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2019GREAG006.Pdf THÈSE Pour obtenir le grade de DOCTEUR DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ UNIVERSITÉ GRENOBLE ALPES Spécialité : Sciences de Gestion Arrêté ministériel : 25 mai 2016 Présentée par Laetitia THOMAS Thèse dirigée par Karine SAMUEL, Communauté Université Grenoble Alpes préparée au sein du Laboratoire Centre d'Etudes et de ReCherChes appliquées à la gestion dans l'ÉCole DoCtorale SCienCes de gestion Les business modèles de l'open sourCe hardware Business models for Open Source Hardware Thèse soutenue publiquement le 22 novembre 2019, devant le jury composé de : Madame Karine SAMUEL PROFESSEUR, UNIVERSITE GRENOBLE ALPES, Directeur de thèse Madame Bérangère DESCHAMPS PROFESSEUR, UNIVERSITE GRENOBLE ALPES, Président Monsieur Peter TROXLER PROFESSEUR, UNIVERSITE SC APPLIQUEES DE ROTTERDAM, Examinateur Monsieur Christopher TUCCI PROFESSEUR, ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FEDERAL DE LAUSANNE, Rapporteur Monsieur Benoît DEMIL Professeur des Universités, UNIVERSITE DE LILLE, Rapporteur BUSINESS MODELS FOR OPEN SOURCE HARDWARE Laetitia THOMAS Under the supervision of Pr. Karine EVRARD SAMUEL 2 To all my grandmothers and to my beloved son, Adam 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have many thanks to extend for the people who kindly helped me to grow both academically and personally through my doctoral studies. I have benefited from the insights of faculty, friends, family members and OSH experts to deepen my reflection on the subject of the diffusion and impact of OSH. First, I would like to give special thanks my director Karine Evrard Samuel for her guidance during this research process. Together with Pr. Jean-François Boujut, they both alternated in giving me the structure, sound counsel, amazing travel opportunities, and the freedom necessary to research this phenomenon. I give thanks to members of the OPEN! Team for the opportunity to study such a fascinating emerging and alternative phenomenon through a multi-disciplinary approach. Jeremy Bonvoisin for his perseverance in setting up the project; Lars Zimmerman for the inspiration and creativity; Céline Gros for the work synergies and support; Philippe Marin for the kindness and for entrusting me with his students. As I get ready for the final stages of this research, I am truly grateful for the composition of my thesis committee. Peter Troxler, thank you for the exchange of ideas on generativity, Chris Tucci, thank you for welcoming me to your research group on business model innovation at EPFL, Benoit Demil and Bérengère Deschamps thank you for accepting to be part of my committee. The constant daily support from my fellow doctoral researchers from the CERAG shall not be taken for granted. Thank you Arthur Sarazin, Faheem Ahmed, Azadeh Shomali, Hezam Haidar, Houda Sassi, Meriam Razgallah, Oula Bayarassou; Yann Ferrat, Saedeh Vessal, Fatemeh Movahedian; Julien Couder, Florentina Soiman, Milena Jael, Maryline Rossano, Coralie Lucatello, and Florence Alberti for your friendship and support. I’m truly thankful to have been welcomed both at the DIMMONS research center and the Free Knowledge Institute in Barcelona. Thank you Mayo Fuster Morell, Ricart Espelt, Enric Senabre, Vera Vidal, Wouter Tebben and Monica Garriga. Meeting the people making sustainable innovations real such as Vicente Guallart, the founder of the IAAC, Jonathan Minchin, the coordinator of the Green Fab Lab, Tomas Diez, the IAAC director, Mauricio Cordova the Fair Cap founder, Mara Balestrini the CEO of Ideas for Change and Guillaume Teyssié from Aquapioneers was exhilarating. 4 I would like to thank all the people who accepted to be interviewed and who were responsive to my follow-ups. I enjoyed how they were committed to putting change into practice in a diversity of different ways. I would like to help the people who helped me conduct these interviews. Véronique Sanguinetti, from IAE Lille for the automobile sector and Martina Dopfer, from the HIIG Institute, and Wisse Hettinga in Barcelona for jumping in on the adventure with me and filming my interviews! I sincerely appreciated the scholarly exchanges I had with Pr. Patrick Cohendet, Pr. Ron Eglash and Pr. Florian Lüdeke-Freund. I’m grateful for the availability of the Casemate team to welcome my presentation and for setting up events. Last but not least, I would like to thank my mother Joan Thomas for her invaluable and constant support throughout this process, my husband Julien Chouanard, and my aunt Dr. Margaret Martin for the lessons in courage, love, perseverance and aiming high. 5 6 RÉSUMÉ EN FRANÇAIS 1. REVUE DE LITÉRATURE ET CADRE CONCEPTUEL DE LA RECHERCHE 1.1. CONTEXTE DE RECHERCHE Impulsée par un courant social, la technologie évolue d’une manière de plus en plus difficile à appréhender. Ces changements, comprenant l’intelligence artificielle, l’internet des objets, le big data, l’informatique en Cloud, l’impression 3D et la fabrication additive, font partie de ce que l’on nomme aujourd’hui la « 4ème révolution industrielle ». Cette dernière est décrite comme la numérisation de l’industrie au sens large, c’est-à-dire son intégration « à la conception des produits et aussi aux moyens de production associés » (Gaudron & Mouline 2017). En 2014, Richard Branson, impressionné par Jeremy Heimans le fondateur de Avaaz, a écrit dans son blog : « cette transformation n’est pas technologique, elle est rendue possible grâce à la technologie, mais elle est menée par les gens et l’évolution de leurs attitudes envers la participation et le changement. Jeremy oppose l'ancien pouvoir qu'il assimile à une monnaie (détenue par quelques-uns, fermée et inaccessible) à ce “nouveau pouvoir” qui s'apparente davantage à un courant (créé par beaucoup, ouvert et dirigé par des pairs) » 1 . Ces changements impliquent que le monde des affaires change lui aussi, modifiant les rôles des clients et des producteurs. Certains des changements radicaux s’opèrent en ces termes : plus distribués, décentralisés, collaboratifs, attrayants, plus de réseaux en termes d'écosystèmes, et travaillant avec différents types de partenaires, plus partagés. Pour préserver leur modèle économique, les entreprises ont longtemps protégé leurs processus d’innovation par des brevets. Cependant, depuis quelques années, la réduction des cycles de vie des produits et les coûts grandissants de Recherche & Développement ont poussé les entreprises à ouvrir leurs processus d’innovation à des communautés externes. C’est ce qu’on appelle l’innovation ouverte (open innovation). Chesbrough & Bogers (2014) ont tenté de définir ce phénomène complexe, qui défie l’idée la sagesse reçue sur la nature même d’une innovation. Cette dernière se situant de plus en plus à l’extérieur des frontières de l’entreprise. Leur définition propose que l’open innovation est un « processus d'innovation distribué avec 1 https://www.virgin.com/richard-branson/occupy-yourself 7 des flux intentionnels à travers les frontières organisationnelles ». Ces flux intentionnels démultiplient l’innovation selon trois processus distincts. Les processus « inside-out » permettent d’exploiter des connaissances internes en externe sans en assumer tous les coûts. À l’inverse, les processus « outside-in » permettent d’incuber en interne des idées venues de l’extérieur. Enfin, le « processus couplé » (coupled process) permet un développement et une exploitation en commun de la R&D entre l’entreprise et des acteurs externes. Certains chercheurs suggèrent que ce dernier schéma permettrait une vraie création de valeur partagée, ainsi que des business models vraiment ouverts (Enkel et al., 2009). En rendant leurs innovations ouvertes, les entreprises renoncent à certains de leurs droits au profit d’une participation externe motivée, et d’un sens de copropriété de la part des contributeurs. Les deux avantages principaux de cette approche sont : 1) l’hyper innovation où la création de nouvelles idées est accélérée ; 2) la création de communautés de co-créateurs qui permettent d’externaliser les ressources de l’entreprise. Cependant, la barrière entre concepteurs et consommateurs s’estompe de plus en plus, grâce, par exemple, aux outils de fabrication digitale, comme les imprimantes 3D ou les découpeuses lasers accessibles via des Fab Labs ou des Maker Spaces permettant aux citoyens de créer et de tester des produits beaucoup plus facilement. Partant d’un phénomène isolé, il existe maintenant 1200 Fab Labs dans 100 différents pays organisés en réseau, « the Fab City Network », dont le but est d’aider les villes à produire 50% des ressources qu’elles consomment d’ici quarante ans. Dans ce contexte, construire un drone pour dépolluer les océans, une ruche connectée, ou un filtre à eau en « Open Source Hardware » (OSH) vise à créer des solutions de manière plus rapide, efficace et à moindre coût. L’« Open Source » est un processus collaboratif de développement de produits, dans lequel les plans de conception, jusqu’aux « secrets » de fabrication sont accessibles à tous, de manière à décupler la capacité d'innovation, en s'appuyant sur l'expertise des clients, de communautés d'utilisateurs, des entreprises pour améliorer de façon plus rapide, plus pertinente et plus transparente, les produits. L’innovation en open source hardware (OSH) est un mode de développement de produit collaboratif, dans lequel les plans de conception, les instructions d’assemblage, et la liste des matériaux sont mis à disposition du grand public afin que quiconque puisse étudier, répliquer, modifier, distribuer et vendre le produit fini issu de ces plans (Raasch et al., 2009; Bonvoisin et al., 2017; Bonvoisin et al., 2017). Les principes
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