifically,Specifically, MarxismMarxismMarxism waswaswas nevernevernever adequatelyadequatelyadequately reflexivereflexivereflexive enoughenoughenough tototo accountaccountaccount forforfor itsitsits ownownown ori-ori-origins.gins.gins. InInIn otherotherother words,words,words, ititit couldcouldcould notnotnot answeransweranswer thethethe question:question:question: HowHowHow couldcouldcould thethethe intelligentsia, mostmostmost ofofof whosewhosewhose membersmembersmembers comecomecome fromfromfrom privilegedprivilegedprivileged socialsocialsocial classclassclass strata,strata,strata, eludeeludeelude theirtheirtheir ownownown socialsocialsocial beingbeingbeing tototo givegivegive expressionexpressionexpression tototo thethethe consciousness ofofof thethethe proletariat? ThisThisThis contradictscontradictscontradicts thethethe technicaltechnicaltechnical levellevellevel ofofof MarxismMarxismMarxism thatthatthat arguesarguesargues thatthatthat socialsocialsocial locationlocationlocation givesgivesgives riseriserise tototo consciousness, tototo aaa particu-particu-particu- larlarlar waywayway ofofof seeingseeingseeing andandand understanding thethethe world.world.world. ThisThisThis garbledgarbledgarbled accountaccountaccount ofofof thethethe originsoriginsorigins ofofof MarxismMarxismMarxism pointspointspoints tototo weaknessesweaknessesweaknesses ininin thethethe entireentireentire MarxistMarxistMarxist analytic.analytic.analytic. accordingaccordingaccording tototo Gouldner,Gouldner,Gouldner, andandand partiallypartiallypartially accountsaccountsaccounts forforfor thethethe nightmarish regimesregimesregimes ofofof terrorterrorterror (Gouldner(Gouldner(Gouldner 1977-1978)1977-1978)1977-1978) thatthatthat emergedemergedemerged underunderunder criticalcriticalcritical MarxismMarxismMarxism ininin placesplacesplaces suchsuchsuch asasas Russia.Russia.Russia. Cuba,Cuba,Cuba, China,China,China, EastEastEast Germany,Germany,Germany, Yugoslavia,Yugoslavia,Yugoslavia, andandand elsewhere.elsewhere.elsewhere. NotNotNot onlyonlyonly MarxismMarxismMarxism butbutbut alsoalsoalso allallall nonreftexive theoriestheoriestheories havehavehave nightmarenightmarenightmare versionsversionsversions waitingwaitingwaiting tototo breakbreakbreak outoutout fromfromfrom latencylatencylatency whenwhenwhen conditionsconditionsconditions areareare favorable.favorable.favorable. AAA theory'stheory'stheory's nightmarenightmarenightmare arisesarisesarises asasas wellwellwell outoutout ofofof thethethe repressiverepressiverepressive workworkwork thethethe thcorythcorythcory mustmustmust dododo ininin orderorderorder tototo drawdrawdraw distinctionsdistinctionsdistinctions betweenbetweenbetween itselfitselfitself andandand competingcompetingcompeting perspectives. ButButBut ininin sososo doing,doing,doing, eacheacheach theorytheorytheory mustmustmust alsoalsoalso addressaddressaddress criti-criti-criti- cismscismscisms andandand challengeschallengeschallenges emanatingemanatingemanating fromfromfrom withinwithinwithin itsitsits ownownown borders.borders.borders. InInIn similarsimilarsimilar fashion,fashion,fashion, havinghavinghaving beenbeenbeen foundedfoundedfounded ininin aaa critiquecritiquecritique ofofof traditionaltraditionaltraditional societysocietysociety andandand culturalculturalcultural arrangements, sociologysociologysociology findsfindsfinds itselfitselfitself involvedinvolvedinvolved ininin constantconstantconstant internecineinternecineinternecine tighting,tighting,tighting, asasas versionsversionsversions ofofof emancipatory sociol-sociol-sociol- ogyogyogy arisearisearise tototo challenge,challenge,challenge, andandand attemptattemptattempt tototo breakbreakbreak outoutout fromfromfrom thethethe shadowshadowshadow of,of,of, thethethe currentlycurrentlycurrently dom-dom-dom- inantinantinant versionversionversion ofofof sociologysociologysociology thatthatthat somesomesome criticscriticscritics maymaymay comecomecome tototo perceiveperceiveperceive asasas beingbeingbeing overlyoverlyoverly beholdenbeholdenbeholden tototo somesomesome oppressiveoppressiveoppressive powerpowerpower structurestructurestructure (for(for(for example,example,example, thethethe kowtowingkowtowingkowtowing bybyby rcsearchersrcsearchersrcsearchers tototo thethethe welfarewelfarewelfare statestatestate asasas ananan importantimportantimportant sourcesourcesource ofofof theirtheirtheir funding;funding;funding; seeseesee LemertLemertLemert ]]]995,995,995, pp.pp.pp. 1-10;1-10;1-10; O'NcillO'NcillO'Ncill 1995).1995).1995). Gouldncr'sGouldncr'sGouldncr's workworkwork ininin sociology,sociology,sociology, then,then,then, cancancan hehehe understoodunderstoodunderstood asasas thethethe articulationarticulationarticulation ofofof thethethe nightmarenightmarenightmare versionsversionsversions ofofof existingexistingexisting theoriestheoriestheories that,that,that, becausebecausebecause ofofof eithereithereither theirtheirtheir lacklacklack ofofof reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity ororor theirtheirtheir outrightoutrightoutright desiredesiredesire notnotnot tototo admitadmitadmit openlyopenlyopenly tototo thethethe discrepantdiscrepantdiscrepant ororor self-refutational implications ofofof theirtheirtheir ownownown ideas,ideas,ideas, otherwiseotherwiseotherwise tendtendtend tototo bebebe silenced,silenced,silenced, obfus-obfus-obfus- cated,cated,cated, ororor systematically glossedglossedglossed over.over.over. AllAllAll theories,theories,theories, whetherwhetherwhether structuralism, feminism,feminism,feminism, Marxism,Marxism,Marxism, functionalism, deconstructionism, postmodernism, dramaturgy, ethnomethodology,ology,ology, networknetworknetwork theory,theory,theory, ororor rationalrationalrational choicechoicechoice theorytheorytheory tototo namenamename aaa few,few,few, havehavehave theirtheirtheir repressedrepressedrepressed nightmares,nightmares,nightmares, theirtheirtheir systematicsystematicsystematic silencessilencessilences concealedconcealedconcealed withwithwith aaa gloss.gloss.gloss. Sociology'sSociology'sSociology's nightmare-its tragedy-istragedy-istragedy-is thethethe factfactfact thatthatthat itsitsits ownownown critiquecritiquecritique ofofof conventional ororor establishment sociologysociologysociology foldsfoldsfolds backbackback ononon itselfitselfitself asasas sociologysociologysociology gainsgainsgains moremoremore legitimation andandand isisis acceptedacceptedaccepted bybyby societysocietysociety asasas aaa sourcesourcesource ofofof insightsinsightsinsights aboutaboutabout thethethe pathologiespathologiespathologies ofofof modernity.modernity.modernity. ThisThisThis tendencytendencytendency towardtowardtoward self-critique andandand eveneveneven self-refutation isisis whatwhatwhat JohnJohnJohn O'NeillO'NeillO'Neill (1995,(1995,(1995, pp.pp.pp. 188-189)188-189)188-189) descrihesdescrihesdescrihes asasas thethethe inherentinherentinherent limitationlimitationlimitation ofofof sociologicalsociologicalsociological knowledge,knowledge,knowledge, asasas embodiedembodiedembodied andandand articulatedarticulatedarticulated ininin andandand throughthroughthrough thethethe culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discourse.discourse.discourse. ItItIt isisis whatwhatwhat GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1976)(1976)(1976) describeddescribeddescribed asasas thethethe darkdarkdark sidesideside ofofof thethethe dialectic,dialectic,dialectic, ororor anomos, ororor thethethe "bad"bad"bad infinity."infinity."infinity." ThisThisThis isisis thethethe homehomehome ofofof tragedy.tragedy.tragedy. TheTheThe tragictragictragic visionvisionvision hashashas alwaysalwaysalways understoodunderstoodunderstood thatthatthat thethethe questquestquest forforfor knowl-knowl-knowl- edgeedgeedge involvesinvolvesinvolves thethethe solvingsolvingsolving ofofof certaincertaincertain paradoxesparadoxesparadoxes andandand riddlesriddlesriddles onlyonlyonly tototo generategenerategenerate moremoremore ques-ques-ques- tionstionstions andandand moremoremore ambiguitiesambiguitiesambiguities asasas aaa resultresultresult ofofof thatthatthat seemingseemingseeming stepstepstep forwardforwardforward towardtowardtoward greatergreatergreater enlightenment andandand rationality.rationality.rationality. Euben'sEuben'sEuben's (1997,(1997,(1997, p.p.p. 134)134)134) discussiondiscussiondiscussion ofofof thethethe ambiguousambiguousambiguous con-con-con- clusionclusionclusion tototo Sophocles'sSophocles'sSophocles's Oedipus Tyrannos isisis especiallyespeciallyespecially appositeappositeapposite here:here:here:

GivenGivenGiven thethethe play'splay'splay's stancestancestance towardtowardtoward thethethe riddlesriddlesriddles ititit dramatizesdramatizesdramatizes andandand thethethe waywayway ititit itselfitselfitself becomesbecomesbecomes riddling,riddling,riddling, thisthisthis ambiguousambiguousambiguous endingendingending isisis hardlyhardlyhardly surprising.surprising.surprising. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, ititit wouldwouldwould bebebe strangestrangestrange ififif theretherethere werewerewere oneoneone integratingintegratingintegrating conclusionconclusionconclusion thatthatthat answeredansweredanswered allallall thethethe questionsquestionsquestions raisedraisedraised bybyby thethethe play.play.play. IfIfIf wewewe are,are,are, asasas thethethe playplayplay suggests,suggests,suggests, caughtcaughtcaught upupup ininin aaa webwebweb ofofof locallocallocal meaningsmeaningsmeanings thatthatthat neces-neces-neces- sarilysarilysarily leaveleaveleave ususus riddlesriddlesriddles tototo ourselves,ourselves,ourselves, ififif notnotnot tototo others,others,others, thenthenthen reducingreducingreducing thethethe playplayplay tototo aaa singlesinglesingle termtermterm wouldwouldwould endorseendorseendorse whatwhatwhat ititit seemsseemsseems tototo warnwarnwarn against.against.against.

EubenEubenEuben furtherfurtherfurther suggestssuggestssuggests that,that,that, ififif Oedipus werewerewere tototo havehavehave ananan obviousobviousobvious conclusion,conclusion,conclusion, ititit wouldwouldwould diminishdiminishdiminish thethethe play'splay'splay's abilityabilityability tototo disturbdisturbdisturb thethethe alliancealliancealliance ofofof reason,reason,reason, method,method,method, order,order,order, andandand progressprogressprogress thatthatthat areareare thethethe hallmarks-or ratherratherrather thethethe conceit-ofconceit-ofconceit-of science.science.science. OurOurOur unbridledunbridledunbridled optimismoptimismoptimism aboutaboutabout thethethe powerpowerpower ofofof sciencesciencescience tototo deliverdeliverdeliver betterbetterbetter andandand moremoremore usefulusefuluseful knowledgeknowledgeknowledge aboutaboutabout thethethe socialsocialsocial worldworldworld thanthanthan evereverever beforebeforebefore hashashas blindedblindedblinded ususus fromfromfrom recognizingrecognizingrecognizing thatthatthat everyeveryevery successsuccesssuccess ofofof sociologysociologysociology (political(political(political sciencesciencescience ininin Euben'sEuben'sEuben's case)case)case) hashashas containedcontainedcontained aaa failure.failure.failure. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, thethethe tragictragictragic visionvisionvision teachesteachesteaches ususus thatthatthat everyeveryevery waywayway ofofof seeingseeingseeing isisis alsoalsoalso aaa waywayway ofofof notnotnot seeing,seeing,seeing, everyeveryevery waywayway ofofof knowingknowingknowing aaa waywayway ofofof notnotnot knowing.knowing.knowing. Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's tragictragictragic sensibilitysensibilitysensibility ledledled himhimhim tototo thethethe ultimateultimateultimate painfulpainfulpainful conclusionconclusionconclusion thatthatthat thethethe newnewnew classclassclass ofofof intellectuals werewerewere aaa flawedflawedflawed classclassclass andandand thatthatthat theirtheirtheir culturecultureculture ofofof criticalcriticalcritical discoursediscoursediscourse andandand methodmethodmethod ofofof reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity generatedgeneratedgenerated asasas manymanymany paradoxesparadoxesparadoxes andandand deaddeaddead endsendsends asasas theytheythey hopedhopedhoped tototo solve.solve.solve. InInIn addition,addition,addition, Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's tragictragictragic visionvisionvision informsinformsinforms ususus thatthatthat eveneveneven theoriestheoriestheories withwithwith noblenoblenoble andandand humanitarian aims,aims,aims, suchsuchsuch asasas Marxism'sMarxism'sMarxism's promisepromisepromise ofofof unitingunitinguniting theorytheorytheory andandand practicepracticepractice viaviavia thethethe eliminationeliminationelimination ofofof oppressionoppressionoppression andandand subjugationsubjugationsubjugation bybyby oneoneone classclassclass atatat thethethe handshandshands ofofof another,another,another, havehavehave darkdarkdark sides,sides,sides, nightmaresnightmaresnightmares lyinglyinglying ininin waitwaitwait ininin thethethe theory'stheory'stheory's infrastructure (Chriss(Chriss(Chriss 2000b).2000b).2000b). Hence,Hence,Hence, Gouldner'sGouldner'sGouldner's earnestearnestearnest warning,warning,warning, informedinformedinformed firstfirstfirst bybyby aaa latentlatentlatent andandand thenthenthen aaa manifestmanifestmanifest tragictragictragic visionvisionvision ororor orientation,orientation,orientation, waswaswas forforfor socialsocialsocial scientistsscientistsscientists tototo understandunderstandunderstand thethethe limitationslimitationslimitations (the(the(the "bad"bad"bad news")news")news") ofofof anyanyany questquestquest forforfor knowledgeknowledgeknowledge andandand ultimateultimateultimate "truths,""truths,""truths," tototo learnlearnlearn fromfromfrom thatthatthat badbadbad news,news,news, andandand tototo useuseuse ititit tototo improveimproveimprove bothbothboth theirtheirtheir ownownown theorizingtheorizingtheorizing and,and,and, potentially,potentially,potentially, thethethe humanhumanhuman conditionconditioncondition moremoremore generally.generally.generally.

NOTESNOTESNOTES ***ForForFor providingprovidingproviding helpfulhelpfulhelpful commentscommentscomments ononon variousvariousvarious versionsversionsversions ofofof thisthisthis talktalktalk andandand article,article,article, III wishwishwish tototo thankthankthank BarryBarryBarry Sandywell,Sandywell,Sandywell, RichardRichardRichard Sennett,Sennett,Sennett, RamonRamonRamon RamosRamosRamos Torre,Torre,Torre, andandand SilviaSilviaSilvia Pedraza.Pedraza.Pedraza. 1.1.1. Indeed,Indeed,Indeed, BannisterBannisterBannister (1987,(1987,(1987, p.p.p. 161)161)161) pointspointspoints outoutout thatthatthat Ogburn'sOgburn'sOgburn's visionvisionvision forforfor aaa scientificscientificscientific sociologysociologysociology includedincludedincluded thethethe utilizationutilizationutilization ofofof aaa "wholly"wholly"wholly colorlesscolorlesscolorless literaryliteraryliterary style"style"style" bybyby whichwhichwhich thethethe author'sauthor'sauthor's voicevoicevoice wouldwouldwould bebebe renderedrenderedrendered invisibleinvisibleinvisible ororor irrelevant.irrelevant.irrelevant. III willwillwill returnreturnreturn tototo thisthisthis issueissueissue ofofof authorialauthorialauthorial voicevoicevoice andandand thethethe mythmythmyth ofofof silentsilentsilent authorshipauthorshipauthorship (Charmaz(Charmaz(Charmaz andandand MitchellMitchellMitchell 1997)1997)1997) shortly.shortly.shortly. 2.2.2. ThereThereThere existsexistsexists ofofof coursecoursecourse aaa vastvastvast scholarlyscholarlyscholarly literatureliteratureliterature ononon tragictragictragic theater,theater,theater, GreekGreekGreek tragedy.tragedy.tragedy. andandand GreekGreekGreek thoughtthoughtthought moremoremore generally.generally.generally. SomeSomeSome ofofof thethethe writingswritingswritings TTTconsultedconsultedconsulted includeincludeinclude ChayutChayutChayut (1999),(1999),(1999), DanbyDanbyDanby (1949),(1949),(1949), FinleyFinleyFinley (1966),(1966),(1966), GlieksbergGlieksbergGlieksberg (1963),(1963),(1963), GoffGoffGoff (1995),(1995),(1995), GouldnerGouldnerGouldner (1965;(1965;(1965; 1969;1969;1969; 1976),1976),1976), KaufmannKaufmannKaufmann (1968),(1968),(1968), MaffesoliMaffesoliMaffesoli (1993),(1993),(1993), NietzscheNietzscheNietzsche ([1872J([1872J([1872J 1956),1956),1956), PadelPadelPadel (1992;(1992;(1992; 1995),1995),1995), Pickard-Camhridge (1962).(1962).(1962). RamosRamosRamos TorreTorreTorre (1999),(1999),(1999), RehmRehmRehm (1992),(1992),(1992), RoccoRoccoRocco (1997),(1997),(1997), SandywellSandywellSandywell (1996b;(1996b;(1996b; 1996c),1996c),1996c), SennettSennettSennett (1994).(1994).(1994). SteinerSteinerSteiner (1996),(1996),(1996), andandand StormStormStorm (199S).(199S).(199S). 3.3.3. Deconstructionists dododo notnotnot shareshareshare thethethe viewviewview thatthatthat oneoneone cancancan makemakemake aaa meaningfulmeaningfulmeaningful distinctiondistinctiondistinction betweenbetweenbetween thethethe worldworldworld andandand texts.texts.texts. AsAsAs LehmannLehmannLehmann (1993.(1993.(1993. p.p.p. 6)6)6) observes,observes,observes, "Deconstruction positspositsposits thatthatthat theretherethere isisis no differencedifferencedifference betweenbetweenbetween thethethe worldworldworld andandand thethethe texttexttext becausebecausebecause theretherethere isisis only difference:difference:difference: thethethe worldworldworld isisis likelikelike aaa text;text;text; thethethe worldworldworld isisis aaa text;text;text; thethethe worldworldworld isisis textual.textual.textual. AndAndAnd theretherethere isisis nonono 'outside'outside'outside thethethe text";text";text"; oppositesoppositesopposites areareare thethethe same,same,same, allallall oppositionsoppositionsoppositions areareare equal,equal,equal, 'there'there'there isisis onlyonlyonly difference.''' 4.4.4. AsAsAs SchutzSchutzSchutz andandand LuekmannLuekmannLuekmann (1973,(1973,(1973, p.p.p. 4)4)4) explain,explain,explain, "In"In"In thethethe naturalnaturalnatural attitude,attitude,attitude, TTTalwaysalwaysalways findfindfind myselfmyselfmyself ininin aaa worldworldworld whichwhichwhich isisis forforfor mememe takentakentaken forforfor grantedgrantedgranted andandand self-evidently 'real.''real.''real.' TTT waswaswas hornhornhorn intointointo ititit andandand III assumeassumeassume thatthatthat ititit existedexistedexisted beforebeforebefore me.me.me. ItItIt isisis thethethe unexamined groundgroundground ofofof everythingeverythingeverything givengivengiven ininin mymymy experi-experi-experience,ence,ence, asasas ititit were,were,were, thethethe taken-for-granted frameframeframe ininin whichwhichwhich allallall thethethe problemsproblemsproblems whichwhichwhich III mustmustmust overcomeovercomeovercome areareare placed."placed."placed." 5.5.5. ThisThisThis ideaideaidea ofofof frameframeframe ofofof referencereferencereference drawsdrawsdraws primarilyprimarilyprimarily fromfromfrom ParsonsParsonsParsons (1937;(1937;(1937; Parsons,Parsons,Parsons, Bales,Bales,Bales, andandand ShilsShilsShils 1953)1953)1953) andandand KlausnerKlausnerKlausner (1982).(1982).(1982). TheoristsTheoristsTheorists workingworkingworking fromfromfrom withinwithinwithin aaa physicalistphysicalistphysicalist (or(or(or objectivistobjectivistobjectivist ororor materialist)materialist)materialist) frameframeframe ofofof referencereferencereference areareare employingemployingemploying aaa conceptualconceptualconceptual schemeschemescheme thatthatthat assumesassumesassumes thatthatthat thethethe objectsobjectsobjects ofofof studystudystudy arcarcarc locatedlocatedlocated withinwithinwithin aaa spatiotemporal framework,framework,framework, emphasizing thatthatthat thesethesethese objectsobjectsobjects cancancan bebebe locatedlocatedlocated ininin spacespacespace andandand timetimetime relativerelativerelative tototo otherotherother objects.objects.objects. TheTheThe spatiotemporaJ frameworkframeworkframework ofofof classicalclassicalclassical mechanicsmechanicsmechanics isisis thethethe paradigmatic exampleexampleexample hereherehere (Parsons(Parsons(Parsons 1937,1937,1937, p.p.p. 28).28).28). OnOnOn thethethe otherotherother hand,hand,hand, theoriststheoriststheorists workingworkingworking fromfromfrom withinwithinwithin aaa symbolistsymbolistsymbolist (or(or(or subjectivistsubjectivistsubjectivist ororor idealist)idealist)idealist) frameframeframe ofofof referencereferencereference placeplaceplace objectsobjectsobjects ofofof analysisanalysisanalysis withinwithinwithin ananan interpretive frameworkframeworkframework thatthatthat emphasizesemphasizesemphasizes thethethe meaningmeaningmeaning suchsuchsuch objectsobjectsobjects havehavehave forforfor actorsactorsactors withinwithinwithin aaa situation.situation.situation. AsAsAs MunchMunchMunch (1992,(1992,(1992, p.p.p. 244)244)244) suggests,suggests,suggests, aaa symbolistsymbolistsymbolist frameworkframeworkframework emphasizesemphasizesemphasizes meaningmeaningmeaning construction, norms,norms,norms, expressions, cognitions,cognitions,cognitions, andandand actionsactionsactions guidedguidedguided bybyby symbols.symbols.symbols. n.n.n. Terminologically, wewewe maymaymay avoidavoidavoid furtherfurtherfurther confusionconfusionconfusion bybyby notingnotingnoting thatthatthat traditionaltraditionaltraditional positivisticpositivisticpositivistic sci-sci-sci- enceenceence engagesengagesengages ininin aaa "first-order" reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity thatthatthat isisis moremoremore akinakinakin tototo simplesimplesimple "reflection" (Sandywell(Sandywell(Sandywell 199ha).199ha).199ha). First-orderFirst-orderFirst-order reflexivity,reflexivity,reflexivity, ororor reflection.reflection.reflection. occursoccursoccurs naturallynaturallynaturally ininin everydayeverydayeveryday lifelifelife withoutwithoutwithout humanshumanshumans nec-nec-nec- essarilyessarilyessarily beingbeingbeing awareawareaware thatthatthat theytheythey areareare actingactingacting reflexively.reflexively.reflexively. ForForFor example,example,example, thethethe humanhumanhuman selfselfself isisis developeddevelopeddeveloped outoutout ofofof routineroutineroutine socialsocialsocial interactioninteractioninteraction asasas wewewe secsecsec ourselvesourselvesourselves ininin thethethe mirrormirrormirror ofofof others'others'others' appraisalsappraisalsappraisals ofofof ususus (Cooley(Cooley(Cooley 1902;1902;1902; MeadMeadMead 1934).1934).1934). NormalNormalNormal sciencesciencescience isisis reflectivereflectivereflective ininin thethethe sensesensesense thatthatthat theoriststheoriststheorists workworkwork withwithwith andandand developdevelopdevelop ideasideasideas asasas theytheythey reflectreflectreflect uponuponupon thethethe naturenaturenature ofofof theirtheirtheir world.world.world. "Second-order" reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity isisis "meta-""meta-""meta-" ininin thethethe sensesensesense thatthatthat ititit involvesinvolvesinvolves thinkingthinkingthinking aboutaboutabout thinkingthinkingthinking andandand cancancan becomebecomebecome moremoremore andandand moremoremore radicalradicalradical asasas ititit isisis pos-pos-pos- siblesiblesible tototo thinkthinkthink aboutaboutabout thinkingthinkingthinking aboutaboutabout thinkingthinkingthinking adadad infinituminfinituminfinitum (Wiley(Wiley(Wiley 1994,1994,1994, pp.pp.pp. 83-89).83-89).83-89). GouldnerGouldnerGouldner con-con-con- frontedfrontedfronted thisthisthis infiniteinfiniteinfinite regressregressregress ininin hishishis ownownown reflexivereflexivereflexive sociology;sociology;sociology; anotheranotheranother formformform ofofof radicalradicalradical reflexivityreflexivityreflexivity appearsappearsappears ininin ethnomethodology (Pollner(Pollner(Pollner 1991).1991).1991). (See(See(See FigureFigureFigure 1.)1.)1.)

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