Bull Eng Geol Environ DOI 10.1007/s10064-014-0608-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Mining-induced geo-hazards with environmental protection measures in , : an overview

Yu-You Yang • Ye-Shuang Xu • Shui-Long Shen • Yao Yuan • Zhen-Yu Yin

Received: 7 February 2014 / Accepted: 2 April 2014 Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract There are abundant mineral resources in Yun- such as monitoring, and engineering rehabilitation and nan Province, which is located in the southwestern part of recovery, need to be adopted. Monitoring measurement China, due to its unique geological conditions. The distri- combined with a digital mine information system can be bution of minerals is related to geological formations and used to forecast mine induced geo-hazards effectively. past tectonic movements. The mineral resources extracted Moreover, appropriate engineering rehabilitation technol- in Yunnan Province constitute 83 % of total mineral pro- ogy should be chosen according to the type of mining- duction in China. The local environment around the mines induced geo-hazards. in Yunnan Province has been destroyed due to harmful mining methods. Yunnan is a province with complicated Keywords Mineral resources Á Mining-induced geo- and serious mining-induced environmental problems. hazards Á Protection measures Á Yunnan Mining-induced geo-hazards found here include collapse, landslide, debris flow, sinkhole collapse, earth fissure, and water flowing into mine pits. To protect and control the Introduction geological environments in mining areas, countermeasures Geo-hazards are a type of disaster related to geological processes induced by natural or human activities. They & Y.-Y. Yang ( ) include mountain collapse, landslides (Xu et al. 2009; School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences, 100083, People’s Republic of China Hawkins 2013), debris flow, ground collapse, ground fis- e-mail: [email protected] sures, land subsidence due to high compressibility of soft soil (Shen et al. 2006, 2013; Xu et al. 2008, 2013a; Shen Y.-S. Xu Á S.-L. Shen Á Y. Yuan and Xu 2011; Horpibulsuk et al. 2004, 2014; Wang et al. State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean, and Civil Engineering, Jiao Tong 2013), seawater intrusion (Xu et al. 2009), soil contami- University, Shanghai 200240, China nation (Du et al. 2012b), and scouring or erosion (Li et al. e-mail: [email protected] 2013). With the economic boom in the last two decades, S.-L. Shen various geo-hazards or geo-risks due to urban construction e-mail: [email protected] or mining have occurred in China (Shen et al. 2003, 2009, Y. Yuan 2010; Chai et al. 2014), e.g., land subsidence along both e-mail: [email protected] coastal regions and interior cities (Xu et al. 2008, 2012a, b, 2013a, b), cut-off or blocking of groundwater seepage in Z.-Y. Yin Ecole Centrale Nantes, GeM UMR CNRS, LUNAM University, urban aquifers (Xu et al. 2012a, b; Ma et al. 2014), land- 6183 Nantes, France slides and slope instability (Xu et al. 2009), and debris e-mail: [email protected] flow. The reasons for these geo-hazards in urban areas are associated with inappropriate engineering activity causing Z.-Y. Yin Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong complex stress conditions in the ground (Chang and Yin University, Shanghai 200240, China 2010; Ye et al. 2012, 2014). Examples include the failure 123 Y.-Y. Yang et al. of buildings in Shanghai (Chai et al. 2014), extraction of location in China and shows a map of Yunnan Province groundwater (Shen and Xu 2011), deep excavation (Tan and its districts. Yunnan Province is located at the border and Wang 2013a, b), and the long-term behaviour of with Myanmar (Burma) in the west, and Laos and Vietnam infrastructure (Yin et al. 2010, 2011a, b; Yin and Chang in the south. Its land area is about 39.40 9 104 km2,of 2013; Shen et al. 2014). which 94 % consists of mountains and highlands. The In mountainous areas, the geo-hazards are due to irri- terrain presents a downward ‘ladder’ type state step by step gation and the exploitation of natural resources through from the northwest to the southeast. The maximum ele- mining. Subsidence, slope deformations, landslides and vation of Yunnan Province is 6,740 m in the northwest, and other related damage are very significant problems in the minimum is 76.4 m in the southeast. mining areas in many countries (Marschalko et al. 2011, Yunnan Province is located at the junction of the Eur- 2012a; Yilmaz and Marschalko 2012; Swift 2014). The asian continental plate, the Indian tectonic plate, and the effective prediction and management of mining-induced Pacific plate (Huang 2007). The geological formation of geo-hazards is of great importance to the mining industry Yunnan is complex, which is a typical feature of Chinese (Marschalko et al. 2012b). There have been many attempts geology. Long-term powerful geological action has caused to assess mining-induced geo-hazards using Geographic a series of deep fractures to develop, resulting in the natural Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing data, and other environment of Yunnan Province being very fragile. related technology in the last decade (Marschalko et al. The objectives of this study are: (1) to investigate the 2013). For example, Yilmaz (2007) established a map of distribution of mineral resources and mining areas in karst depression based on GIS data for the Sivas Basin in Yunnan Province; (2) to discuss potential mining-induced Turkey; a subsidence map of the influence of underground geo-hazards; and (3) to present protection of and control mining in the Czech Republic was researched by Mars- measures for mining geological environments in Yunnan chalko et al. (2012c, d), who conducted a process for the Province. optimization of building site category determination in undermined areas. Mining is generally conducted in the western part of Geological environments and mineral zonation China, in regions such as Yunnan, Guizhou, , and Xinjiang. Yunnan Province is located in the southwestern In Yunnan Province, geological formations include soil part of China and is surrounded by Guizhou Province and strata, sedimentary rocks, metamorphosed rocks, and Guangxi Province in the east, Sichuan Province in the igneous rocks. The geology is complicated and tectonic north, and Tibet in the northwest. Figure 1 illustrates its movement is intensively strong. Large faults have

Fig. 1 Map of the districts of Yunnan Province 123 Mining-induced geo-hazards

Fig. 2 Mine zoning map of Yunnan Province (data from BGMYP 2006) developed, and the main fault runs from the northwest to which was 83 % of the proven types of mineral resources in the southeast of the province, and governs the geological China explored by the end of 2007 (DLRYP 2008). In total, conditions there. These major faults divide Yunnan into 86 types of mineral reserves were verified, in which two two large zones and six geological tectonic units. Figure 2 types are energy minerals, 39 types are metal minerals, and shows the zoning of mine resources in Yunnan Province, 45 types are non-ferrous minerals (YN 2011). In the verified which are divided into five mining areas. These five mining mineral reserves, 62 types of minerals ranked within the top areas are further divided into 12 sub areas of mining ten mineral reserves, 44 types ranked within the top five, resources according to the fault zone. Mineral zoning is and 25 types ranked within the top three in China. There basically consistent with the geology observed in Yunnan were 100 types of minerals that had a commercial use in Province (BGMYP 2006), where the distribution of the 2007. There are currently 1,844 mining areas, including 358 mineral type is related to the geological formations. for energy minerals, 1,056 for metal minerals, and 430 for non-ferrous minerals. Table 1 shows the distribution and utilisation of minerals in Yunnan Province. Distribution of mineral resources and mining locations

Yunnan Province has an abundance of mineral resources Mining-induced geo-hazards associated with its complex geological conditions. Minerals are abundant, particularly non-ferrous metals and phosphate The study of mining-induced geo-hazards is a significant rock. There are 142 types of minerals in Yunnan Province, subject area in the field of geotechnics. Mining-induced

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Table 1 Distribution and utilisation of some of the most abundant minerals in Yunnan Province in 2007 (data from BGMYP 2006;YN2011) Type Mineral Rank in China Number of Mine area Existing reserves (t) Main mineralisation unit

9 Energy minerals Coal 7 357 271.07 9 10 II2,II3,II4,II9,II10,II11,II12 9 Ferrous metals Iron 5 112 35.69 9 10 II1,II2,II4,II5 4 Manganese 3 24 9,215.71 9 10 II1,II2,II3 II4,II7,II9 4 Non-ferrous metals Copper 3 174 1,043.13 9 10 II1–II6,II10–II12 4 Lead 1 112 708.53 9 10 II1–II8 Zinc 1 106 1,969.84 9 104 4 Bauxite 5 29 9,735.10 9 10 II1,II3,II4

Precious metals Gold 4 69 363.40 II1–II8

Silver 3 99 14,056 II1–II8 9 Non-ferrous minerals Phosphorus 1 61 40.28 9 10 II2,II3 9 Salt 3 15 143.33 9 10 II2,II3,II6 Potassium salt 4 1 1,649.20 9 104 4 Pyrites 5 24 47,619.16 9 10 II1,II2,II3,II5 geo-hazards occur when surface or slope excavations The collapsed soil was deposited in the river so that the influence slope stability during mining. The types of min- riverbed was raised up by 20–40 m, and the economic ing-induced geo-hazards are related to mining scale, losses reached tens of millions of Chinese Yuan (Liu et al. exploitation method, mineral type, and mining area. Yun- 2008). Although the scale of the mine collapse was small, nan is one of the provinces in China that has more com- the damage was great because the mine collapse had the plicated and serious mine-related environmental problems characteristics of a large fall with a high velocity and its (Liu et al. 2008). The geological environment around the occurrence had not been anticipated. mines in this region has been damaged due to harmful mining methods. Figure 3 shows the impact of mining on Landslide the geological environment in Yunnan Province. The mining-induced geo-hazards that are widely found here A landslide happens when a soil mass slides down under include collapse, landslide, debris flow, surface collapse, gravity due to the influence of groundwater or surface earth fissure, and water flowing into mines (Liu et al. water. Landslides often occur in surface mining areas. The 2008). The number of mining-induced geo-hazards had main factors resulting in landslide are the unsafe stacking reached 702 by 2005, with a death toll of 1,194, and eco- of scoria, irregular mining, excess slope cutting, and nomic losses of 2.88 9 109 Chinese Yuan (Zhang et al. improper slope handling. 2009). Table 2 tabulates the number, scale, economic loss, Landslides are one of the most common mining-induced and death toll due to mining-induced geo-hazards in 2005. geo-hazards in Yunnan Province. Unsafe slope cutting led to Many more landslides, surface collapses, and earth fissures a serious landslide in the Sunjiajing sand mine in have happened in Yunnan Province than elsewhere in City, with a slipped soil volume of 7.425 9 104 m3 and a China. Table 3 shows the conditions of some extremely death toll of 25 (Huang 2007). Two landslides took place in serious mining-induced geo-hazards in the mining areas in succession in the Laojinshan gold mine in Yuanyang City in Yunnan Province; for example, at Dongchuan copper mine 1996 due to heavy mining activity. The death toll reached and tin mine (see Fig. 2). 372, and the economic loss was 1.4 9 109 Chinese Yuan. The area of displaced soil reached 26 9 104 m3,witha Collapse length of 1,614.5 m, a width of 120–300 m, and a depth of 0.5–7 m (He et al. 2012; Huang 2007). Collapses happens when soil or rocks slide abruptly from a Xiaolongtan mining area in Kaiyuan City is the largest slope due to the effect of gravity during mining. Collapses coal mining area in China, and it includes the Xiaolongtan happen frequently because of the characteristics of the and Buzhaoba opencast mines. The height of the slope mineral and the imperfect support conditions (Zhang et al. around the mining area prior to 1995 reached 120 m. Two 2009). About 90 % of collapses in Yunnan Province have landslides occurred within 2 months during 1995 at the occurred in small-scale mines. Because of poor mining eastern side of the Xiaolongtan opencast mine, which methods and natural conditions, a mine collapse happened resulted in the halting of mining production, road damage, in the Fengshan and Shishan mine in City in 2006. and high economic losses. The landslide area was

123 Mining-induced geo-hazards

Fig. 3 Impact of mining on the geological environment in Yunnan Province (based on PGYP 2010)

2 4 3 Table 2 Mining-induced geo-hazards in Yunnan Province in 2005 91,040 m , the slipped soil volume was 102.78 9 10 m , (Zhang et al. 2009) and the maximum differential height was 40 m (Li 1997). Geo-hazard Number Economic loss Death Figure 4 shows the displacement velocity of the landslide (9104 Chinese Yuan) toll area in the Xiaolongtan opencast mine. The soil displace- ment velocity increased from 0.57 to 5.92 mm/h when the Collapse 56 891 135 first landslide happened on 5 July 1995, and it increased Landslide 168 12,107.28 564 from 1.09 to 4.94 mm/h when the second landslide hap- Debris flow 83 8,156.67 449 pened on 7 September 1995. Surface collapse 168 6,307.33 15 Earth fissure 177 240.06 0 Water gushing 38 1,107.7 15 Debris flow Others 10 – – Total 702 28,838.04 1,194 A debris flow is a fluid with a large amount of mud, silt, and rock. The energy of a debris flow is high and its

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Table 3 Extremely serious Mine area City Date Type Scale Death toll mining-induced geo-hazards occurring in Yunnan Province Xishan quarry Kunming June, 1986 Collapse Medium 40 (Data from He et al. 2012) Yuanjiang gold mine Yuxi May, 1995 and 1996 Collapse Medium 43 Gejiu tin mine Honghe Unknown Collapse Medium 30 Dongchuan copper mine Kunming 1978 and July, 2001 Landslide Medium 49 Laojinshan gold mine Honghe May and June, 1996 Landslide Medium 372 Jinshachang lead–zinc mine June, 1990 Debris flow Large 52 Dongchuan copper mine Kunming May, 1984 and July, 2002 Debris flow Large 150 Gejiu tin mine Honghe Sep., 1962 Debris flow Large 1,171

Surface collapse

Surface collapses include mine goaf collapse and karst collapse. In Yunnan Province, the total area of mine goaf is about 15,208 km2 and surface collapse is 1,317 km2 (Zhang et al. 2009). Mostly, the scale of surface collapse is small or medium, with a circular, semi-circular, or rect- angular shape. The area of a single surface collapse is in the range of 0.1–64 km2 and collapse depth is in the range of 0.3–10 m (Huang 2007). Karst collapse is a very serious geological hazard that can lead to serious casualties. The tailings storage area in Shangchang iron mining area in Yuxi City was constructed on a karst depression. Karst collapse has occurred here many times. Mud with a volume of 10 9 104 m3 poured into the underground karst passage and filled the river Fig. 4 Displacement velocity of landslide area in the Xiaolongtan channel during the course of a karst collapse in 1980 opencast mine (Huang 2007). Although Karst collapses happen suddenly and are difficult to predict, an attempt to predict this type of destructive force is strong. The dumped soil and rock, or collapse has been proposed, which uses probabilistic mine tailings, which accumulate during mining are piled up methods and susceptibility maps, and is the first attempt on a slope, and this influences the slope stability and recorded in the International literature for the assessment of loosens material prior to debris flow. Yunnan has abundant future collapses in a given gypsum karst terrain (Yilmaz rainfall, especially from May to October, and debris flow 2007). This could be a way of predicting Karst collapses in readily occurs when there is heavy rainfall. Most of the Yunnan in the future. debris flow in Yunnan Province is small. The reason for over 90 % of debris flows is the unsafe dumping of soil Earth fissure (Huang 2007). Dongchuan copper mine is located in Dongchuan Dis- Earth fissures often occur in a mine goaf. The fissure shape trict in Kunming City, which is one of the regions with the often presents as a line, arc, or closed curve. The fissures highest debris flows in China (Mo et al. 2006; Du et al. are mainly distributed around a region of surface collapse 2010). There are hundreds of debris flow valleys around the in a narrow band. The width of each fissure can range from Dongchuan copper mining area. Long-term copper mining one centimetre to several metres, and the length can range aggravates the scale and the frequency of occurrence of from several metres to over 2,000 metres (Liu et al. 2008). debris flows. On average, a large-scale debris flow has They can cause damage to buildings, cultivated land, and occurred once in every 10 years in the Dongchuan copper mining areas. An earth fissure was formed on the eastern mining area. Large scale debris flows occurred in this side of the Xiaolongtan coal mine in 1993. It then devel- mining area in 1954, 1965, and 1984, with an economic oped to the north, and extended to the west. The length of loss of 0.94, 1.00, and 11.23 million Chinese Yuan, the fissure reached 2,900 m, with a width of 2–3.5 m respectively (Du et al. 2010). (Huang 2007).

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Water flowing into mine pit elementary stage in China (Wu and Xu 2014). It is sug- gested that digital mine construction should be in three In the process of mining below groundwater level, if the pit steps, these being the establishment of a mine spatial data or the old mining area is dug through, if the pit is located warehouse, the establishment of a digital mine platform, near a river, or if there is a fracture zone and the retaining and the establishment of a mine safety office system (Wu structure is not adequately constructed, water may flow into 2008). The digital mine acts as a simulation and is a tool in the mine pit. This can lead to underground flooding or the evaluation of mineral resources, the general planning of drying-up of creeks, hindering mine production, and mining constructions, exploration design, mining engi- endangering the safety of personnel (Liu et al. 2008). neering, production safety, geological disaster forecast, and The water inflow rate reached 80–120 m3/h when water management decisions (Wu and Xu 2013, 2014). A digital was flowing into the Heqing gold mine in , which mine information system may be used to prepare resource resulted in surface collapse and a cease production. Here, estimation, plans, designs and mining production, to fracture zones were created in the process of digging, and monitor the changes of the mining geological environment, the retaining structures were not constructed in time, and to assist with disaster prevention and reduction. Gejiu resulting in water inflow (Liu et al. 2008; Huang 2007). In Tin mine is an old mine that has been exploited for 2007, the baseboard was dug through in a coal mine area in 100 years. Long-term geological exploration and produc- Yuxi City, which then led to water inflow. This caused tive construction of the mine have resulted in an abundant underground flooding along a distance of 380 m and the accumulation of data, including geochemical data, geo- drying-up of a creek (Liu et al. 2008). physical data and science and technology research data. The geological database system was initially established with a topography database in the Gejiu mine area, and Protection measures included geological plans and sections at depths of 1,360–2,350 m, as well as a sink-hole database (Tong Monitoring and forecasting 2003). Jiang et al. (2009) established a three-dimensional model of the Manjiazhai zinc-tin polymetallic deposit with It is important to monitor the geological environment the aid of the mining software ‘Surpac’. Six open-mining during mining and to forecast the critical conditions for plans were compared based on deposit model evaluation. mining-induced geo-hazards. Automatic monitoring sys- Chai et al. (2013) established a digital mineral deposit tems such as Geographic Information System (GIS), Glo- system for the Kunyang phosphorite mine based on DI- bal Positioning System (GPS), and Remote Sensing (RS) MINE software. The terrain model and the three-dimen- (3S system), are adopted in monitoring and forecasting the sional entity model were established using data from the mining geological environment. A three-dimensional geological databases, and a resources valuation was con- identification model of mining-induced geological hazards ducted based on the geological statistics method. was established based on these 3S technologies in the Anning phosphate mine in Kunming City (Du et al. 2012a). Engineering treatment technology The satellite data of SPOT5 (PGYP 2010) was used to survey the debris-flow hazards in Dongchuan in In light of the characteristics of different mine induced geo- Kunming City. Based on the research of predictions of hazards, different engineering treatment technologies debris-flow in Dongchuan District, an interpretation of should be adopted. For example, fill or grout is used for debris flow was determined, and valley debris flows and mine goaf collapse by means of soil deformation control; sloping debris flows were identified. In total, 168 valley and grouting reinforcement or a cut-off wall is applied for debris flows and 95 sloping debris flows were identified earth fissures as a means of groundwater level control. (Yang et al. 2010). Slope cutting, grouting, dewatering or anchoring are used as a means of rock or soil improvement to help prevent Establishment and improvement of database system collapse or slide. Radiation wells for groundwater dewa- tering have been applied in a tailings pond in Yunnan Digital mining simulation is a popular research subject in Province with excellent results (Liu and Zhou 2012). Wang mining engineering. Digital mining is a complicated sys- et al. (2007) introduced the application of pre-stressed tem, which mainly covers three-dimensional visualization anchoring cables and retaining walls to protect against modelling, resource and reserve estimation, digital mining, future landslides in the Dahongshan iron mine. Table 4 and integrated automatic decision support systems (Wu and shows the treatment technologies and their effect in the Xu 2014). Information-based mine exploitation, design, Xiaolongtan mine. Comprehensive engineering technol- production, management, and supervision are still at an ogy, including anti-sliding pile, anchor reinforcement, 123 Y.-Y. Yang et al.

Table 4 Treatment of the Xiaolongtan coal mine (modified from Liu et al. 2008) Position Earth fissure and landslide condition Treatment technology Treatment effect

West of Buzhaoba Earth fissure appeared in 1992 and grew Slope cutting and load Slope stability coefficient increased from opencast mine worse in 1995 decreasing, anchor 1.05 to 1.25; displacement velocity reinforcing decreased from 3.41 to 0.67 mm/day North–west of Fissure in the surrounding building Slope cutting and load Slope stability coefficient increased by Buzhaoba opencast appeared in 1995 and grew worse in decreasing for anchor 0.08–0.20 mine 1998 reinforcing East of Xiaolongtan Earth fissure appeared in 1993 and Slope cutting and load Slope basically kept stable opencast mine landslide occurred in 1995 decreasing, Trench drain digging

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 5 Debris flows and treatment technology in Dongchuan District flows in copper mine in Dongchuan District, c Engineering treatment (Data from Du et al. Du et al. 2010; MLRPRC 2013). a Copper mine technology for debris flow in Dongchuan District (MLRPRC 2013) in Dongchuan District in Kunming City (based Du et al. 2010), Debris decreasing load, and water drainage, has been used for Dongchuan District in Kunming city is abundant in slope improvement in the Xiaolongtan coal mine (Zhang copper mines. The geological environment has been seri- 2000). ously damaged by long-term copper mining. Debris flow is

123 Mining-induced geo-hazards

the most familiar mine induced geo-hazard in this district. Du YJ, Jiang NJ, Shen SL, Jin F (2012b) Experimental investigation A series of engineering treatment technologies has been of influence of acid rain on leaching and hydraulic characteristics of cement-based solidified/stabilized lead contaminated clay. adopted to control debris flow; for example, guide trenches J Hazard Mater 225:195–201 and retaining dams as shown in Fig. 5. Hawkins AB (2013) Engineering significance of superficial structures and landslides in the Bath area, UK. Bull Eng Geol Environ 72:353–370 He F, Xu YN, Qiao G, Chen HQ, Liu RP (2012) Distribution Conclusions characteristics of mine geological hazards in China. Geol Bull China 31(2–3):476–485 (in Chinese) 1. Yunnan Province has abundant mineral resources Horpibulsuk S, Bergado DT, Lorenzo GA (2004) Compressibility of because of its complex geological formations. The cement admixed clays at high water content. Geotechnique 54(2):151–154 distribution of the type of minerals is related to the Horpibulsuk S, Wijitchot A, Nerimitknornburee A, Shen SL (2014) geological formation and/or tectonic movement. Factors influencing unit weight and strength of lightweight 2. Mining can lead to serious geo-hazards. Mining- cemented clay. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 47:101–109 induced geo-hazards in Yunnan Province include Huang Y (2007) Problems and governing countermeasures for mine environment in Yunnan Province. Master thesis, Kunming collapse, landslide, debris flow, surface collapse, earth University of Science and Technology, Kunming (in Chinese) fissure, and water flowing into mine pits. Landslides, Jiang Y, Li F, Jia FJ (2009) Application of 3D deposit model in surface collapse, and earth fissures are the main Manjiazhai Sn–Zn polymetallic deposit. Metal Mine 4:95–97 (in mining-induced geo-hazards in Yunnan Province. Chinese) Li GZ (1997) Ananlysis and treatment for the landslide on the east of 3. 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