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A Methodology for Contemporary Film Score Composers: a Portfolio of Compositions (Disposed As a Film Score) and Exegesis

A Methodology for Contemporary Film Score Composers: a Portfolio of Compositions (Disposed As a Film Score) and Exegesis

Collective Conceptualization – A Methodology for Contemporary Score : A portfolio of compositions (disposed as a ) and exegesis

Martyn Love

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Elder Conservatorium of Music Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences The University of Adelaide

September 2013 CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... iv

DECLARATION...... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii

1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1. 1 OUTPUTS ...... 2 1. 2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 3 1. 3 PROJECT AIMS AND OBJECTIVES...... 3 1. 4 WHY MÉNILMONTANT? ...... 4 1. 5 COLLECTIVE CONCEPTUALIZATION ...... 4 1. 6 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS...... 9

2 RE-SCORING PRECEDENTS ...... 13 2. 1 DEFINITION ...... 13 2. 2 BACKGROUND...... 13 2. 3 ...... 14 2. 4 RICHARD EINHORN’S VOICES OF LIGHT – THE RESCORING OF ’S LA PASSION DE JEANNE D’ ARC (1928) ...... 19

3 SIGNIFICANT SILENT FILM SCORES...... 26 3. 1 DEFINITION ...... 26 3. 2 BACKGROUND...... 26 3. 3 L’ASSASSINAT DU DUC DE GUISE (1908)...... 28 3. 4 BIRTH OF A NATION (1915) ...... 30 3. 5 ENTR’ACTE (1924) ...... 32

4 SIGNIFICANT SCORED WITH REAL-TIME MODELS ...... 36 4. 1 DEFINITION ...... 36 4. 2 BACKGROUND...... 36 4. 3 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 38 4. 4 KING KONG (1933) ...... 39 4. 5 (1941)...... 42 4. 6 THE (1968)...... 48

5 SIGNIFICANT FILMS SCORED WITH HYBRID/VIRTUAL MODELS...... 54 5. 1 DEFINITION ...... 54 ii 5. 2 BACKGROUND...... 54 5. 3 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 56 5. 4 – (2009)...... 56 5. 5 – (2012)...... 62

6 DISCUSSION OF THE SCORE FOR MÉNILMONTANT ...... 71 6. 1 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 71 6.1.1 The Real Instruments ...... 73 6.1.2 The ...... 75 6.1.3 The Virtual Instruments ...... 76 6.1.4 Sample Based Orchestral Simulation (SBOS) ...... 79 6.1.4.1 Technical Considerations ...... 79 6. 2 INSTRUMENTAL SUMMARY ...... 82 6.2.1 The Sequencer – Logic Pro ...... 83 6. 3 THE COLLECTIVE CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS USED ON MÉNILMONTANT...... 85 6. 4 THE AESTHETIC APPROACH IN THE SCORE FOR MÉNILMONTANT...... 87 6.4.1 The Synopsis...... 87 6.4.2 Cues 1 and 18 – The Opening & Closing Waltzes ...... 92 6.4.3 Cue 8 – He’s a Man...... 96 6.4.4 Cue 14 – Cold Desperation ...... 98 6. 5 SUMMARY OF THE AESTHETIC APPROACH...... 99 6. 6 TECHNICAL ISSUES ...... 100 6. 7 PRECIS...... 101

7 REFLECTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 103 7. 1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 103 7. 2 PROJECT AIMS AND OBJECTIVES...... 111 7. 3 CONCLUSION ...... 113

8 APPENDICES...... 114 8. 1 APPENDIX A – SCORE ...... 114 8. 2 APPENDIX B – MÉNILMONTANT – THE FILM (DVD) AND DIGITAL VERSION OF THE EXEGESIS AND SCORE (CD) ...... 228

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 229

iii ABSTRACT

This study documents the intellectual process called Collective Conceptualization. The process constitutes an organization of operations that facilitate applied theory and is a holistic framework that interlinks the many creative procedures involved in screen composition and production. can be thought of as the physical, theoretical and spiritual embodiment of the sum total of knowledge of the art of film score composition. The research shows that the Collective Conceptualization process is, in itself, a coherent compositional methodology (for real-time/virtual or hybrid composers) because it provides a simplified framework within which the can work.

This portfolio comprises an score for the 1926 French avant-garde silent film Ménilmontant. The score features music for acoustic and virtual instruments, deployed in settings ranging from small ensemble to . The film score integrates methodologies and applications that demonstrate the range of real-time or conceptual/hybrid approaches studied, and documents the changing nature of the workspace used by contemporary film score composers.

The dissertation comprises a film score and an exegesis that provides the rational grounding for the approach taken.

iv DECLARATION

I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the University of Adelaide and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree.

I give consent to this copy of my thesis when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.

The author acknowledges that copyright of published works contained within this thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of those works.

I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time.

Martyn Love 11 September 2013

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am extremely grateful to the friends, colleagues and family who have helped me through the last few years of PhD study. My principal supervisor, Professor Mark Carroll, has supported me throughout my candidature and given constant motivation, support and advice, over and above what was required or expected. Mark’s editorial assistance in the preparation of this thesis is acknowledged gratefully.

Sincere thanks also go to my other supervisors, Professor Graeme Koehne and Mr. Stephen Whittington, the Head of Postgraduate Programs, Associate Professor Kimi Coaldrake, and my supervisor from the University of Wollongong, Dr Houston Dunleavy for their help and guidance over the course of the study.

I would also like to thank my dear friend and , Ian Jones, who sadly is no longer with us, but who was, during our many times together, a vast source of humour, inspiration and encouragement.

Thanks go to my good friends Eric Aranda and Timothy John, who were always available for a laugh when I needed one. Having moved from Sydney to Adelaide to complete this work, I found having a friend in each city kept me sane.

Jenny my wife, and my sons Harry and Hudson, you took care of me and put your trust in me and made the journey seem easy and worthwhile. You are such an inspiration and a blessing to me. Lastly I’d like to thank my mother Ruth, my father , my brothers Jon, Brandon and Tony, and their families, and my other family in Queensland, Kay and Mary.

vi LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. TYPICAL FILM SCORE COMPOSITIONAL RESOURCES AND PROCESSES ...... 5 FIGURE 2. GRAPHIC INTERPRETATION OF COLLECTIVE CONCEPTUALIZATION ...... 7 FIGURE 3. SAMPLE LIST OF RE-SCORED SILENT FILMS ...... 13 FIGURE 4. LIST OF SILENT FILMS RE-SCORED BY CARL DAVIS...... 16 FIGURE 5. SCORE EXCERPT FROM VOICES OF LIGHT COMPOSED BY RICHARD EINHORN ...... 23 FIGURE 6. COVER AND CONTENTS PAGE OF THE SAM FOX MOVING PICTURE MUSIC PHOTOPLAY EDITION ...... 27 FIGURE 7. REDUCTION OF BREIL’S ‘MOTIF OF BARBARISM’...... 31 FIGURE 8. PIANO REDUCTION OF SATIE’S ‘CHIMNEYS, DEFLATING BALLOONS’...... 34 FIGURE 9. STEINER’S FOR KING KONG...... 40 FIGURE 10. STEINER’S LEITMOTIF FOR ANN DARROW ...... 40 FIGURE 11. EXCERPT FROM STEINER’S ‘MEETING WITH BLACK MEN’ CUE ...... 40 FIGURE 12. ’S PRELUDE FOR CITIZEN KANE ...... 44 FIGURE 13. BERNARD HERRMANN’S ROSEBUD MOTIF ...... 45 FIGURE 14. EXCERPT FROM ’S ‘THE HUNT’ PAGE 1...... 50 FIGURE 15. EXCERPT FROM JERRY GOLDSMITH’S ‘THE HUNT’ PAGE 2 ...... 51 FIGURE 16. PIANO REDUCTION OF HANS ZIMMER’S ‘DISCOMBOBULATE’ FROM THE FILM SHERLOCK HOLMES (2009)...... 59 FIGURE 17. INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE SKYFALL ...... 65 FIGURE 18. REDUCTION OF THOMAS NEWMAN’S ‘VOLUNTARY RETIREMENT’ FROM THE FILM, SKYFALL PAGE 1...... 68 FIGURE 19. REDUCTION OF THOMAS NEWMAN’S ‘VOLUNTARY RETIREMENT’ FROM THE FILM, SKYFALL PAGE 2 ...... 69 FIGURE 20. REAL INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE SCORE FOR MÉNILMONTANT...... 73 FIGURE 21. CATEGORIES OF INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE SCORE FOR MÉNILMONTANT...... 74 FIGURE 22. SCREEN GRAB OF THE MIXER PAGE FROM WITHIN THE SPECTRASONICS STYLUS RMX REALTIME GROOVE MACHINE ...... 77 FIGURE 23. SCREEN GRAB OF THE BROWSER PAGE FROM WITHIN NATIVE INSTRUMENTS ABSYNTH 5 VIRTUAL SYNTHESIZER...... 78 FIGURE 24. SCREEN GRAB OF THE EAST WEST QUANTAM LEAP SYMPHONIC ORCHESTRA ‘PLAY’ PAGE...... 81 FIGURE 25. EXCERPT FROM THE OPENING TITLES FOR MÉNILMONTANT...... 95

vii 1 INTRODUCTION

Film scoring and recording processes have, over the last thirty years, undergone radical change. This is due predominantly to the impact of sophisticated digital technologies on each stage of the film-scoring process. Allied to this is a major shift in the way that the recording studio itself has been used. The resultant changes reside both at the elementary, technical level; that is, the use of the studio as a physical place to record and mix audio and, at the more profound, conceptual level, the role of that space in nurturing, facilitating and realising creativity. Added to this is a shifting dynamic between the use of physical and (the latter residing in a computer hard drive), and the use of real and virtual instruments. The current study explores the impact of these developments through the composition and production of an original film score that makes use of real and virtual instruments performing music that ranges from the fully scored to the improvisational, and which is recorded in real and virtual studios. The accompanying exegesis traces the methodological, expressive and technical approaches intrinsic to those nuances.

Along with the accelerating plethora of technological advancements, we have seen a reciprocal explosion in the volume of aesthetic options from which the composer can choose. There are no hard and fast rules in film scoring, so it is to the composer to construct their own intellectual model for conceptualizing, composing and producing the score. With the above options in mind, the study documents and utilises a range of applications of the recording studio in the conceptualization and creation of a film score. These applications include the use of a physical studio in which live performers variously realise a fully notated score and/or collaborate with the composer in the realisation of a set of compositional sketches, whether in the form of lead sheets or sonic impressions. At the other extreme is the use of a virtual studio based upon digital technologies, in which the mediation of the physical space and other musicians plays no part. In this virtual space the composer remains the sole arbiter of the finished score.

1

Alongside the established orchestral/symphonic styles of film scoring, various combinations of electronic and virtual instrumentation has been accepted as orthodox not just in , but also around the globe. In the 1990s composers such as , Thomas Newman and others, challenged the conventions of film scoring by introducing a collaborative studio environment and, as Mervyn Cooke notes ‘likened creating film music to conceiving an based on rhythmic grooves.’1 Since then, many composers have followed in their footsteps and forged their own sonic styles predicated on a unique aural impression, that combines the use of experimental studio techniques with the latest virtual instrumentation applications.

1. 1 Outputs

The current study is centred upon a portfolio of works disposed as an original film score for the 1926 French avant-garde silent film Ménilmontant (1926).2 The score features music for acoustic and virtual instruments, deployed in settings ranging from small ensemble to orchestra. As such it integrates methodologies and applications that demonstrate the range of real-time or conceptual/hybrid approaches available currently, and in so doing documents the changing nature of the workflow used by contemporary film score composers. With this in mind, the dissertation offered for examination consists of:

1. a mastered DVD containing the recorded sound and video recordings 2. the printed film score 3. an exegesis of approximately 30,000 words

1 Mervyn Cooke. A History of Film Music (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 499. 2 Ménilmontant, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff (France: Dimitri Kirsanoff, 1926).

2 1. 2 Research Questions

1. How have film score compositional methodologies evolved to the present day? 2. How does the conceptual space – whether physical or virtual – shape the composer’s creativity and methodology? 3. What is the nature of the interaction between composer and performer/s within that space? 4. Can the approach to the composer’s conceptual space as demonstrated in the creation of a score for Ménilmontant be analysed and developed into a coherent compositional methodology? 5. How and in what ways does the real/virtual compositional dynamics sit with the aesthetics of silent films? 6. How can this knowledge benefit future film score composers?

With these questions in mind, the aims of the project are as follows:

1. 3 Project Aims and Objectives

1. By way of historical study and critical analysis, traditional and emerging trends in film score composition will be identified and evaluated for their impact and application to new methodological approaches to film score composition. 2. To identify, analyse and document the modus operandi of a range of film score composers. 3. To make a significant contribution to the practise of film score composition by expanding on the theoretical, aesthetic and technical approaches that are integral to the conceptual/virtual studio methodology. 4. To produce a music score for the film Ménilmontant that demonstrates the artistic outcomes of the above.

3 1. 4 Why Ménilmontant?

The film Ménilmontant was chosen primarily because it forms a blank canvas on which to judge the score. That is, it is a synchronized visual medium used purely as a vehicle to demonstrate the broad spectrum of currently available film-scoring technologies. SBOS, or sample-based orchestral simulation, was a particular focus because orchestral music remains the primary instrumental force in contemporary film, and demonstrates the impact of technology on the creative process using real and virtual compositional strategies. Secondary practical considerations with regard to the choice of Ménilmontant are as follows:

1. Because the plot of Ménilmontant is communicated entirely with imagery (it contains no inter-titles), it presents opportunities to compose music to underscore emotion, define character and imply tension or harmony, free from the interjections of sound effects and/or foley. 2. University of Adelaide requirements for the degree call for a balance of 60% creative work and 40% thesis, with the former set at approximately 40 minutes duration. 3. The film Ménilmontant is 40 minutes in duration. 4. The film Ménilmontant is free from copyright restrictions.

1. 5 Collective Conceptualization

Film scoring is a complex language, and like all languages it is constantly evolving. Computers and technology have added a new conceptual dimension to the creative process, and more recently film scoring has developed into a highly technical and multidisciplinary art form. Long established traditions tied to the recording process are being challenged at each creative step. No longer, for example, do we need to record musicians in close proximity, thereby enabling creative collaboration with colleagues in other cities and countries. Even the basic linear process of film scoring is increasingly coming under review.

4

Film score composers need to come to terms with the intellectual processes required to negotiate the profusion of technology associated with film score composition and production. Below is a sample order of resources and processes carried out by film score composers who typically may have adopted a basic process that is linear in form. They start at the point of inspiration, develop an idea through theme and move through an intermediate form before arriving at the final form. Figure 1 is a simplified rendering based on John Sloboda’s Diagram of Typical Compositional Resources and Processes but adapted here specifically for film scoring purposes.3

Idea

Theme

General Tonal & Stylistic Knowledge Superordinate Constraints on Form & Direction TIME Intermediate Form

Repertoire of Compositional Devices Final Form

Figure 1. Typical Film Score Compositional Resources and Processes

3 John Sloboda. The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 118.

5 While this diagram omits many of the finer complexities involved in the film score compositional process, I believe it represents a graphic interpretation of the intellectual order of operations used by many film composers.

Many contemporary film score composers think of their recording studio as an instrument in itself, one requiring practice and solid technique in order to complement the visual medium. Because modern film music should reflect the visual attributes of modern film production (increasingly the product of digital effects/compositing/), composers with their arsenals of technology now need to conceptualize their scores in a different way. The film composer now conceptualizes the work using an intellectual process that integrates the physical workspace that they work within, (the studio) and the virtual technologies that are available from within computer applications/simulations and virtual instruments.4 This intellectual process could be called Collective Conceptualization.

As the name implies, this process constitutes an organization of operations that facilitate applied theory and a holistic framework that interlinks the many creative procedures involved in screen composition and production. It can be thought of as the physical, theoretical and spiritual embodiment of the sum total of knowledge of the art of film score composition. The research shows that the Collective Conceptualization process is, in itself, a coherent compositional methodology (for real-time/virtual or hybrid composers) because it provides a simplified framework within which the composer can work.

Collective Conceptualization is outlined in figure 2. Circle A represents the kind of music and thoughts of the appropriate sonic sources, and precedes the thematic ideas and awareness of instrumentation typical in B. Circle C represents the development and application of harmony and thoughts on

4 A virtual instrument in the context of this study, is any musical sound where the originating source cannot be seen e.g. a software synthesizer or software-based sample playback.

6 sonic modelling in preparation for the mock-up, while D represents the intermediate form, where judgement and formative evaluation occur.

A. IDEA • inspiration • abstract foregathering of sonic sources B. THEME • repertoire of compositional devices G. FINAL FORM • instrumentation, tonal and sonic thoughts, production modelling • personal cognition Film • determine appropriateness F. PRODUCE C. DEVELOPMENT • harmony • record • sonic images • mix, master • modiication • evaluate Score • mockup

E. DEVELOPMENT OR MODIFICATION D. INTERMEDIATE FORM • evaluation • constraints on form • timings, sync • establish production goals • general tonal and stylistic • integration knowledge, technical options • production techniques

Figure 2. Graphic interpretation of Collective Conceptualization

The two bottom circles are closely linked because E represents the technical development of production techniques and integration as a result of modifications performed after the formative evaluation process performed in D. This is effectively the last stage in the process where goal alteration can occur. Circle F is the result of the integration all of the elements into the production master, and represents the crucial post-production process. The graphic in figure 2 is a rendering of the likely processes, and the sub- processes may vary greatly depending on the individual project and circumstances. It is, however, a valid characterisation of the holistic nature of the conceptualization and compositional structure of the score for Ménilmontant.

7 The genesis of Collective Conceptualization is the conceptual space: on one hand, the inspirational perception of musical thoughts (figure 2, Circle A) and on the other, cognition of sonic images. (Circle G) Crucially, both circles interlink and I found myself focussing on this relationship during the composition phase of the score for Ménilmontant. Where, on earlier projects, my thoughts were centred on the next phase in the scoring operation, using Collective Conceptualization allows a ‘view from above’ so to speak. This is a major departure from the traditional linear model shown in figure 1.

Collective Conceptualization influences the artistic decisions made by film score composers at the root level because foremost in the composer’s mind is the overall sonic impression they want to create; that is, the realisation of the completed film score. Film score composers working on high budget films have an almost limitless choice with regard to real or virtual instrumentation, so it is imperative that, early in the conceptualization phase, they form a solid perception of the sonic palette they desire. Conversely, those film score composers working on low budget films probably have a limited palette of real and/or virtual instrumentation with which to work, and one could argue that these composers develop their sense of Collective Conceptualization with an emphasis on drawing out the maximum amount of tonal colours from their sonic palette.

The process of Collective Conceptualization demands that the film score composer has intimate knowledge of each practical and theoretical facet of the array of real and virtual instrumentation available to them and that they have established ways that allow them to integrate these instruments into a sonic palette in preparation for composing a musical work. Many contemporary film score composers can be identified as much for their sonic palette as for their compositional style, and two of the composers that will be studied, Thomas Newman and Hans Zimmer, remain ensconced as much- copied film score composers well known for their integration of virtual and real instrumentation.

8 In order to document the impact of technology on the creative process of film scoring it is necessary to review the work of selected 20th and 21st century film composers and their methods. As an integral part of the framework for this project resides in the development of a cogent structure for the interpretation of these trends, these methodologies will be divided into two main groups: Real Time Models and Virtual/Hybrid Models. The current study discusses significant film scores composed using these methods in later chapters, but necessarily begins with an examination of music from the silent film era.

1. 6 Overview of Chapters

Each chapter begins with an explanation of specific terms and definitions used, background information and if necessary, practical considerations relative to the subject matter. There is also a justification of how and why the information contained in each chapter impacts on the art of screen composition and how these combined forces help to validate the notion of Collective Conceptualization.

Chapter 1 – Introduction – begins with opening prologue including an overview of the aims and outputs and critical framework for the project. It provides an explanation of the reasons for choosing Ménilmontant and gives an overview of some of the challenges to be faced as well as a preview of the findings.

Chapter 2 – Silent Film Precedents – begins with the definition of silent film and a study of the scores used in silent film, including the process of re- scoring silent films (such as the process used on Ménilmontant). This chapter focuses on the composers Carl Davis and Richard Einhorn and looks at each composer’s aesthetic approach to re-scoring with regard to culture, style and historical accuracy. It also determines the extent to which the composers integrate real and/or virtual instrumentation into the production of their scores and comments on the outcomes of the examples studied. Finally, it considers the aesthetic choices the composers faced, and why they chose the paths that they took.

9 Chapter 3 – Significant Silent Films – opens with an overview of early projection systems used in silent films from the 1890s and looks at the earliest ‘Moving Picture Music’ before examining the scores of landmark silent films from the early twentieth century. It focuses particularly on each score’s structural coherence, the relationship with concert music of the day, and their use of musical devices that were in common use (such as the leitmotif, sequence and repetition). In the summary, historical precedents in the art of silent film scoring and their bearing in relation to Collective Conceptualization are identified and discussed.

Chapter 4 – Significant Films Score with Real-Time Models – comments on film score composition from the late 1920s through to the 1960s with an emphasis on the transformation from silent to sound films and the scope of sonic options available to Golden Era composers. It includes an outline of a prototypical music department setup and scoring stratagem as operated at that time as well as analyses of three influential film scores. The Collective Conceptualization process for them, stopped at the recording studio because it was, in effect, merely a documentary space. It concludes that these composers placed the emphasis on the traditional musical elements, as they were primarily concerned with acoustic instrumentation.

Chapter 5 – Significant Films Scored with Hybrid/Virtual Models – introduces the notion of Collective Conceptualization as applied to the Hybrid/Virtual film scoring model and the methodology used by various 21st century composers. It explores the concept of the multi-faceted conceptual model that is used by composers to manage the many processes brought about by technological advancements in film score production, such as SBOS and virtual instrumentation. It also includes analyses of two recent scores by Hans Zimmer and Thomas Newman and their Conceptual Conceptualization with regard to instrumentation, collaboration and improvisation. It concludes that Collective Conceptualization shifts the musical emphasis from a model existing purely as one of composition, appropriateness and instrumentation, to a model where the sonic palette is also an essential component to be mastered.

10 Chapter 6 – Ménilmontant – begins by quantifying the real and virtual instrumentation used within the score for Ménilmontant, and provides a practical and in-depth explanation of the architecture of virtual instruments and SBOS as they operate within the digital audio workstation (or DAW). Following this, there is a synopsis of the film and an explanation of the aesthetic approach taken in the score. The chapter includes analyses of cues and comparisons with scores studied in earlier chapters. It finds that Collective Conceptualization can help composers by nurturing, facilitating and realising creativity. By taking the view that each stage of the film scoring process is intimately interconnected, film score practitioners can foregather and integrate resources from their conceptual space, within a framework that inspires creativity and clarity of thought. It finds that that the score for Ménilmontant was produced using a culmination of techniques used by the composers within this study, but predictably with an emphasis on the methods of Newman and Zimmer. It concludes that the arrival of digital technology and virtual instruments has had the effect of simplifying the compositional aspect of film scoring for some composers.

Chapter 7 – Summary – summarises the impact of technology on the creative process using real and virtual compositional strategies employed on Ménilmontant and the range of films studied. The chapter also revisits the research questions and comments on the success of the aims and objectives of the project.

Chapter 8 – Conclusion – considers the findings and interprets the results. The project is discussed in terms of the implications of the findings for future film scoring methodologies and indicates the overall importance of the research. Finally, recommendations for future practice and research are given.

The study finds that technology has had a marked effect on the way screen composers approach their craft, and that they can benefit from the transition away from a linear operation, to the holistic process employed by Collective Conceptualization. The research undertaken clarifies the ways in which

11 screen composing methodologies have evolved and identifies ways to assimilate and further develop these processes. Using the silent film, Ménilmontant as a canvas on which to explore these possibilities, the score was produced using methodologies based on the Collective Conceptualization processes used by the composers studied.

The findings also indicate that hybrid scores can and do, in the hands of skilful practitioners, fulfil the same functions as real-time scores and that future film score composers need to come to terms with the intellectual processes (Collective Conceptualization) required to transverse the profusion of technology associated with film score composition and production.

12 2 SILENT FILM RE-SCORING PRECEDENTS

2. 1 Definition

For the purposes of this study the term silent film re-scoring refers to the practice of composing new film score music for a silent film that is already in existence, whether the film was originally released with an accompanying music score or not. The term is not to be confused with the term silent film restoring or restoration that refers to the ongoing process of film preservation (that can also include the rescoring of music). Some silent film re-scoring projects feature silent films that were originally released with music commissioned by the filmmakers. In such cases, the rescoring composer may need to blend new music with the existing score.

2. 2 Background

The re-scoring of silent films has become popular in recent years, thanks to the efforts of film scholars, and the revivalism and interest in the history and

Film Year of Composer Year of Re- Release Score 1922 Peter Schirmann 1969 Nosferatu 1922 Wolfgang Thiel 1977 Napoléon 1927 Carmine 1980 La Passion de Jeanne d’ 1928 Ole Schmidt 1982 Arc Metropolis 1927 1983 Intolerance 1916 Antoine Duhamel & Pierre Jansen 1986 The Diamond Ship 1920 Gaylord Carter 1986 The Golden Lake 1919 Gaylord Carter 1987 The Ten Commandments 1923 Gaylord Carter 1987 Hot Water 1924 Adrian Johnstone 1994 La Passion de Jeanne d’ 1928 Richard Einhorn 1994 Arc Nosferatu 1922 1997 Metropolis 1927 Berndt Huppertz 2002 Earth 1930 Jan Kopinski 2004 Battleship Potemkin 1925 Neil Tennant 2004 Nosferatu 1922 Bernardo Uzeda 2006 La Passion de Jeanne d’ 1928 2007 Arc

Figure 3. Sample List of Re-scored Silent Films5

5 Cooke, 39, 40.

13 preservation of silent film on the part of film historians. Helping to fuel this is the popularity of experimental live cinema (often electronic) and improvised (often -based) performances to accompany silent film screenings. Figure 3 shows some significant silent films that have been re-scored. The list is not exhaustive; the La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc (1928) score by Victor Alix and Leo Pouget has also been subject to reconstructions such as the one by Gillian Anderson and Dennis James in 1979.6

In the late 1970s, coinciding with technical advancements in television and video formats, production companies began commissioning new scores for restored silent films. One such company, began the task of restoring over thirty films using the talents of composer, Carl Davis.

2. 3 Carl Davis

One of the more celebrated exponents of the re-scoring of silent film is American composer Carl Davis. Born in 1936 in New York, Davis made a major contribution to the genre by re-scoring a series of silent films for the critically acclaimed documentary project named Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980).7 Given his stature in the field, there is a strong rationale for the evaluation of his work and strengths and weaknesses in terms of both historical precedent – the work of other film score composers from the silent era – and current practice.

Being mindful of the lessons that can be learned from the composers studied in following chapters (including Saint-Saëns, Satie, Waxman and Herrmann) the intention is to show how Davis has approached the re-scoring of silent films from an aesthetic standpoint. That is, how factors such as culture, historical background and technical restrictions affected his musical

6 Cooke, 38. 7 Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film, dir. and David Gill (USA: Thames Television, 1980).

14 decision-making. This is done with the view to highlighting how others have faced the challenge of re-scoring a silent film.

With these challenges in mind, I intend to demonstrate what I have learned from studying the composing methodology of Davis and others. I have been able to identify the aesthetic criteria on which composers base their musical choices, and these have in turn informed my own decision-making processes. For example, in a filmed interview for Philharmonia Orchestra8 concerning the 1996 re-scoring of The Phantom of the (1925),9 Davis explains the aesthetic rationale behind his score:

The setting is an Opera House, in this case the Paris Opera and in this film, they seem to have only one opera in their repertoire, which is Gounod’s Faust. So that in itself is quite interesting because you say well, is the Phantom then to be equated to Méphistophélès? You know, should he sing with his music? Then I decided that he really wasn’t the devil and that it couldn’t be all Gounod from start to finish, that there had to be other music, which in the end was my music, which would chime in with the Faust, (music) would feel that it would at least belong to the same world, but that in himself he was not all evil. And so there had to be some redeeming features which the music would show.

Establishing from the very beginning, there was a minor key, dramatic doom-laden motif which was going to be his revenge on mankind for his terrible disfigurement. Then there was going to be the other side, his need for love, his pleading for love so there is this lyric thing that we associate through the film with the Phantom, and those are the principle two (motifs) that the whole score is built out of.

Here, Davis reveals that he is concerned with creating a score sympathetic to the original Gounod opera, rather than aiming for contrast, though he

8 Carl Davis, The Phantom of the Opera, Philharmonia Orchestra. http://www.philharmonia.co.uk/thesoundexchange/backstage/podcasts/phantom_ opera/ (accessed 10 May 2012). 9 The Phantom of the Opera, dir. Rupert Julian, with Lon Chaney, Mary Philbin (USA: , 1996).

15 mentions that ‘there had to be other music.’ In other words, when faced with the issue of historical accuracy versus his interpretation of the story and aesthetic choices, Davis makes the decision to faithfully try to recreate the musical style of the period. It is also significant that he builds the majority of the score on the two contrasting leitmotifs – using a methodology that can be traced back to Wagner and, more recently, and others. As the excitement builds, Davis skilfully merges passages of his own music with the original Gounod score to create a complementary opus.

When asked how his approach for scoring silent films differed from that of contemporary films, Davis observes:

Film Year of Release Year of Re- IMDB Rating score Intolerance 1916 1989 8.0 Broken Blossoms 1919 1983 7.6 The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse 1921 1993 7.8 Safety Last! 1923 1990 8.3 Our Hospitality 1923 1984 8.0 The Thief of Bagdad 1924 1984 7.7 Greed 1924 1986 8.1 The Phantom of the Opera 1925 1996 7.7 The Big Parade 1925 1988 8.3 The Eagle 1925 1985 7.4 Ben Hur – A Tale of the Christ 1925 1987 8.0 1926 1988 7.9 1926 1985 6.9 The General 1926 1987 8.4 The Kid Brother 1927 1990 7.9 Napoléon 1927 1980 7.8 The Student in Old Heidelberg 1927 1986 7.7 The Crowd 1928 1981 8.1 Speedy 1928 1992 7.7 Show People 1928 1982 8.1 The Wind 1928 1983 8.2 A Woman of Affairs 1928 1983 7.6 The Iron Mask 1929 1999 7.4

Figure 4. List of Silent Films Rescored by Carl Davis10

10 Internet Movie Database, ‘Carl Davis’ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0002301/ (accessed 8 May 2012).

16 I think that the music for a silent film has to be far more graphic because you must remember that, in a contemporary film, a soundtrack is shared three ways. You may have music under dialogue or sound effects, competing with these so you always have to be careful it will balance out. When dealing with the silent film, you are the complete sound picture. There’s nothing else. You have to make the dialogue. Make everyone think they are hearing the people speak, that they’re hearing the sound effects.11

Davis’ comment, made in 1996, is even more relevant now given the increased use of sound design and ambient soundscapes in contemporary film. The contemporary film-goer has been ‘sound conditioned’ and as Mervyn Cooke notes, ‘Sound effects still dominate the final mix and drown out music cues.’12

Commentators generally have positive views with regard to Davis’ re-scored films. Peter Kobel, author of Silent Movies: The Birth of Film and the Triumph of Movie Culture speaking of Davis’ re-score for Napoléon13 (1980) describes it as a ‘massive, impressive score’14 and for his work on The Crowd,15 (1981) ‘taken great care in matching (the) music to period styles.’16 Commenting on Davis’ rescoring of Napoléon, Cooke says Davis: ‘received a standing ovation at the première,’ and ‘continued his popular success in the field.’17 Davis’ contribution to contemporary film and television scoring is also extensive, with over 160 works including the Oscar-nominated The

11 Luc Van de Ven and David Hirsch, ‘An Interview with Carl Davis.’ Soundtrack Magazine 15. 58 (1996), 2. 12 Cooke, 496. 13 Napoléon, dir. (France: Ciné France Films, 1927). 14 Peter Kobel, Silent Movies: The Birth of Film and the Triumph of Movie Culture (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2007), 277. 15 The Crowd, dir. (USA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1928). 16 Kobel, 262.

17 Cooke, 39.

17 French Lieutenant’s Woman.18 (1981) Also not to be overlooked is his skill as an arranger, orchestrator and conductor with the live cinema performances recognized in his 2003 BAFTA Special Lifetime Achievement Award for his contribution to the world of film and television music.

Notwithstanding the success of his work, the underlying issue here with relevance to this study is that Davis, a traditionalist composer, employs the Real-Time model of film scoring. Nowhere in my research have I discovered the use of hybrid or virtual instrumentation in his scores, even though he has been prolific from the 1980s until the present. From the point of view of aesthetics, he stands among the composers featured in the chapter on Real- Time composers – many of them were active during the 1930s through to the 1960s – and presumably has taken the view that texturally, he is content dealing with the conventions and sonic outputs of the orthodox acoustic orchestra.

However, at least with regard to his work on re-scoring silent films, Davis has taken the conformist approach and has put in place stylistic boundaries consistent with those of his predecessors – the composers of the original scores – even though he has access to the virtual methodologies outlined in the introduction. In many cases, such as in situations where the new score must blend in with the original underscore and historical accuracy is a major contributing factor, he has no choice but to observe those conventions, but in other films where consolidation of the score is not an issue, he also conforms to the same aesthetic approach.

18 The French Lieutenant’s Woman, dir. Karel Reisz (USA: Juniper Films, 1981).

18 2. 4 Richard Einhorn’s Voices of Light – the Rescoring of Carl Theodor Dreyer’s La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc (1928)19

The Danish director Carl Theodor Dreyer was born in Copenhagen in 1889 and made only fourteen films between 1919 (The President)20 and 1964 (Gertrud).21 Considered a true artisan among filmmakers, he started his working life as a journalist before moving into scriptwriting and directing. Dreyer wrote or co-wrote nearly all of the films he directed, and built his reputation by making psychologically engaging films that fused space with experimental camera work and stylized set design.22

Dreyer shot La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc in Paris between 1927 and 1928, and as such it ranks as one of the last great films of the silent era. Dreyer was a perfectionist by nature, as Tom Milne notes,

As usual, Dreyer approached the project by making extensive preparations, so that the film took a year and a half to complete from conception to final cut: the costumes were exhaustively researched, details of everyday life in the Middle Ages were copied from the illuminations in a medieval manuscript, as were the vast, incredibly solid sets.23

Dreyer shot the film in strict sequence – a severe burden on the actors and crew, who spent months traversing various locations. Actors were forbidden to wear makeup. As Richard Abel notes:

For the bloodletting sequence that follows Jeanne’s fainting in the torture chamber, Dreyer even had a doctor actually draw blood.

19 La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc, dir. Carl Dreyer (France: Société Générale des Films, 1928). 20 The President, dir. Carl Dreyer (Sweden: Nordisk Film, 1919). 21 Gertrud, dir. Carl Dreyer (Denmark: Palladium Film, 1964). 22 David Bordwell, The Films of Carl-Theodor Dreyer (: University of Press, 1981), 37. 23 Tom Milne, The Cinema of Carl Dreyer (New York: A.S. Barnes and Co, 1971), 94.

19 Falconetti, especially, gave herself up to Jeanne’s dilemma, undergoing unusual physical and psychological hardship. In the climactic sequence of head shaving, her agony was shared by the entire cast and crew.24

The following is an excerpt (taken from the intertitles in the introduction) from the 1985 restoration in the Criterion Collection 1999 release of the film by Cinémathèque Française, featuring the music of Richard Einhorn (b. 1952). The comments establish the authenticity of the modern French version of the film. 25

La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc was the victim of several ordeals. Censored before its release in 1928, the original negative was soon destroyed by fire. A second negative reedited by Dreyer from alternate takes was also thought lost to fire. For more than half a century, this great classic of silent film was known only in mutilated copies, or in a sonorized version which made numerous changes to the original. Then, in 1981, an original Danish copy, complete and in very good condition, was miraculously discovered in the closet of a Norwegian mental institution. Thanks to the aid of Ib Monty, Director of the Danish Film Museum, and of Maurice Drouzy, who re-established the French text, the Cinémathèque Française has been able to reconstitute this French version, probably very close to the original.

David Cook explains that Dreyer’s film, ‘was seriously flawed by the insertion of dialogue titles at crucial positions within the narrative and would have profited immensely from a recorded soundtrack.’26 Although Dreyer intended for the film to be shot with sound, the operation was abandoned when problems with the supply of the necessary audio equipment hampered the production. There is no evidence to show that Dreyer ever selected a definitive score for the film, although at the film’s premiere it was accompanied with a selection of music performed live.

24 Richard Abel, French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915-1929 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 488. 25 The Passion of Joan of Arc, dir. Carl Dreyer. DVD (USA: Criterion Collection PAS 050, 1999). 26 David Cook, A History of Narrative Film (New York: Norton, 2004), 266.

20

Richard Einhorn wrote the Voices of Light in 1993 with the libretto taken primarily from and the texts of female medieval writers, including Joan of Arc herself. Einhorn was drawn to compose the score for the film because he had become

very interested in developing a large piece about a religious subject. I was not looking for a way to make a polemical statement about my own religious beliefs. Rather, I wished to create an aesthetic “space” where an audience could perhaps re-examine its own feelings and beliefs, perhaps change them, perhaps not.27

Many of the texts used in the libretto were originally written in Latin and Medieval French and Einhorn ensured that those that were in English were translated to preserve the liturgical context. From the earliest days of the Roman church Gregorian chant has been the supreme model for the expression of unity and worship within the clergy – to place the liturgy in the context of the transcendent and eternal. Einhorn composed sacred chants that closely follow Gregorian form and preserve its aesthetic approach – including travelling to Joan’s hometown church in Domremy and sampling the church bell – to be used in later live performances of the work.

Einhorn’s approach to the score for La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc was to take into account the historical sound world of the period in which the film was set and to recreate as accurately as possible his perceptions of the musical landscape as it would have existed in the fifteenth century. Evidence to support this theory lies in the painstaking research of the collage of historical texts – the title itself inspired from the voices Joan heard in her head – and Einhorn’s musical choices of instrumentation; the use of medieval chant, the

27 Richard Einhorn, ‘A Conversation with Richard Einhorn’, Richard Einhorn Productions (New York, 2011). http://www.richardeinhorn.com/vol/VOLRichardInterview.HTML (accessed 7 November 2012).

21 inclusion of the church bell sample and the use of a small orchestra to complement the chorus and soloists. The performers consist of:

• 2 Flutes, 2 Oboes • Strings (minimum 30 strings, more preferred) • Digital Sampler (for the Domremy church bell samples) • Chorus (SATB, minimum 30, more preferred) • 4 vocal soloists (SATB) 28

There is further evidence to support Einhorn’s approach in the following transcription from Voices of Light. The composer uses the Phrygian mode commonly used by Medieval and Renaissance composers, such as Josquin des Prez, Orlando di Lasso, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Cipriano de Rore. Einhorn also makes use of the viola de gamba in cue 7 (20:37:00), where the judges try to trick Jeanne into signing a confession that the voices she heard were that of the devil and not from God.

In cue 14 (46:19:00) the church bell from Domremy is played as Jeanne begins to comprehend her fate and she refuses to take Communion. The composer also arranged Jeanne’s texts to be sung by both sopranos and altos, because he did not want to make assumptions about Jeanne’s voice range. Einhorn’s musical, historical and technical choices and overall attention to detail creates a score that although harmonically simple, reflects the gravity and implications of Jeanne’s decisions and the horrific fate decided for her by a corrupt and misogynist court. From the beginning, it was the composer’s intention to produce a score that reflected something of his own religious beliefs. As a result, an abstract synchronicity exists between the narrative and the music, that is, the score operates under its own organic flow and is unburdened by the technicality of hit points and/or timed cue points.

28 Einhorn, 2011.

22

Figure 5. Score excerpt (02:25:00) from Voices of Light composed by Richard Einhorn in the 1999 Criterion Collection release of Carl Theodor Dreyer’s 1928 film, La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc.29

29 Except where noted, transcriptions are the work of the author.

23 While Einhorn shares some aesthetic ideals with Carl Davis – for example both men are adept at faithfully recreating the musical style for the period films they are scoring – it is Einhorn’s willingness and confidence to integrate technology into his workflow that sets him apart from Davis. Einhorn placed a great deal of importance on the church bell in Voices of Light. So much so that he travelled to Domremy, to the same church that Joan attended as a child, in order to digitally record the bell for use in the recording session and also for the future live performances. He placed as much importance on this process as he did researching and translating the medieval texts for the libretto. Einhorn later remarked, ‘Since the sound of bells had triggered Jeanne’s voices, I thought that it was only fitting to have them in my piece.’30 That being the case, many technically savvy composers would simply use a commercially available church bell sample and others still might use some type of bell or chime in its place.

Einhorn took an intellectual approach with regard to the musical artefacts (for example, the mystic texts, the use of Phrygian mode seen in figure 5, the inclusion of the church bell) in the score for La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc. That approach reflects the shifting dynamic between the physical and virtual studio referred to in the introduction and is a clear example of the composer utilizing the Collective Conceptualization process.

Because of the inclusion of digital samples, the score for La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc cannot be placed into the category of a real-time score. It is clear that Einhorn integrated the physical workspace (the studio) and computer technology to include the church bell. Einhorn does mention that:

Back in my project studio, I programmed my synthesizers for the orchestral palette I was going to use: chorus and solo voices, strings, flutes, and oboes. I also had the bell available on my sampler. I write on a computer with a group of programs that does for music composing what a word processor does for text. It's difficult to set up (I have 13

30 Einhorn, 2011.

24 synths connected to my Mac!) but once it's all working, it's like having an infinitely patient orchestra in your house.31

There is no evidence to suggest that Einhorn included portions of the SBOS on the final recording, (apart from the Domremy church bell), preferring instead to make use of the Netherlands Radio Orchestra and . The producers of the 2004 version of the film share this insightful comment on Einhorn’s contribution in the film’s prelude:

We feel that Richard Einhorn’s Voices of Light adds an extra dimension to Dreyer’s film, and that both works benefit from being presented together. Not actually a score, but rather music inspired by the film, Einhorn’s work interweaves medieval texts and original music to comment on both the legend of Joan and Dreyer’s depiction of her.32

Einhorn’s Voices of Light has been performed live in synchronization with La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc over two hundred times around the world to great critical acclaim, and is attracting modern audiences who I believe, appreciate the combination of authenticity and modern recontextualization evident in the score.

This chapter has looked at precedents for the rescoring of silent film, and considered the aesthetic choices the composers have faced, and why they chose the paths that they took. The intention is to map the methods that the composers have used against the Collective Conceptualization methods I have chosen to compose the score for Ménilmontant. To contextualize this process, chapter 3 will look at significant silent film scores from the early 20th century, and the film scoring methodologies and trends in place at that time.

31 Einhorn, 2011. 32 The Passion of Joan of Arc, dir. Carl Dreyer, 1999.

25 3 SIGNIFICANT SILENT FILM SCORES

3. 1 Definition

For the purposes of this study a silent film score is defined as the accompanying musical score for a film that was produced before the emergence of the sound to image synchronisation process in the late 1920s. (The term ‘silent’ is somewhat misleading in this context. Isabelle Raynauld argues that ‘even if films were projected without integrated synchronous sound, the presumed silent stories told were actually happening in a sound world and not in a “deaf world.” In other words, silent stories took place, intra- and extra-diegetically, in a hearing world.’)33 Therefore, the term ‘silent film’ connotes a film where there is no synchronized soundtrack.

3. 2 Background

Many so-called silent films had some form of accompanying soundscape originating from a wide selection of sources broadly categorised as being either live performances or mechanical reproductions. As early as the 1890s, projection systems such as the , Vitascope, the Biograph and the Cinématographe went hand in hand with mechanical music systems such as Edison’s Kinetophone Gramophone and Phonograph,34 as well as player (pianolas) like Wurlitzer’s PianOrchestra.35 In many theatres live piano music was the accompaniment of choice, mainly because pianists of all styles were readily available. Classical pianists were a logical choice because of their familiarity with repertoire that suited melodramatic films. There were

33 Isabelle Raynauld, ‘Dialogues in Early Silent Sound Screenplays: What Actors Really Said’, in Richard Abel and Rick Altman (eds.), The Sounds of Early Cinema (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2001), 69. 34 Rick Altman, Silent Film Sound (New York: Press, 2004), 78- 81. 35 Altman, 128.

26 however, many pianists who played ragtime, popular songs, folk music and capable of masterful improvisation or ‘playing to pictures’ for comedies and other period films.36

Although musical scores composed for specific films did exist, the introduction of cue sheets in 1907 (commercially available musical ‘suggestions’) such as the ‘Sam Fox Moving Picture Music’ (see figure 6) marked the beginning of the era when producers expressed a collective desire for the score to interact and connect with the film’s storyline, character, emotion and the narrative content.

Figure 6. Cover and Contents page of The Sam Fox Moving Picture Music Photoplay Edition37

36 Martin Miller Marks, Music and the Silent Film: Contexts and Case Studies, 1895- 1924 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 9. 37 J.S. Zamecnik, Moving Picture Music Volume 2 (New York: Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1913), 1-2.

27 While scores for many films from this period were assembled using the music of a wide variety of romantic composers and pre-prepared folios such as seen above, this chapter focuses on films of the era that used scores that were specifically commissioned by the filmmakers.

3. 3 L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise (1908) 38

In 1908, the then seventy-seven year old Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921) composed the score for the French film L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise.39 Saint-Saëns’s involvement is significant because it marks the first time that a recognised composer wrote a specially commissioned score, and stands as the beginning of the period where the process of pre-composing music specifically to accompany film began to gather momentum.40 The eighteen- minute drama tells of the 1588 assassination of the Henry, the Duke of Guise, by France’s King Henry III.

In contrast to the other scores discussed in this chapter, Saint-Saëns composed music in a series of tableaux (with corresponding inter-titles) numbered from I – VI (I being the introduction) that closely follow the structure of the film. Saint-Saëns was meticulous with regard to precise timings and specific hit points yet these are juxtaposed with thematic transformations that support the narrative. Although each tableaux is distinct in meter and key, the themes within the tableaux are constructed so that they can be re-stated within other tableaux, often without transitions.

Commenting on the innovation of the composer’s methodology, Royal S. Brown suggests:

38 L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise, dir. André Calmettes and Charles Le Bargy (France: Pathé Frères, 1908). 38 Marks, 50. 40 Michael Temple and Michael Witt, The French Cinema Book (London: BFI Publishing, 2004), 13.

28 Indeed, in listening to much of the score, one often has the impression of an accompaniment for an unsung opera, while the climactic moments that back up the assassination remarkably foreshadow film-music tropes still in use.41

The Saint-Saëns score for L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise was a milestone on a number of levels:

1. It was the first film score for a silent film that navigated through the intricacies of the plot, while providing an extra structural strand (the tableaux concept) to enhance continuity; 2. The score featured precise cues synchronized to the on-screen action as well as examples of ‘playing through’ the drama using meter, tempo and modulations to phrase the scene; 42 3. The score was critically acclaimed as a stand-alone symphonic work.

Saint-Saëns was a veteran concert, opera, theatre and ballet composer and his score for Javott, composed in 1896 was also written using the same functional tableaux system he later used in L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise. Remarkably, Saint-Saëns was able to utilize the tableaux system in a (what is now) conventional underscoring role that was totally determined by the on- screen drama, at the same time constructing a large-scale and autonomous concert work.

The score is also notable in that (possibly for the first time on film) the composer tracked even minor emotional shifts on screen and responded with changes in musical colour and timbre rather than ‘mickey-mousing,’43

41 Royal S. Brown, Overtones and Undertones: Reading Film Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 53. 42 and Rayburn Wright, On The Track: A Guide to Contemporary Film Scoring, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2004), 154. 43 ‘Mickey-Mousing’ is the name give to a technique where the underscore is perfectly synchronized with on-screen action and movement.

29 although the score does contain segments that are carefully cued with on- screen movements.

Film critic Aldolphe Brisson in his review for Le Temps newspaper commented: ‘Saint-Saëns has written for L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise a masterpiece of symphonic music.’44 James Wierzbicki concurs, stating that Saint-Saëns’ score ‘is a substantive composition that removed from its filmic context still generously rewards any listener’s attention.’45

For Mervyn Cook the innovative nature of Saint-Saëns’ methodology:

showed how structural coherence could articulate the drama across relatively broad time-spans, and it proved to be prophetic of the later mainstream film composer’s art. Prophetic too was Saint-Saëns’ decision to recycle his film music for concert use.46

The European success of L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise and the practise of contracting composers to write specialized scores for film influenced the globally. As such the concept was gradually implemented into the mainstream film production process during the next ten years.

3. 4 Birth of a Nation (1915)47

The landmark three-hour epic film Birth of a Nation contained compiled music cues from other composers including Beethoven, Wagner and Weber, and it is significant in the context of this study because the original music for the film, composed by Joseph Breil, (1870-1926) was commissioned by producer/director D.W. Griffith. It was a provocative and controversial film (originally titled The Clansmen) due to images portraying African Americans

44 Adolphe Brisson, ‘Chronique Theatrale’, Le Temps (23 November 1908), 1. 45 James Wierzbicki, Film Music: A History (New York: Routledge, 2008), 42. 46 Cooke, 14. 47 Birth of a Nation, dir. D.W. Griffith (USA: David W. Griffith Corp., 1915).

30 as primitives and publicising the Klu Klux Klan. The score, over half of which was original music composed by Breil, contains over two hundred music cues.48 Griffith himself is credited with Breil for producing the score. It is clear however that Breil was the composer and that Griffith, as director, was passionately involved in the score’s production, and collaborated with Breil in placing the pre-existing music.

His score for Birth of a Nation has been analysed extensively, particularly his use of the ‘Motif of Barbarism’49 (see figure 7) that reoccurs throughout the film. The origin of the motif has been credited to Griffith himself, who vaguely recalled the melody from his childhood that was spent on a plantation and listening to black folk music.50

Figure 7. Piano reduction of Breil’s ‘Motif of Barbarism’51

48 Cooke, 24. 49 Jane Gaines and Neil Lerner, ‘The of Affect: The Motif of Barbarism in Breil’s The Birth of a Nation Score’, in Richard Abel and Rick Altman (eds.), The Sounds of Early Cinema (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2001), 255. 50 Gaines and Lerner, 254. 51 Marks, 113.

31 Many of the motifs in Breil’s score ultimately function as leitmotifs and this consequently drew comparisons to the work of Wagner and Saint-Saëns. (Wagner’s Ride of the Valkyries is itself used in the final scene as the Klu Klux Klan come to the aid of the ‘whites.’) The recurring ‘Motif of Barbarism’ associated with the threat of violence or oppression is one of the strengths of the score, excessively melodramatic though it may be. There are sections in the film where music cues are restated and seem incongruous with the on- screen action. That is, there are lengthy scenes where the score remains relatively static against the (silent) narrative. The intermittent lack of coherence was noted by Marks, who described Breil’s contribution as a ‘sprawling, kaleidoscopic pastiche . . . its pieces do not always fit together in a manner pleasing to the musician’s or music-lover’s ear.’52 Manvell et al go so far as to say that the score, musically speaking, ‘merits little attention today.’53

There is no doubt that the concept of a purpose-written score added to the film’s sense of realism and spectacle and contributed to its phenomenal success. Breil’s leitmotifs were a unifying factor, often functioning as transitional sequences among the balance of incidental, pre-existing music. By establishing a distinct theme for each of the main characters (such as the Motif of Barbarism for the Africans) Breil became one of the first film composers to present audiences with a musical cipher, which led to the work being hailed as a great achievement by his contemporaries.

3. 5 Entr’acte (1924)54

The short comic fantasy, Entr’acte, directed by René Clair, is significant because it was the first film score composed by an avant-garde composer. Stylistically, the film was a departure from the slapstick comedies and

52 Marks, 142-143. 53 Roger Manvell, John Huntley, and Peter Day, The Technique of Film Music (New York: Hastings House, 1975), 22. 54 Entr’acte, dir. René Clair (France: Les Ballets Suedois, 1924).

32 of the period. Twenty-six year old Clair used the camera to explore and experiment with the visual medium of film while exercising a healthy disrespect for the filmic conventions of the period, originating from vaudeville and the theatre. Erik Satie (1866-1925) composed the twenty- minute score for small orchestra to a montage that critic Noel Carroll described as a ‘coherent, purposively directed assault on the social practices and beliefs, the rationality, of the French bourgeois culture.’55

Satie used a modular structure also employed by composers such as Walter Simon and, later, Bernard Herrmann. Satie composed musical cells of four and eight bars in length that were placed in various groupings according to the on-screen action. In a letter written to Jean Cocteau (ca.1918) Satie referred to his functional underscore as furniture that supported the narrative:

What we want is to establish a music made to satisfy ‘useful’ needs. Art does not enter into this. ‘Furniture music’ creates a vibration: it has no other goal; it fills the same role as light and heat; as comfort in all its forms.56

Satie’s underscore rarely mimics the on-screen action, but rather, the modular approach creates a narrative flow between consistently divergent sequences. An example to illustrate this is at 00:02:20:00, (see figure 8) ‘Chimneys and Deflating Balloons’, and at 00:10:44:00 (funeral procession in slow motion), where scenes have nothing in common visually, yet Satie’s response was to use the same music cell for both scenes.

55 Richard Abel, French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915-1929 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984), 382. 56 Roger Shattuck, The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant-garde in France, 1885 – World War 1 (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), 169.

33

Figure 8. Piano Reduction of Satie’s ‘Chimneys, Deflating Balloons’.57

Using this approach, Satie exaggerates the light-hearted, abstract nature of the film; effectively unifying contrastive sequences that would otherwise have little to connect them. Even so, Satie manages to acknowledge the emotional shifts, and from the end of the funeral procession (00:13:20:00) through until the casket falls into the field, (00:18:35:00) the score takes on a more austere tone and each cell steadily builds in intensity and tempo before slowing again for the final scene.

Marks is of the view that ‘though [the score] does not interpret the narrative in a conventional manner, it does support the film, help to elucidate its structure, and extend its range of meanings. Deservedly, the music claims the foreground of our attention.’58 Satie used this compositional structure because of the dream-like, abstract nature of the film, in the knowledge that each musical cell would accompany several film sequences.

57 Marks, 173. 58 Marks, 170.

34 The modular cell structure used above in Satie’s Entr’acte is also present in Breil’s Birth of a Nation, and, as shall be discussed, I have used brief examples of this method in the score for Ménilmontant. Due to the absence of diegetic sound, and the influence of film’s artistic predecessors such as theatre and ballet with their dependence on musical traditions, many silent film scores were produced as full-length accompaniments. In cases where the film was long, and audiences had a half-time intermission (such was the case during Birth of a Nation), music cues were often restated after the intermission for cohesion, or to prompt the audience to recall an emotional connection with a place or character.

Although the aforementioned films vary stylistically, each film contains examples of underscore that is re-used for film sequences with contrasting emotional and narrative content. While this process is often used in contemporary film, it is noticeably more effective in scores for silent films because the absence of dialog and sound effects enables the viewer to rely solely on his or her auditory senses to grasp the narrative.

As part of the Collective Conceptualization process, historical precedents in the art of silent film scoring have been identified and discussed. With regard to composing the score for Ménilmontant, the intention is to find a balance between the filmic devices used by the silent film composers, and the methods used by the Real-Time composers in the next chapter. Having identified these devices, I can then apply them as I see fit, in order to find an aesthetic equilibrium between the historical and cultural preferences. Being mindful of the historical nature of Ménilmontant, I need to decide to what extent this will govern the aesthetic choices for the score.

35 4 SIGNIFICANT FILMS SCORED WITH REAL-TIME MODELS

This chapter considers the methodologies and outcomes of real-time screen composers and how these approaches contrast with those of the virtual/hybrid methods of the composers featured in chapter 5.

4. 1 Definition

For the purposes of this study the Real-Time Model is defined as a film score consisting of a method of music production whereby the composer, with the help of others, used the recording studio purely as a site where compositions and created elsewhere were recorded in real time, without the ability to overdub. This real-time approach generally involved minimal creative input, either from the musicians engaged to perform the score or the physical surrounds of the studio. The latter was effectively an inert space dedicated to documentation (that is, recording) rather than a site of creative exchange.

4. 2 Background

The transformation of the silent film format by way of the synchronization of the recorded soundtrack prompted huge investments in the sound recording revolution by the film studios in the late 1920s and early 1930s.59 It was now possible for film composers to record their film and have them permanently synchronized and fixed to the film. Even though this process was gradually refined, filmmakers had to be content with recording the music and sound simultaneously and it would not be until the mid 1930s that the

59 Cooke, 67.

36 scoring and recording process evolved and established itself as a sophisticated art form.60

All final audio masters for films produced during the period from the late 1920s through to the early 1960s were recorded in a single pass (multi-track recorders were not in use until the early 1960s). As such they followed the principles of the Real-Time model, even those scores that featured electronic instruments such as the , Ondes Martenot, and the Novachord. These, together with early incarnations of the synthesizer, were handled as analogue instruments and were recorded in real time.61

The Real-Time approach and its practices embodied the so-called ‘Golden Era’ of film. With film studios eager to capitalize on the popularity of the symphonic film score, the seemingly primitive recording processes that were part of the film production operations of the 1930s gave way to gradual technological innovations in sound recording and production. Each studio now had a music department consisting of an orchestra-in-residence, arrangers, orchestrators, copyists, music editors, recording engineers, mixing engineers and contracted composers, all of whom were responsible to the music director.62

The film studios favoured this system because it gave producers power over the composers. If for any reason the composer needed to be replaced, the producer was secure in the knowledge that the replacement score was still ‘manufactured’ by their own music department, amid familiar territory where they still had ultimate artistic control. Despite the asymmetrical makeup of the music department, this departmental structure gave composers the opportunity to access a wealth of musical resources and many of the

60 Mark Evans, Soundtrack: The Music of the Movies (New York: Da Capo Press, 1979), 22. 61 Cooke, 200. 62 Cooke, 70-71.

37 outstanding symphonic scores in cinematic history were produced during this period.

As the Real-Time symphonic, classical/neo-classical model came to be accepted as the standard format,63 art music composers such as Erich Korngold, and were lured to America from Europe.64 The prodigious compositional skills and rich harmonic idiom of the composers of this era is evident in the sheer scope and range of sound produced by the studio .

Despite the technical limitations of the recording process at the time, scores such as Franz Waxman’s The Bride of Frankenstein (1935),65 Erich Korngold’s Between Two Worlds (1944),66 ’s On the Waterfront (1954),67 Bernard Herrmann’s (1960),68 and Jerry Goldsmith’s Planet of the Apes (1968)69 all demonstrate the gamut of aesthetic approaches in use by film composers of the time.

4. 3 Practical Considerations

The typical scoring process started with a spotting session using a rough cut of the film with either the director, producer or both where the general musical direction of the film would be discussed in terms of style and placement of music within each cue. From there, the composer would begin to sketch out ideas for the score, usually working from typed cue sheets that included precise timings and descriptions of the on-screen action. A notable exception to this was Erich Korngold, who shunned the use of cue sheets and

63 Kathryn Kalinak, Settling the Score: Music and the Classical Hollywood Film (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison: Wisconsin, 1992), 78-79, 101. 64 Evans, 22. 65 The Bride of Frankenstein, dir. James Whale (USA: Universal Pictures, 1935). 66 Between Two Worlds, dir. Edward A. Blatt (USA: Warner Bros. Pictures, 1944). 67 On The Waterfront, dir. Elia Kazan (USA: Corporation, 1954). 68 Psycho, dir. (USA: Shamley Productions, 1960). 69 Planet of the Apes, dir. Franklin J. Schaffner (USA: APJAC Productions, 1968).

38 stopwatches, preferring instead to improvise musical sequences while viewing the rushes in the projection room.70

Upon completion of the score it was performed in the recording studio, where the orchestra’s performance was captured by recording engineers using either four or eight microphones, and then cut onto a wax or glass disc. Even though film composers possessed individual compositional approaches, this film score production template was used by the vast majority of studios from the earliest days of the film soundtrack.

From a practical standpoint, the Real-Time composer’s task was straightforward: to compose a narrative and aesthetically congruous score in consultation with the film’s director and producer. Despite the range of choices afforded by using the symphonic orchestra, the sonic options during this period are finite and directly linked to the pitch, timbre, rhythm and intensity produced by the individual instruments, as well as the technical performance strengths or limitations of the musicians within the orchestra.

As it is outside the scope of this study to list every significant film scored using the Real-Time model, I will concentrate on films I have examined that display the defining characteristics of this approach – particularly those mentioned in other research that have influenced the working methodologies of other film composers.

4. 4 King Kong (1933)71

The composer (1888-1971) was heavily influenced by the work of , and Steiner’s landmark score for King Kong was characterized by his use of the leitmotif. A child prodigy, having studied piano with Brahms, orchestration with Strauss and with Mahler,

70 Evans, 27. 71King Kong. dir. Merian Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack (USA: RKO Radio Pictures, 1933).

39 he attended the opening of his first opera in Vienna aged fourteen. His reputation as one of Hollywood’s finest film composers convinced director Merian Cooper to pay for a 46-piece orchestra with a budget of $50,000 (a figure unheard of at that time) and Steiner created a score that ranged from terrifying to sympathetic in tone. His earlier theatre work in Europe and subsequent experience orchestrating and composing Broadway musicals gave Steiner the perfect credentials to score the music for the film King Kong. The examples below show some of his leitmotifs for the main characters and events. The chromatic three-note motif for Kong facilitated contrapuntal use in other contexts throughout the film such as the finale, where it converges with the leitmotiv for Ann Darrow.

Figure 9. Steiner’s leitmotif for King Kong

Figure 10. Steiner’s leitmotif for Ann Darrow

Figure 11. Excerpt from Steiner’s ‘Meeting with Black Men’ cue.

In the ‘Meeting with Black Men’ cue, as the natives descend the steps toward the film crew, Steiner synchronizes their footsteps perfectly, and although the

40 underscore does not sound out of place, the ‘mickey-mousing’ of the drama seems stereotypical and conspicuous by today’s standards.

Perhaps not surprisingly, Steiner was something of a Luddite. As Richard Davis notes:

Although Steiner and others of the previous generation were often “genius” composers, they remained, for better or for worse, heavily rooted in 19th century music and somewhat uninterested or even opposed to newer musical styles. When asked to comment about contemporary music, Max Steiner said: ‘I have no criticism. I can’t criticise what I don’t understand.’72

The dramatic and adventurous score for King Kong was significant because, as Cooke notes, ‘it established a style and technique of scoring that was not only much imitated during the Golden Age, but continues to be reflected in mainstream narrative practices to the present day.’73 For example, in its chromatic simplicity Steiner’s leitmotif for Kong can be compared with Williams’ motif for a more modern monster in , and his use of parallel fourths to underscore scenes with ‘primitives’ influenced many scores of the adventure genre. It was his sensitivity to emotional content that enabled Steiner to phrase the drama while aesthetically framing the main characters with perfectly idiosyncratic motifs.

Although the score for King Kong was at the time considered groundbreaking in terms of its occasional dissonance and overall dynamism, there is no evidence to suggest that Steiner held ambitions to explore anything more than the established mainstream practices of the film-scoring process. Steiner was one of the most successful and in-demand film composers working in Hollywood during the 30s and 40s, and his statements confirm

72 Richard Davis, Complete Guide to Film Scoring: the Art and Business of Writing Music for Movies and TV (Boston: Berklee Press, 2010), 36. 73 Cooke, 88.

41 that he was content to compose within the boundaries of the classical Viennese idioms learned throughout his formative years.

4. 5 Citizen Kane (1941)74

Bernard Herrmann’s influential, neo-romantic score for Citizen Kane, his first film score, directed by , has been the subject of many studies. But it is Herrmann’s (1911-1975) fascination with sound and instrumental timbre that set him apart from other composers. His earlier experience composing and orchestrating music (which sometimes included sound effects and electronic sound) for radio plays at CBS in the 1930s gave him the opportunity to experiment with various timbral combinations while refining his compositional technique.

It is Herrmann’s unorthodox choice of instrumentation and combination of timbres as well as a highly developed narrative sense that characterise his work. His use of low brass and woodwinds to create eeriness was in itself not new, having been used in by Monteverdi, Rossini, Mozart and others, yet his contrastive, stylized use of this technique can be seen in his film scores right through to in 1976. 75

Herrmann used specific clusters of instruments in order to produce the dark, non-melodic leitmotif associated with Charles Foster Kane’s destiny, his abuse of power and privilege. As Herrmann pointed out:

The short phrase is easier to follow for audiences, who listen with only half an ear … The reason I don’t like this tune business is that a tune has to have eight or sixteen bars, which limits a composer. Once you start, you’ve got to finish – eight or sixteen bars. Otherwise the audience doesn’t know what the hell it’s all about.76

74 Citizen Kane. dir. Orson Welles (USA: Mercury Productions, 1941). 75 Taxi Driver, dir. (USA: Columbia Pictures Corporation, 1976). 76 Smith, 78.

42 Accordingly, Herrmann’s Citizen Kane score included the musical devices he had used in his radio-scoring career – he composed short phrases and made use of silence in many transitions. Of major significance to this study are Herrmann’s aesthetic choices in terms of his unique orchestral combinations, which he justified as follows:

Since a film score is only written for one performance, I could never see the logic in making a rule of the standard symphony orchestra. A film score can be made up of different fantastic groupings of instruments, as I’ve done throughout my entire career.77

Herrmann, due to his radio show and recording studio experience, was one of first film score composers to consider the impact of technology on the creative process. An example of this lies in his awareness of the limitations of early microphone technology, which saw woodwinds more faithfully reproduced than stringed instruments.78

This awareness of technical recording limitations may partly account for his exploration of the low woodwind sonorities in Citizen Kane, while in much later work, when technologies had improved, he favoured the string orchestra. Figure 12 shows an excerpt from the Prelude, the film’s celebrated opening sequence that the then twenty-nine year-old Herrmann described as ‘subterranean, strange heaviness of death and futility … a sort of variant on the ancient hymn .’ 79

77 Smith, 78. 78 William H. Rosar, Union Catalog of Motion Picture Music (Claremont: International Film Music Society, 1991), 136. 79 Steven C. Smith, A Heart at Fire’s Center: The Life and Music of Bernard Herrmann (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 78.

43

Figure 12. Bernard Herrmann’s Prelude for Citizen Kane

Commenting on the art of film-scoring in general, he said:

The real reason for music is that a piece of film, by its nature, lacks a certain ability to convey emotional overtones. Many times in many films, dialogue may not give a clue to the feelings of a character. It’s the music or the lighting or camera movement. When a film is well made, the music’s function is to fuse a piece of film so that it has an inevitable beginning and end. When you cut a piece of film you can do it perhaps a dozen ways, but once you put music to it, that becomes the absolutely final way … Music essentially provides an unconscious series of anchors for the viewer. It isn’t always apparent and you don’t have to know, but it serves its function.80

The ‘Rosebud’ leitmotif, described by Charles Higham as ‘a solo on the which appears first when Kane drops the glass ball and is heard

80 Smith, 76.

44 whenever childhood images recur to evoke with pathos the sense of a lost and beautiful past,’ is the other motif used in the score.81

Figure 13. Bernard Herrmann’s Rosebud motif

Although the vibraphone is commonly associated with the motif, in reality the bass flutes play the preceding melody. There were many music cues that Herrmann wrote for Citizen Kane that were either overlooked and/or edited out of the final released version. These can still be found on CD recordings as bonus tracks such as the 1991 version of the soundtrack, conducted by Joel McNeely.82 This version was the basis for my ‘Rosebud’ transcription (in figure 13) and instrumentation list, although my timecode markings are taken from the 2001 DVD movie release.83

81 Charles Higham, The Films of Orson Welles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 14. 82 Bernard Herrmann, The Citizen Kane Soundtrack, cond. Joel McNeely, Royal Scottish National Orchestra, Glasgow. CD (Varese Sarabande B00002MYY1, 1999). 83 Citizen Kane. dir. Orson Welles. DVD (Turner Home Entertainment B00003CX9E, 2001).

45 The transcription of Herrmann’s Prelude in figure 12 is a reduction of an original excerpt of the composer’s score found in page 25 of Higham’s The Films of Orson Welles.84 I retained the order of instruments on Hermann’s score for my transcription of the Rosebud motif (they are separated by 56 seconds) in figure 13 and the instrumentation is also corroborated in the CD liner notes of the Joel McNeely recording. The complete instrumentation order for the Prelude is as follows:

a. 3 x bass (alto) flutes in G (with Hermann’s note: ‘bass flutes written as C instrument. Copyist transpose’) b. 2 x clarinets in Bb c. 3 x bass clarinets in Bb d. 3 x bassoons e. 1 x contrabassoon f. 4 x horns in F g. 3 x trumpets in Bb h. 3 x trombones i. tuba (unused) j. k. tam tam l. bass drum m. 2 x n. piano (unused) o. contrabasses (number not written but probably 2)

In an effort to analyse and clarify Hermann’s scoring and instrumentation methodology, I have condensed the transcriptions down to a three-stave reduction, making it easier to see the harmonic approach and the dense voicings in use. By comparing Herrmann’s approach with those of the contemporary composers in later chapters, I will be able to make judgements on whether using virtual instrumentation influences the composers’ harmonic concepts.

84 Higham, 25.

46 It is clear that Hermann’s conceptual approach stands at odds with other composers working in films during the 1940s. Max Steiner and others were content to draw upon 19th century traditions, but Hermann, at age twenty- nine and already a veteran in terms of recording studio experience, had a distinctly contrasting musical aesthetic. His years composing for CBS live radio had a profound effect on his compositional strategies, and as a result of last minute rescoring in order to accommodate script changes, he developed skills to modularize whole passages of music. Added to this, his command of orchestration was such that he was able to sonically sculpt cues to bridge contrasting scenes. Steven C. Smith quoted Herrmann’s own description of the process:

I used a great deal of what might be termed ‘radio scoring’. The movies frequently overlook opportunities for musical cues which last only a few seconds – that is, from five to fifteen seconds at the most – the reason being that the eye usually covers the transition. On the other hand, in , every scene must be bridged by some sort of sound device, so that even five seconds of music becomes a vital instrument in telling the ear that the scene is shifting. I felt that in this film, where the photographic contrasts were often so sharp and sudden, a brief cue – even two or three chords – might heighten the effect immeasurably.85

It is evident from Hermann’s statement that aural perception played a huge role when conceptualizing the bridging musical devices that he used. But equally important was his formidable grasp of the twentieth century concert repertoire. Although Herrmann also made use of the leitmotif, his fresh approach and experiments with unusual orchestration contrast starkly with the music of Steiner and others. Although he is chronologically placed in this study as a Real-Time composer, in the years to follow Herrmann developed an inclination for employing unusual orchestral sonorities and he experimented with electronic instruments and these featured prominently in his work.

85 Smith, 77-78.

47 4. 6 The Planet of the Apes (1968)86

Like Bernard Herrmann, Jerry Goldsmith’s foray into the world of film scoring was predated by his work composing music for live radio shows. Also like Herrmann, Goldsmith (1929-2004) always conducted his own works, which varied stylistically from conventional symphonic scoring to modernist sonic experimentation that included unusual instrumental groupings. Goldsmith was a prolific composer, composing over 250 film and television episodes during his fifty-year career.

Goldsmith’s avant-garde score for The Planet of the Apes uses a standard orchestra, and employs dissonant harmony. Goldsmith discussed his modus operandum in 1972 during as interview with the magazine Cinefantastique:87

CFQ: When you viewed the rough cut of Planet of the Apes, did you get instantaneous thoughts as to how the score would go? Goldsmith: No CFQ: Did you discuss it with the director? Goldsmith: Franklin Schaffner is a very articulate director, and it’s very easy to work with him. He’s probably the only director who really understands music. CFQ: What did Schaffner suggest for the score? Goldsmith: He didn’t suggest anything. I did the suggesting. He did the understanding, knew what I was talking about. I said it should not be an electronic score, not gimmicky, and wanted to do it with a normal orchestra. I did not want to do the obvious on this. CFQ: Are there any composers who particularly influence you? Goldsmith: Yes, there’s Stravinsky, Bartok, Alvin Berg and Schoenberg.

It is interesting to note that Goldsmith was reticent to include electronics in the score, and chose instead to achieve dissonance and a myriad of unsettling instrumental timbres using conventional means. He was later to become well

86 Planet of the Apes, dir. Franklin J. Schaffner (USA: APJAC Productions, 1968). 87 Winogura, 37.

48 known for incorporating electronic instrumentation and effects with the studio orchestra. His instrumentation reflects his earlier predilections: percussion, piano and ethnic instruments feature prominently in the hunting scenes; there are a number of unusual instruments such as a ram’s horn, the Tibetan horn, boo-bam, (or ‘bamboo’ reversed syllabically, are tuned bongos with a shell of natural bamboo) stopped harmonics on the violins; and notes on the score call for ‘ to be scraped with coin.’88

Using chromaticism (occasionally employing tone rows) and a system of destabilising tonal centres instead of traditional harmony, the underscore creates tension, representing feelings of emotional instability among the apes. Figure 14 is a transcription of the beginning of the scene entitled ‘The Hunt’. The cue features aggressive, repetitive figures especially prominent on and percussion. The question remains to be answered whether Goldsmith would have used virtual instrumentation in this cue, had the score been produced now. The architecture and sonic choices afforded by virtual percussion would work well with the repetitive percussion rhythms that Goldsmith composed for this cue. Again, in chapter 5 a comparison with similar cues produced with the hybrid approach will be made, to demonstrate whether the virtual/hybrid approach influences the compositional methodology of contemporary screen composers.

The opening melodic fragment has a C tonal centre and is played by the woodwinds over the accented string dyads, broken only by the chromatic piano figure in octaves at bars 4 and 8. Hinting at , the piano figure at bar 8 is then augmented through to bar 9 to include all 12 tones to destabilize the tonality. The meter in bar 10 changes to 5/4 with a brass crescendo from beat 2 – the string figure includes semiquavers and quavers triplets before the start of the crescendo in bar 11. Here, as the tonal centre moves to G, the piano begins a semiquaver ostinato (played between the two hands) and repeats through to the end of the excerpt with woodwinds, strings and playing the melody.

88 Karlin, 213.

49

Figure 14. Excerpt from Jerry Goldsmith’s ‘The Hunt’ (page 1).

Goldsmith used instrumentation very effectively in this excerpt, with the timpani playing in unison with the piano on beat 1 in the beginning section. This reinforces the feeling of forward motion and conveys a sense of urgency.

50

Figure 15. Excerpt from Jerry Goldsmith’s ‘The Hunt’ (page 2).

Goldsmith uses the piano ostinato in bar 11 as a driving force, and at bar 16 the plays a cross-rhythm in 6/8 meter that adds a carnal imagery to the scene. The cue runs for five minutes and Goldsmith reuses most of the parts

51 from the notated excerpt, particularly the piano ostinati and the melodic fragments played by the xylophone and woodwinds. The climax of the cue features a ram’s horn playing ascending and descending fifths and here the composer introduces polyrhythm with each section of the orchestra. The overall effect is terrifying. Jerry Goldsmith received an Academy Award Nomination for this score, but it was not until 1977 that he won the Oscar for Best Original score, for .89

Looking at Goldsmith as compared to Bernard Herrmann, both composers received formal music education and were influenced by their respective composition tutors but ultimately other composers were cited as having the most sway. Hermann credits the composer as a major source of inspiration90 while Goldsmith cites Ernst Krenek, the ‘European Neo- classicist Schoenberg-atonal disciple.’91

While both composers embraced conventional and unconventional compositional practices, Goldsmith, as seen in the above examples, was the one more likely to venture into the realms of the avant-garde, possibly because of the influence of Krenek. Unlike Herrmann, Goldsmith became well known for scoring a wide range of film and television productions ranging in genre from and action through to comedy and drama. Both men were known for using eclectic combinations of instrumentation however, and were intrigued by electronic instruments and synthesizers. Despite composing through the period when multi-track recording, digital technology and virtual instruments began to impact on film score production, Jerry Goldsmith can not be considered among the proponents of hybrid/virtual film score instrumentation.

89 The Omen, dir. (USA: Twentieth Century Corporation, 1976). 90 Smith, 23. 91 Carrie Goldsmith, “Preview of the Aborted Jerry Goldsmith Biography,” Jerry Goldsmith Online, accessed January 12, 2012, http://www.jerrygoldsmithonline.com/spotlight_biography_preview.htm

52 Chapter 4 has focussed on three well-known film scores that were composed and produced using the real time methodology. I found that I was influenced by the contrasting interpretations of the three composers. The dissonance and polyrhythm used by Goldsmith, the dense layers and harmonic tension typical of Herrmann, and the leitmotifs and romanticism of Steiner: each composer unique in their approach, yet they all share the mastery of storytelling. In relation to Collective Conceptualization, though the composers were active in the real time era, the research has shown that they were single-minded as far as sculpting the sonic palette that they desired.

With regard to their methodology in relation to this project, the composers in chapter 4 made artistic decisions according to the narrative criteria that they faced at the time. In simple terms, the composers were more likely to write fast or slow, or in major or minor keys and were influenced primarily by the on-screen image. The Collective Conceptualization process for them, stopped at the recording studio that was, in effect, merely a documentary space – a place where the orchestra and recording engineers and others, were hired to transform countless pages of score to tape, and where no further creative input was required or necessary.

Again, in simple terms, within the creative space from which they operated, the emphasis was placed on the musical elements and resources assembled in a linear approach, and they were primarily concerned with acoustic instrumentation. We have learned that they worked within the aesthetic and practical constraints of the era and were not required to deal with the integration of the sonic elements that came about in the late 20th and 21st century. As we will see in chapter 5, the of Collective Conceptualization was necessarily brought about by the technological revolution and the birth of virtual instrumentation. Composers now needed a methodology that would allow them to establish ways to integrate the available instruments into a sonic palette – to assemble in advance clusters of real and virtual instrumentation in preparation for the actual compositional process.

53 5 SIGNIFICANT FILMS SCORED WITH HYBRID/VIRTUAL MODELS

5. 1 Definition

For the purpose of this study the Hybrid/Virtual Model is defined as a film score consisting of methods of music production whereby multiple real and virtual sources are combined for use in the final outcome of the film score. SBOS is a methodology that uses virtual instruments (samples) but in the interests of clarity in the context of this study, a distinction is made between the use of SBOS and virtual instruments.

With the advent of the digital recording revolution in the 1980s, and with hard-disk technology in use by the year 2000, sound sources for film score composers are now literally limited only by the composer’s imagination. The majority of music scores used in feature films now incorporate some form of virtual instrument source, and are often but not always, used in tandem with the conventional studio orchestra. For this reason the term hybrid/virtual model refers to a score where it is assumed that the composer is dealing with the physical surrounds of the real-time recording studio in tandem with virtual instrumentation, in the process referred to in Chapter 1 as Collective Conceptualization.

In other words, we can say that the composer of today must construct a multi-faceted film score – multi faceted because the composer’s task involves not only the principles of film score composition, but also the conceptualization of the sonic palette and the integration of real and virtual instrumentation.

5. 2 Background

From the 1980s, along with the emergence of digital multi-track recording, composers began to take advantage of the processes being developed that

54 used the personal computer, MIDI enabled sound modules and samplers, and the sequencing software programs that were now readily available. With the ability to synchronize these elements to digital tape, composers were free to incorporate additional sounds into existing recordings; for example, drums, samples, added orchestrations and synthesized sounds). They were able to add any of the myriad of MIDI operations available, such as the quantization of sequences, adding FX, automation, and so forth.

The technical advancements of the new millennium saw the introduction of hard disk (tapeless) recording and further development of computer-based digital audio. The quality and architecture of orchestral sample libraries improved dramatically and virtual instruments became a focus for many audio software developers.

Although the process of sequencing using orchestral samples in a DAW is not new, it is only within the last ten years that, with the ever-increasing processing power of computers and the release of 24-bit orchestral software libraries, a higher level of sonic realism has been reached. Film composers now use sophisticated computer music software to sequence SBOS and for many it is standard practise that these simulations, once used for mock-up purposes only, are used on the final recording, mixed either with or without real instruments.92

The SBOS process itself is extremely complex and time consuming and makes extraordinary demands on both the computer central processing unit and on hard drive data acquisition. It is essential that the composer has a comprehensive knowledge of ‘both sides’ of the task – understanding the intricacies of conventional and orchestration while possessing advanced computer-based sequencing skills. Even so, SBOS is only one of a plethora of sources that composers have at their disposal.

92 Cooke, 499.

55 5. 3 Practical Considerations

According to :

With virtually no exception, a composer for film, TV, video games, or any multimedia is going to need an electronic studio capable of flawless rendering of music in whatever style is required for any project. In many cases, the final result of your work comes directly from your studio. Even on fully orchestral or other acoustic scores, the need to mock up musically convincing demos is essential.93

From a practical standpoint, apart from the technical challenges involved with setting up and maintaining a music production/composition studio, in order to put into practise the Collective Conceptualization process, it is essential that the composer gain a thorough working knowledge of all facets of the sound production and editing operations within the studio, including the SBOS libraries and the virtual instrument libraries. What follows is a case study of films produced that I have examined, that display the defining characteristics of this approach, particularly those mentioned in other research that have influenced the working methodologies of other film composers.

5. 4 Hans Zimmer – Sherlock Holmes (2009)94

Hans Zimmer (b. 1957) has long been known as a talented and prolific experimental film score composer.95 His score for Sherlock Holmes was nominated for an Oscar for Best Score in 2009. Having built a reputation early in his career for composing scores for (1988)96 (1988) and

93 Jeff Rona, The Reel World: Scoring for Pictures (New York: Hal Leonard, 2009), 109. 94 Sherlock Holmes, dir. (USA: Warner Bros Pictures, 2009) 95 Cooke, 498-499. 96 Rain Man, dir. (USA: , 1988)

56 , (1989)97 Zimmer was one of the originators of the methodology whereby virtual instrumentation was used to augment the orchestra and vice-versa – depending on the style of the music required. The score for Sherlock Holmes is unique up to this point in time with regard to the instrumentation used. In addition to the studio orchestra and extensive virtual instrumentation, the featured instrument list is:

Prepared Piano Hungarian Cimbalon Accordian Electric guitar and Banjo Fiddle x 3 Experibass (modified contrabass) played with various bows Assorted percussion

After speaking with the director Guy Ritchie, Hans comments,

Guy and I didn’t want that homogeneous sound that you get from an orchestra. We felt that it wasn’t the way to go in this movie. Everything had a point of view. Everything was a bit bolder. Everything was a bit more lively and dangerous.98

Zimmer, commenting on conceptualizing the score notes that:

The main thing I did was try not to listen to any of the other Sherlock Holmes movies. I didn’t want to be influenced by them. The rest of my research was just finding the players. I was really clear about who the musicians were that I wanted to use on this. I grew up in Germany and with the opera. I wanted it to have – I know it’s slightly the wrong area

97 Driving Miss Daisy, dir. (USA: , 1989) 98 Scorekeeper Interrogates Hans Zimmer on Sherlock Holmes (accessed 13 November 2012), http://www.aintitcool.com/node/43520

57 and geographically wrong as well – but I wanted it to have this republic sound. A little rough around the edges.99

It is interesting to note that Zimmer’s aesthetic is partially influenced by geography, and that this took preference over the historical aspect. Zimmer’s combination of featured instruments feels organically realistic against the timeline of the narrative – the 1880s. Zimmer made the fiddle the signature instrument because Holmes was supposedly an amateur violinist, and there are several scenes in the film featuring Holmes (Robert Downey Jr.) holding and plucking the violin. The several sequences featuring the three fiddles likewise help bind the underscore to the narrative, such as ‘The Irene I Knew’ that Zimmer scored in the style of a Gypsy jig featuring fiddle, accordion and tuba.

Bearing in mind Zimmer’s comment about focusing on the featured instruments in the score rather than the homogeneous orchestral sound, it is true that much of the underscore includes the featured instruments, but they are often underpinned by the orchestra, with the low strings and percussion particularly active. Zimmer often uses ambient textures, sometimes in isolation, to join sequences. Many of the music cues for the film are extensions or rearrangements of the introductory ‘Holmes’ theme (‘Discombobulate’) that is only heard in its entirety in the closing credits.

Like most film score composers working on major feature films, he uses the expertise of talented composers/programmers to help sequence the array of virtual instruments at his disposal, leaving him free to take the lead creatively. Zimmer shares the music production credit with the Scottish composer, , with whom he relied upon for extra sound programming and . Zimmer’s Collective Conceptualization for Sherlock Holmes puts the signature instruments squarely in the foreground for much of the film, but his standard working methodology is still applied.

99 Scorekeeper Interrogates Hans Zimmer on Sherlock Holmes (accessed 13 November 2012), http://www.aintitcool.com/node/43520

58 This methodology includes reinforcing any areas of weakness either through arrangement (doubling, harmonization, unison lines and so forth) or by adding virtual instruments or effects.

Figure 16. Piano reduction of Hans Zimmer’s ‘Discombobulate’ from the film Sherlock Holmes (2009)

Reinforcement technique is a characteristic that defines many of Zimmer’s scores, and it contributes to a score with a huge dynamic range. Depending on the style of film in question, Zimmer has in the past used contemporary rock instrumentation, including electric and bass guitars, drums and various synthesizers to achieve this result, but has developed the methodology to a point whereby he also uses orchestral instruments (real or virtual.)

While at one level this exemplifies his high-level orchestration skills, it also attests to his sophisticated audio-sensory faculty. This is no doubt due to his

59 interest in sonic design, a professional pursuit that has seen him accumulate a massive ‘sonic arsenal’ of sounds, synth patches and samples. I can personally attest to at least a part of this history, having seen Zimmer’s rack of 12 Akai S900 samplers and thousands of floppy disk samples at Sydney’s Rhinoceros Studios during a trip he made to Australia in 1988. Additionally, I was given access to many of Zimmer’s personal samples by the late audio engineer, Simon Leadley, with whom Zimmer had worked.

Figure 16 is a piano reduction of an excerpt of ‘Discombobulate,’ the main thematic figure of the film. It highlights the direction of Zimmer’s aesthetic decisions regarding historical and cultural accuracy, and validates his comments re: geographic consistency and the ‘republic’ sound mentioned in his interview on page 58. The prepared piano, (sounding like an old, out of tune bar piano) the fiddle and the accordion, are traditional Gypsy instruments and were commonly heard in London streets during the 1880s.

The first rendition appears as a prepared piano part at the start of the opening scene. (Catching a Killer – at 00:00:10:00) Contrabasses play a sixteenth-note ostinato at 00:00:30:00 before the theme is re-introduced at 00:01:00:00 with the addition of the percussion section consisting of timpani, taiko drums, orchestral toms and . This is the musical accompaniment for Holmes and Watson as they each make a desperate dash through the streets of London in to stop a sacrificial killing.

The methodology Zimmer uses in the first scene is developed and repeated many times throughout the film. The ‘Discombobulate’ theme is arranged variously and augmented with the featured instruments and orchestra. The theme itself is simple and lends itself to those processes – the melody in the ‘A’ section features chromaticism over a ‘D’ (over Dm and Dm6) to sustain tension, while the ‘B’ section introduces the minor sixth harmony (Gm/D) before moving to the secondary dominant (E7) and returns to Dm via Eb Maj.

60 Although the focus of the Sherlock Holmes score is on the signature instruments, a tremendous amount of time and effort has gone into the orchestral component – it is, especially for the more dynamic music cues, the backbone of the score. The Hans Zimmer Sherlock Holmes score is a culmination of real and virtual instrumentation that has been collectively conceptualized, composed, arranged and programmed with the final outcomes clearly visualized early in the production process.

It differs from the earlier examples in that its complexity lies within its sonic makeup rather than the harmonic concept. This view could be thought of as a sweeping generalization, however, taking the example of figures 14, 15 (Goldsmith, The Hunt) and 16, (Zimmer, Discombobulate) and the accompanying analyses, we see that Goldsmith uses devices such as unusual instrumentation, rhythmic development, chromaticism and dissonance within the cue. On the other hand Zimmer’s example is rhythmically and harmonically fundamental, and uses historically and geographically appropriate instrumentation. (real and virtual)

It is difficult to make an objective assessment of the successfulness of each example, with the former example accompanying a traditional chase, hunting scene and the latter, also a pursuit scene although lighter and less perilous in tone. Goldsmith’s cue, the subject of the interview in the magazine Cinefantastique, is a favourite among film historians and Zimmer’s theme was retained and reused as the theme for the Sherlock Holmes sequel two years later.

It is the precision and skill with which the instrumental oppositions in the score have been integrated that is one of the primary foci of this study, and it is intended that the knowledge acquired from the study of these processes is implemented into the Collective Conceptualization and production of the score for Ménilmontant.

61 5. 5 Thomas Newman – Skyfall (2012)100

Despite having garnered the dubious honour as the most talented film score composer never to have won an Oscar, Thomas Newman (b. 1955) has a well- known musical pedigree. His father Alfred, brother David, uncles Lionel and Emil, and cousin Randy are all (or were) successful film score composers in their own right. Thomas also has the reputation for having the music from his previous scores used on more film trailers and at events such as the Olympic Games than any other composer.101

Much has been written about Newman and his work is such that it has influenced many film score composers.102 The current instalment of the franchise Skyfall (nominated for Best Film Score at the 2013 ) falls into the action film category, and this is not the type of film score with which Newman has traditionally been associated. It was interesting to note how many film score devotees in online forums were both intrigued and delighted by Newman’s decision to score a Bond film considering his career has been forged from composing minimalist, experimental scores charged with emotion. As technology plays an integral role in Newman’s film scoring process, virtual instruments were used for many of the action cues in Skyfall.

Thomas Newman is relative to this study because his film scoring methodology is the embodiment of Collective Conceptualization. This has come about through years of refining his screen composition and music production practices. Throughout the studio footage of interviews with Newman, his dedication and attention to sonic detail is obvious. Experimentation with motifs and sonic thoughts, especially during the early stages of the director/composer relationship, is regarded as a priority.

100 Skyfall, dir. Sam Mendez (USA: Metro Goldwyn Mayer, 2012). 101 IMDb.com, ‘Thomas Newman Biography’,IMDb.com (accessed 11 November 2012) http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0002353/bio 102 Cooke, 481.

62 Apart from the orchestral musicians, Newman uses a core group of featured instruments in an approach much like Hans Zimmer’s methodology on Sherlock Holmes. The Skyfall soundtrack lists each of the featured musicians, along with Newman, as follows:

Thomas Bowes – orchestra leader George Doering – guitar and John Beasley – synthesizers and drum programming Paul Clarvis – percussion Frank Ricotti – percussion Sonia Slany – electric violin Phil Todd – flute and ethnic woodwind John Parricelli – guitar 103

Newman uses the same group of featured musicians on nearly all of his film scores. Music editor Bill Bernstein explains:

What Tom likes to do is go in with a small group of musicians, maybe 4 or 5 different guys that we’ve worked with for many years – amazingly talented musicians – and we’ll play very nascent ideas and start adding stuff over it. This is a great time to be really creative.104

The explorative ideas presented by the musicians are a part of the interaction of personalities, and this creative, experimental impetus is also a hallmark of Newman’s film scoring philosophy. Thomas Newman adds:

A lot of my music tends to be patterned and repeating, so often times I’ll get together with a percussionist or a guitarist who can take these patterns and add to them and therefore make them more sonically

103 Thomas Newman, Skyfall Original Motion Picture Soundtrack with Thomas Newman et al., recorded September, 2012, Classics, B009FBX5M0, 2012, mp3 digital download. 104 Thomas Newman, Notes on a Score Interview, YouTube video, 06:42, posted by FancyTorque, August 31, 2011 (accessed 15 November 2012) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sg7dzJgljqY&feature=share&list=PL1E8A91743 47026B4

63 interesting. If you have repeating phrases often times it allows the ear to hear colours in a way that widens your perception of sound and music and how it comes at you … I guess what I like about that part of the process is that you can only improve what’s there. Then you look at it next to the image and you know it works, you say ‘That’s too complex a sound, it takes my attention away from dialogue or from this bit of action but I do like it there so let’s now start there at measure 33 as opposed to 31.’ And you make progress.105

Newman’s description of the fundamental Collective Conceptualization process provides an insight into his aesthetic approach. With regard to the subtle twists and turns in the plot and its relationship to the underscore, his comments on ‘hearing colours’ the perception of sound and ‘how it comes at you’ indicate a highly intellectual sonic and emotional awareness that has been developed over the course of his film-scoring career. Because the score for Skyfall is a recent work I have not found any specific references to the virtual instrumentation used apart from a reference to his use of ‘tons’ of the virtual synth, Spectrasonics Omnisphere.106 I have this instrument in my own sound library and I can confirm that it is indeed used heavily in the score.

A large proportion of the ambient and textured sound comes as a result of the featured instrumentation and not the virtual instruments. This is due to Newman’s Collective Conceptualization and his philosophy on recording with the core instrumentalists. In the recording studio Newman acts as a

105 Thomas Newman, Notes on a Score Interview, YouTube video, 07:00, posted by FancyTorque, August 31, 2011 (accessed 15 November 2012) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sg7dzJgljqY&feature=share&list=PL1E8A91743 47026B4 106 Melanie Power, “Thomas Newman uses ‘tons’ of Omnisphere in James Bond Skyfall movie,” Time & Space blog (accessed 5 December 2012) http://blog.timespace.com/2012/11/thomas-newman-uses-tons-of-omnisphere-in- james-bond-skyfall-movie/

64 Instrumentation

Flute or Drum Cue Name Electric Ethnic Synth or Program Virtual Guitar Perc. Dulcimer Orchestra Violin W/w Sampler ming Inst. 1. Grand Bazaar         

2. Voluntary        Retirement 3. New Digs      

4. Severine   

5. New      World 6. Shanghai       Drive 7. Jellyfish      

8. Silhouette     

9. Modigliani    

10. Day Wasted      

11. Quarter          master 12. Someone        Usually Dies 13. Komodo         Dragon 14. The Bloody     Shot 15. Enjoying       Death 16. The Chimera      

17. Close Shave     

18. Health &        Safety 19. Granborough        Road 20. Tennyson     

21. Enquiry         

22. Breadcrumbs      

23. Skyfall     

24. Kill Them        First 25. Welcome To         Scotland 26. She’s Mine    

27. The Moors         

28. Deep Water         

29. Mother     

30. Adrenaline        

TOTAL 22 27 22 17 17 18 16 27 27

Figure 17. Instrumentation for the Skyfall Soundtrack

65 mediatory presence and is able to extract a range of sonic impressions from the signature instrumentalists by way of a collaborative approach to recording, thereby giving the musicians the freedom to input individual expressive nuances and ideas.

The recordings from these sessions are often used as stems that form the click track that is played in the earphones of the conductor (in this case, Newman himself) at the subsequent orchestral recording sessions. The success or failure of this process depends upon Newman’s ability at the outset, to envisage the final artistic outcome of the successive integration of individual musical parts.

Figure 17 shows the breakdown of the instruments Newman used in the score for Skyfall. It reveals the depth of instrumental homogenization within the composer’s Collective Conceptualization process. Newman has included virtual instruments/synthesizers/samples on most of the cues on the soundtrack. For example, the cue entitled ‘Quartermaster’ uses woodwinds, (real) and rich ambient textured samples (Omnisphere) that are blended with delayed electric guitar and bass motifs (real and with Omnisphere) behind crescendo percussion patterns (real and with Omnisphere) as a build-up to the entry of the orchestra. Instrumentation and arrangements similar to this are used on several cues.

Although the table reveals the combinations of instrumentation used in the cues, upon viewing the video footage one can see that the instruments are not merely overdubbed one over the other, but that the sonic amalgamation that occurs is carefully planned from the earliest stages. A section of the video shows Newman and director, Sam Mendez, in the early stages of the score’s production, during a spotting session discussing sound bytes that Newman had prepared. The conversation centres on the types of sound that Mendez wants in the score, and Newman intuitively builds his sonic palette accordingly. This is an example of Collective Conceptualization in the developmental stages of the process. (See figure 2)

66 There are many comparisons to be made between the work of Hans Zimmer on Sherlock Holmes and Newman’s work on Skyfall. Even though the two films share little historically and geographically, musically speaking the composers have scored both films with a similar aesthetic approach. A substantial element of their Collective Conceptualization revolves around a core group of specialist or featured musicians and instruments (of which the composers themselves can be a part) that form the fundamental sonic elements that are then usually expanded upon or reinforced by, the studio orchestra. In the case of Zimmer it appears that the specialist instruments change according to the stylistic needs of the score, whereas Newman tends to make use of a stable of core of musicians and featured instruments.

While writing the table of instrumentation for figure 17, which involved identifying instrumentation for each of the cues, I was able to fully focus on the range of sound Newman is able to extract from the featured musicians. The process was involved because many of the instruments were played unconventionally, so that rather than listening for an electric violin for example, I needed to concentrate on the full range of capabilities that that instrument has to offer. Effects are commonly used on the electric violin and because of this it is capable of achieving a range of orchestral string sounds – it can easily be mistaken for the string section because it occasionally doubles the string lines. In order to complete the task I needed to refer to background research and footage of the recording sessions etc.

Unsurprisingly, figure 17 reveals the extent to which Newman relies on the orchestra as it was used in all but three cues, as were the virtual instruments and the live percussion. Featured percussion was present in some form on every orchestral cue except for two – this shows the emphasis Newman placed on the rhythmic elements of the score – where many of his scores have relied on percussive elements, particularly tuned percussion, the Skyfall score is much more reliant on the use of membranophones. The table also reveals the prevalent use of the electric violin and guitars, used in all but eight cues. Electric guitars (as opposed to acoustic) were used almost exclusively and effects were often used to achieve the desired sounds. Figures

67

Figure 18. Reduction of Thomas Newman’s ‘Voluntary Retirement’ from the film, Skyfall (page 1).

68

Figure 19. Reduction of Thomas Newman’s ‘Voluntary Retirement’ from the film, Skyfall (page 2).

18 and 19 show an excerpt of the score showing the electric violin (hemiola) line from the cue entitled ‘Voluntary Retirement’.107

Whereas the featured musicians on both Sherlock Holmes and Skyfall were given prepared scores or musical sketches at the recording sessions, Newman

107 Thomas Newman, Skyfall Original Motion Picture Soundtrack with Thomas Newman et al., recorded September, 2012, Sony Classics, B009FBX5M0, 2012.

69 uses an established strategy that encourages spontaneous creativity and, occasionally, improvisation. Both composers are eager to employ experimental technology and methodologies with regard to sound recording and production – for example in the use of unorthodox combinations of instruments, piano hammers and mallets on contrabass, the use of prepared piano, and so forth.

Perhaps the most unanticipated element of the Collective Conceptualization of both composers is the degree of collaboration with the featured musicians. In terms of creative input, during the recording phase both composers rely heavily on the musicians to develop the charts/sketches and enhance the score. As such this validates the use of the hybrid model.

It is clear that the work of Newman and Zimmer in chapter 5 contrast heavily with scores composed by Steiner, Herrmann and Goldsmith covered in chapter 4. I believe that the contrast is due to the Collective Conceptualization techniques practised by the composers as evidenced by the examples shown in this chapter. My findings are that the use of Collective Conceptualization in film score composition, shifts the musical emphasis from a model existing purely as one of composition, appropriateness and instrumentation, to a model where the sonic palette is also an essential component to be mastered.

In chapter 6 I will show how I have incorporated this approach into the composition and production processes in the musical score for Ménilmontant, and how these methodological, expressive and technical approaches have impacted on my compositional process.

70 6 DISCUSSION OF THE SCORE FOR MÉNILMONTANT

This chapter will discuss the Collective Conceptualization, composition and production of my score for Ménilmontant, and elaborate and contextualize the work in light of the findings from previous chapters. It will also explain the rationale behind the aesthetic decisions taken with regard to the physical recording space and the shifting dynamic between the use of real and virtual instrumentation. It will describe the range of strategies used in which:

1. Live performers were used to variously realise a fully notated score and/or collaborate in the recording of a set of compositional sketches, and

2. The virtual studio was used – reliant on SBOS and digital technologies in which the mediation of the physical space and other musicians plays no part, where the composer remains the sole arbiter of the score

3. Combinations of the above are used simultaneously.

6. 1 Practical Considerations

From the beginning of the study, I focussed on the Collective Conceptualization technique, knowing that I was in a position to take full advantage of the process. As mentioned in the introduction, I hypothesized that the process would be advantageous to composers working with limited resources. With its integrative approach, Collective Conceptualization restricts sonic/instrumental discrimination, effectively encouraging the composer to re-imagine sonic outcomes and to draw out the maximum amount of tonal colour from the available sources.

I knew that having a restricted budget would have a major effect on my scoring methodology for Ménilmontant. Having had previous professional experience with low to medium budget films meant that I had prior knowledge as far as making artistic decisions based on economic constraints.

71 This is a standard part of the process for scoring projects of any budget, so when I began Ménilmontant, I abandoned any thoughts of hiring a 10-piece violin section to play over my SBOS programming to add realism (as I had done on previous film score sessions).

Using SBOS is commonplace among film score composers who are working on low-budget productions. Hollywood film producers require every score to be mocked-up by programmers using this method before signing off on the music in order to hear a close representation of the final score. As noted in Chapter 5, because of the steady refinement of the quality of orchestral samples and in the software architecture used to sequence and record them, there has been an equivalent advancement in the overall sonic quality attained and greater levels of realism in work produced using them. This is so much so that some film score composers now prefer to incorporate certain SBOS elements into the final mix of the score. Because of the low recording budget, I decided that the majority of the orchestral instrumentation would be programmed as SBOS and that I would record individual orchestral instruments as needed. I had an SBOS setup, so my primary concern was to have as many of the featured instruments recorded in real-time as possible in order to capture natural dynamics and to include an acoustic ambience. I thought that using this format would be the best way to achieve the audio quality I desired within the framework with which I was working.

My composition studio is equivalent in size to the film composers studied in this project and is designed to reflect the working methodologies reviewed. A comprehensive equipment and software list is included in the appendix. It is essential that the studio be large enough to house the following:

1. Computer and associated equipment (hard drives, printer, etc) 2. Controller keyboard for MIDI input 3. Studio monitors that are not placed directly against walls 4. Outboard gear (mixer, microphone pre-amps, compressors, etc) 5. A vocal booth or room to record featured instruments 6. Associated recording gear (microphones, stands, music stands, etc)

72 6.1.1 The Real Instruments

As a pianist I find that is also preferable to have a piano or a weighted keyboard as a writing instrument, separate from the controller keyboard. The piano used in Ménilmontant is my Kawai 6’ Grand, and it is used on several cues in the score and is processed with a range of digital audio tools. There are a variety of instruments in the studio and many were used in the production of the score. The session musicians I recorded in the score brought their own instruments to the studio. The table of real instruments used on each cue is shown below.

Opening Waltz 1. Murder 2. Girls Dance 3. Cemeterey 4. The Streets of Paris 5. Accordion Meet the Cad 6. Bass Sunday Sleeping 7. Drums He's A Man 8. Sister Waits 9. Mandolin Sad Seine 10. Suspicion 11. Pan Flute Proof 12. Piano Seine Daydream 13. Percussion Cold Desperation 14. Ukelele Sleaze 15. Voice Reconciliation 16. Senseless Murder 17. Closing Waltz. 18.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 20. Real instruments used in the score for Ménilmontant

73 From the above table it is evident that percussion, drums and piano feature prominently throughout the score, while the mandolin and voice are used once each. There are no real instruments on cue 16, ‘Reconciliation’. All of the real instruments were recorded using conventional microphone placement techniques – the microphones used were 2 x Rode Classic IIs, 2 x Rode NT2s and occasionally a Shure SM 58. The microphones were processed through a Focusrite ISA-428 Microphone Preamplifier. The piano, accordion and percussion were recorded in stereo. The percussion used ranged from , cabasa, shakers, triangle, handclaps and bongos through to the less conventional sticks of any type, woodblocks, rubbing stones, drumsticks on the side of the piano and brushes on virtually any surface.

Opening Waltz 1. Murder 2. Girls Dance 3. Cemeterey 4. The Streets of Paris 5. Meet the Cad 6. Sunday Sleeping 7. He's A Man 8. SBOS Sister Waits 9. Virtual Sad Seine 10. Suspicion 11. Real Proof 12. Seine Daydream 13. Cold Desperation 14. Sleaze 15. Reconciliation 16. Senseless Murder 17. Closing Waltz. 18.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 21. Categories of instruments used in the score for Ménilmontant

74 6.1.2 The Musicians

One of the main points for discussion in this chapter concerns the relationship and process of collaboration between the session musicians and myself. The wording used in the introduction is ‘variously realise a fully notated score and/or collaborate in the recording of a set of compositional sketches.’ This outlines the behaviour, habits and practices that I encouraged during the recording sessions for Ménilmontant.

My philosophy when recording collaboratively is to set a relaxed and positive tone with the intention to motivate the musicians and to inspire each of them to contribute artistically to the project. There are several aspects involved:

a. Be patient, relaxed and enjoy the recording process b. Be prepared with clear, accurate charts or instructions c. Make sure the musicians are comfortable before beginning the session d. Be able to practically demonstrate exactly what is required e. Praise genuinely and freely f. Give guidance but only when necessary g. Ask if the musicians feel something should change musically h. Ask if the musicians would like to add or contribute something that is not on the chart i.e. encourage improvisation (when appropriate) i. If the improvisation isn’t appropriate or warranted, don’t trash it – it may be suitable for another cue, so communicate this to the musicians j. Ensure that there is nothing more the musicians wish to add before the session finishes k. Thank the musicians for their musical and artistic input

I had prepared notation for all of the recording sessions for Ménilmontant except for the vocal session on cue number 8, ‘He’s A Man’. I sang and played the melody line-by-line rather than writing a chart. I felt that the contributions made by the musicians was exceptional, and that adding the

75 acoustic/real component boosted the dynamic range and added a fundamental acoustic quality that was needed for the overall sonic balance of the score.

6.1.3 The Virtual Instruments

The majority of the virtual instruments used in the score for Ménilmontant (not including SBOS which will be discussed below) are those produced by the audio companies Spectrasonics and Native Instruments. As indicated in figure 21, they were used on 12 of the 18 cues in the score.

These instruments generally operate as a plugin accessed from within the sequencing application, in this case from within Logic Pro. Figure 22 below shows a screen grab of Spectrasonics Stylus RMX Realtime Groove Module. This shot of the mixer page from within the application architecture shows eight discreet channels featuring individual drum patterns that can be processed together or separately.

Each rhythm pattern can be played back in any and individual drum samples can be routed to any of the outputs on the left. Multiple instances of Stylus can be used. Because of what is effectively in-built time stretching, the patterns listed below at various tempi (the bpm tempo is listed at the beginning of the pattern name) can all automatically play back at the tempo at which the sequencer is set.

76

Figure 22. Screen grab of the mixer page from within the Spectrasonics Stylus RMX Realtime Groove Module

The flexibility, ease of use, and the numerous editing features make this a very powerful virtual instrument – the other Spectrasonics instruments, including Omnisphere and Trillian, are similar in their architecture and use, but feature synthesizer and bass instruments respectively.

Figure 23 below shows a screen grab of Native Instruments Absynth 5 Virtual Synthesizer. This virtual synth features hybrid architecture that enables it to harness the characteristics of the classic sound generating systems of subtractive synthesis, FM, wave-table, granular sampling, and sampling with wave-morphing, filters, modulators and effects. It is extremely versatile in that it can also be used as an fx processor plugin for other tracks, but is known principally for its powerful emulation of classic sounds, as well as for ambient, evolving textures.

77

Figure 23. Screen grab of the browser page from within Native Instruments Absynth 5 virtual synthesizer

The other virtual instrument used in the score from Native Instruments, Reaktor, is also a very powerful synth with a modular architecture, and is a particularly effective complex sound generator. I used both Absynth 5 and Reaktor to build the atmospheric ambient sounds in the score, such as at 00:00:42:00 near the beginning of cue 2, ‘Murder’. The texture builds behind the stabbing strings as the parents are trying to escape through the kitchen door. It is also used at 00:16:22:00 in cue 9, ‘Sister Waits’. This is the most powerful example in the score of these virtual instruments – I wanted the sound to intrude as the sister dreams of nude images of her younger sister and the young man in bed.

78 6.1.4 Sample Based Orchestral Simulation (SBOS)

Due to continual advances in technology and computer capabilities, the quality of orchestral simulations is developing at a parallel rate. High quality simulations are commonplace and film producers and directors have been quick to recognise the benefits of SBOS in terms of streamlining the film production process. There are also many composers that take advantage of SBOS knowing that full orchestral simulations can be realised without the need for live orchestral musicians.

6.1.4.1 Technical Considerations

The SBOS operation is complex and the technical and artistic processes must be thoroughly understood for a convincing simulation to be produced. There are many individual technical scenarios involved with setting up an SBOS system to run successfully. Due to the huge amounts of sample data being streamed, it is essential to use solid-state hard drives (SSD) and these are very expensive.

Ensuring that computer and audio hardware and software are compatible within the system is in itself an operation requiring constant attention due to the regular upgrading of these components – if any of the components fails to recognize or is incompatible with other upgrades, then the system as a whole will fail. This is further complicated by the fact that some manufacturers are slow to release critical upgrades, and this may clog the upgrade path to a number of vital components.

Running a powerful computer with as many processors as possible is also mandatory. The fastest laptops struggle to run even a small SBOS setup effectively, and many professional programmers chain 4 x Mac Pro Hexacore machines together for a total of 48 individual computer processors in order to tackle Hollywood mock-ups. The speed of data transferral within the computer system bus and data retrieval times from the drives holding the

79 samples is also of paramount importance. In general, the fastest computers have data access specifications that will cope provided good quality solid state drives are used.

There is an array of MIDI controllers available for programming, and these have a direct bearing on the behaviour of the SBOS systems. Many orchestral programmers use a MIDI musical keyboard as their main source of data entry. Fully weighted keyboards (such as the Roland RD series) have an advantage in that they feel piano-like and therefore the programmer is likely to input MIDI data with a higher range of velocity sensitivity than with a non- weighted keyboard. Many programmers also use drum-pad type MIDI controllers for inputting drum and percussion data. MIDI controllers have varying velocity sensitivities and allowances may need to be made for specific controllers within the SBOS and the sequencer. MIDI guitar controllers, for example, behave differently to MIDI wind controllers.

The SBOS system used on the score for Ménilmontant is the East West Quantum Leap Symphony Orchestra 24 bit Platinum or EWQLSO. The system uses a multi architecture named Play that is designed to run either as a standalone instrument or as a plug-in accessed from within a sequencer, the latter being used in this instance.

The main Play browser page for the EWQLSO (figure 24 below) features a user-definable sensitivity curve that instantly adjusts the reception of sensitivity of the MIDI data from the controller. Also in the same area are options for limiting the minimum and maximum velocity received, switches for enabling portamento, repetition and legato. Below this are the envelope parameters, (essential for adjusting the attack and release of instruments) while in the centre sits the list of articulated samples for a particular instrument.

The instrument shown in figure 24 is a master trumpet patch, meaning that within the single patch, there are a number of articulated samples (such as

80

Figure 24. Screen grab of the East West Quantum Leap Symphonic Orchestra ‘Play’ page staccato, sustained, legato, trill etc.). Each of the articulated samples have abbreviated names such as D0-Sus-Leg that when construed, means that the sample can be accessed on the keyboard at MIDI note D0, and that the trumpets have been recorded playing sustained, legato notes. Each articulation has its own MIDI note number. Note that each articulation can be adjusted by way of the volume trim pots under the ‘level’ heading and that each sample can be deactivated and unloaded to save RAM. The keyboard at the bottom is a representation of an 88-note controller/MIDI keyboard and shows three distinct sections: the beige notes are unused, the white notes indicate the range of the instrument, and the blue notes are known as ‘Key Switches’. The key switch keys are linked to the corresponding articulation in the articulation list and do not sound when pressed but trigger a MIDI

81 program change. Figure 24 shows a darker blue D0 key meaning that the articulation is use is D0-Sus-Leg – if the key switch key D#0 is pressed then the corresponding articulation D#0-Port-Leg (portamento legato) is then active. When programming on an 88 note MIDI controller, the user only needs to press the corresponding key switch key in order to call up the required articulation in real time, and this program change is automatically recorded into the sequencer. This system enables the programmer to input fluid movement through various articulations in much the same way as a live performer does.

On the right hand side of figure 24 are the effects and master controls of Play. There are also controls for the adjustment of microphone placement and panning. In the output section Play supports up to 9 x stereo outputs or full surround mode. Because of its 64-bit operation, Play is able to stream the samples called up in memory directly from the SDD and take full advantage of the computer’s RAM configuration. The computer system used for the Ménilmontant score (8 core Mac Pro Nehalem) has a 26 GB RAM upgrade and generally enabled four full instances of Play to function in real time, along with numerous virtual instruments and plug-ins. For most of the cues in the score there were about 100 channel strips in the sequencer, including auxiliary tracks. (Logic Pro 9.1.8) An important function in Play is the ability to purge any articulation samples that are initially loaded into RAM as part of instrument patches, but subsequently are not used. Deleting these orphan samples helps greatly in freeing up RAM for other operations.

6. 2 Instrumental Summary

We have looked at the architecture for each of the instruments available to be used in the score for Ménilmontant within the main categories and they are:

1. Real Instruments 2. The Musicians 3. The Virtual Instruments and 4. SBOS

82 Within these four categories of instruments lies an extreme range of sonic choices and possibilities from acoustically and virtually generated sounds. Using the format shown in figure 2, I was able to use a holistic approach to compose and group sounds to construct a sonic palette rather than proceed along the traditional linear compositional pathways shown in figure 1. This enabled me to focus more clearly on the final sound outcomes regardless of the types of instrumentation I was using.

The choice of sequencing software also has a major bearing on the technical process. Currently many SBOS programmers use either Digital Performer, Cubase (Nuendo) or Logic Pro (in no particular order), and each program has its strengths and weaknesses. Many composers and programmers remain loyal to a particular software brand because of the learning curve associated with sequencers, and because they may also have customized sets of user preferences for using MIDI controllers, making it a time-consuming operation to switch.

As the sequencer acts as a hub within the Collective Conceptualization process, it serves as an integral focus point where many of the abstract aspects are formally gathered together in preparation for practical operations. While a full explanation is not needed it is important to understand its basic operation.

6.2.1 The Sequencer – Logic Pro

Sequencer software can be thought of as a sophisticated recording and mixing package, capable of manipulating various types of audio, both real and virtual. Most sequencers have similar main pages and functions that can be broken down thus:

1. The Arrange page – a visual guide to the instruments being used 2. The Mixer page – a representation a typical outboard mixing board

83 3. The Audio page – a list of the audio files that have been recorded or imported and audio editing tools e.g. time stretching, pitch shifting etc. 4. The Score page – where data is displayed as notation 5. The Piano Roll page – where data is displayed on a linear visual format

Editing can be done on these pages and there are usually many other pages available for editing such as data pages where events are listed digitally. Importantly, the arrange page shows a range of tracks sourced from either recorded audio, MIDI tracks, virtual instrument tracks or SBOS instruments and there can also be auxiliary tracks, busses etc listed. The arrange and mixer pages can be thought of as the hubs where the instruments are aesthetically combined to form the final audio product.

The mixer page is the visual representation of every sound component such as a (recorded) live audio track, virtual or SBOS instrumentation or hosted plug-ins and sound processors. It is the page where the final mix is readied and many of the traditional mixing processes such as gain control, panning, the manual adjustment of faders (for ‘on the fly’ audio level control) or the insertion and application of effects can be programmed as automated processes. As an example, it is possible to isolate a problematic bar of a recorded instrument track, re-equalize the track just for the required number of beats, and then return the instrument to its prior equalization setting, all in an automated function. Automation can be applied to a myriad of audio parameters.

Sound mixing for film is an area where experience is vital as it is the final step in the sound process. Although Logic and all the popular sequencers can render mixes in surround sound, the format for the sound mix for Ménilmontant is stereo (not 5.1 or 7.1 surround as it is for modern cinema releases) because there is no advantage in using a surround format purely for stereo score files.

84 6. 3 The Collective Conceptualization Process used on Ménilmontant.

In order to set a theoretical framework on which to evaluate the score for Ménilmontant, it is vital to consider the aesthetic choices made by Davis and Einhorn and the precedents that they have set in Chapter 2. By doing so, the author can compare those precedents to the aesthetic decisions taken in the score for Ménilmontant. Broadly speaking, Davis’ aesthetic choices were governed by his wish to remain ‘in the same world,’ and to ensure seamless transitions between the music of Gounod (and others) and his own. The overriding factor for Davis’ aesthetic approach was stylistic accuracy.

On the other hand, Einhorn by his own admission connected with the historical, ethereal and spiritual aspect of the chronicle of La Passion de Jeanne d’ Arc. He placed great importance on preserving the liturgical context of the chants in the libretto, and felt compelled to undertake extensive research on Gregorian chant and medieval and renaissance works to maintain historical authenticity with regard to instrumentation. Finally, these factors were complemented by his desire to maintain the integrity of the sonic domain and whenever possible, his use of original musical artefacts. The overriding factor for Einhorn’s aesthetic approach was historical accuracy.

My aesthetic approach to the score for Ménilmontant was shaped foremost by the conceptual shift brought about by the use of physical and virtual instrumentation in the recording and/or composition studio. Specifically, this shift has radically altered the way that composers conceptualize and produce their scores, because of the need to abstractly foregather a cluster of real and virtual instrumentation in preparation for the actual compositional process – i.e. the Collective Conceptualization approach.

85 The Collective Conceptualization process for Ménilmontant began with the overall sonic impression. Like Carl Davis, I felt that the score needed to be sit stylistically with the music of Paris in the 1920s, and in order to do that, apart from achieving the appropriate tonal characteristics, I wanted as much homogeneity between the virtual and the real instrumentation as possible. Like Richard Einhorn, I felt that it was crucial to maintain historical ties with regard to instrumentation. Aside from the orchestra there is a range of acoustic instruments including accordion, ukulele, mandolin, glockenspiel, pan flute, bass, piano, jazz , assorted percussion and a soprano vocal. These were used predominantly in the jazz-influenced passages of the score and were some of the instruments in common use around Paris in the 1920s. I also reflected on the historical nature of Ménilmontant and I was mindful that the challenges I faced were the same challenges that were faced by film score composers ranging from Davis and Einhorn to Satie, Saint-Saëns, Bernard Herrmann and John Williams. These challenges include balancing factors such as:

a. Historical accuracy and its importance and relevance in the film’s plot b. Characterization – building a descriptive motif (or not) c. Dramatic theme – the general mood, playing the drama d. Geographical factors – diegetic and non-diegetic references e. The inclusion of devices used by the above composers

The orchestral sequences in the score were produced in the virtual domain using SBOS. However, the complexity of the process is such that it requires large amounts of processing power and is time consuming. It can also be very expensive: at the time of writing, sought after Hollywood MIDI arrangers/programmers are earning in excess of $US50000 per feature score.

Even with the improvement in SBOS techniques there are limitations that have a direct affect on the aesthetic approach one takes. For example, even though instrument samples are recorded at various dynamic levels and with many articulations, recreating the overall dynamic levels of an acoustic

86 orchestra is problematic, particularly in sparse, softer passages. Likewise, it is difficult to mimic the dynamics and power of a symphonic orchestra playing fortissimo. As a result, the composer may opt to score around these restrictions by incorporating other articulations, or by conceptualizing the part differently. This can include prioritising the melody, simplifying the instrumentation, and using tutti passages. There are indeed countless ways to rebalance the instrumentation and dynamics.

6. 4 The Aesthetic Approach in the Score for Ménilmontant

6.4.1 The Synopsis

During my research I have read many different accounts of the synopsis of Ménilmontant. Few authors seem to agree on the major points in the plot, so I thought it relevant to give my own account, having viewed the film countless times. Additionally, my interpretation of the narrative had a direct impact on the Collective Conceptualization process and my musical decisions regarding appropriateness.

The film centres on two adolescent sisters who flee the countryside to the streets of Paris, specifically to the working-class 20th arrondissement, Ménilmontant. Here they work together making dried flower bouquets after the unexplained and brutal murder of their parents. The younger sister, played by Kirsanoff’s wife, Nadia Sirbirskaïa, falls in love with an amoral young man (Guy Belmore) and this results in pregnancy. Meanwhile, her older sister, (Yolande Beaulieu) having entered the sordid world of prostitution, is also seeing the same young man. After giving birth, the younger sister is left homeless, cold and destitute and on the verge of suicide following the realization that the young man and her sister had deceived her.

In an extraordinarily moving sequence, (cue 14 – ‘Cold Desperation’) mother and illegitimate infant sit cold and hungry on a park bench. An old man sitting next to them kindly places pieces of bread on the bench between them

87 that she eventually accepts while choking back tears of gratitude. Even though there is a brief mutual acknowledgement, their eyes never meet and they remain in a lonely and detached space. During the three and one-half minute scene, the cold young mother conjures up images of a well-to-do French villa with a bedroom and an open fire, a dog sleeping on a cushion next to the bed and in another room, a long dining table, adorned with freshly picked flowers and set for dinner.

She thinks of a plush bathroom with clean towels and hot running water before she shakes her head, as if to scatter the thoughts of her dream before coming back to the reality of her lonely plight, and the camera once again focuses on the image of the desperate young woman and child. Kirsanoff’s stark montage depicts the utter hopelessness of her situation – in the desperation to care for her child she accepts food from a kind stranger. Highlighting the struggles of the working class and unemployed, Kirsanoff also used a similar mise en scène - lonely people on a park bench - in a sequence from his earlier, lost film, L’Ironie du destin.108

Sometime later, we see the older sister pacing up and down on a street outside a hotel wearing a coat and high heels. She waits for customers and by the look of her demeanour and clothes, appears to have turned to prostitution. The younger sister happens to be walking up the laneway with her baby and the two sisters are subsequently reunited and all is forgiven. The older sister appears overwhelmed at being an aunt and dotes on the newborn baby. The sisters’ paths have now diverged and, as this is the last sequence in which we see them, we are left to ponder their fate.

In an ironic final twist, an unknown woman pursues the unscrupulous young man who has been watching the sisters’ reunion from a nearby corner. The woman (with whom he appears to have an unknown history) is introduced as a hungry, petty thief.

108 L’Ironie du Destin, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff, with Nadia Sirbirskaïa (France: Dimitri Kirsanoff Production, 1923).

88 On a bar table in a hotel we see her pilfering pieces of bread and swilling half finished drinks. In a penultimate scene strikingly similar to the opening sequence, the woman starts to argue and push the unscrupulous young man, who tries to escape through a door on the street before it closes. Suddenly another unknown man joins the woman in pursuit. They attack the young man and after beating him with their fists the woman abruptly picks up a large stone and brings it down hard on the young man’s head, killing him. They then drag his body around the side of the street, out of sight. The reason behind the attack is never made clear. Like the opening murder scene, Kirsanoff creates a whirlwind of fast close-up shots that characterize the violence of murder. A brief shot of busy hands making dried flower bouquets leads us to believe that all ends well for the sisters, before the diegetic focus moves back to the young man,

Confirming Abel’s claim that portions of the film are open to interpretation, Peter Kobel writes:

Russian émigré director, Dimitri Kirsanoff, working in Paris, made one of the most powerful experimental films of the time. Ménilmontant, (1926). Beautifully filmed, it also has a strong narrative: it begins with two sisters murdering their parents with an axe, then heading for Paris. There, a man seduces and impregnates the younger girl, then abandons her for her sister. It ends with his murder.109

Kobel’s curt interpretation of the opening scene however, is incorrect and clearly at odds with other explanations – a man can clearly be seen wielding the axe while the sisters are nowhere to be seen.

Abel’s thoughts on structural parallels refer to the series of juxtapositions in the plot. There are two sisters whose paths diverge throughout the film; there are two sexual episodes (possibly deflorations); there are two scenes where we see girls making dried bouquets; there are two grisly murders (firstly the girls’ parents and at the end, the young man); twice we see the younger sister

109 Kobel, 90.

89 recoil in horror (once when she sees the bodies of her parents, and then when see realises the young man has betrayed her and is sleeping with her sister); there are two scenes where we see the younger girls playing and dancing (firstly diegetically and then as a flashback); there are two Parisian street montages (the first is upbeat while the mood set for the second is one of trepidation), and two men occupy the park bench (firstly the young man who then he is replaced by the kind old man).

Kirsanoff’s montage style camera work and rapid-shot editing have contributed to many interpretations of the plot in Ménilmontant. Here is one such interpretation from Alan Williams:

The story begins and ends with two unrelated, but similarly filmed and edited murders. In each case, the grisly event does not grow organically out of the plot, but seems to surge out of a world welling with violent impulses. Ménilmontant uses practically all of the typical stylistic devices of cinematic impressionism, but it is hard to consider it as in any way representative of the movement. Its overwhelming, virtually unrelieved violence and despair seem to infect its own storytelling agency, upsetting what in other directors’ works would be clearly delineated relations of parts to the whole. The film contains several bursts of rapid editing, for example, but they are not rhythmic in any simple, narratively justified way (in the manner of Abel Gance, for example); their meter is complicated and unsettling, worthy of an . Ménilmontant is, quite deliberately, a film in which the formal centre cannot hold, because it is about a world in which this is also true. Although certainly not a Surrealist work, it shares with Surrealism not only a fascination with violence and sexuality, but also a display of forces that transcend, and question the boundaries of, individual human consciousness.110

In keeping with other avant-garde silent films, Kirsanoff used a mélange of shooting styles, and this is most evident in the opening murder scene. There

110 Alan Williams, Republic of Images: A History of French Filmmaking (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 150.

90 is no warning for what we are about to witness, there is no establishing shot before the camera focuses inside on the door window and the lace curtain that is violently ripped aside as a man and woman desperately fight to escape the clutches of a frenzied attack from an axe-wielding maniac. During a series of over twenty shots of heads, arms and falling bodies the pair try in vain to escape the savagery but are killed by the final, brutal blows. Kirsanoff’s decision to dispense with intertitles ensures the murderer and his reasons for killing the pair remains a mystery. After we see weapon thrown down onto the muddy street, Kirsanoff then cuts to a shot of the aftermath of the attack; the broken door window is ajar and the table inside is upturned, and the camera then moves inside to the gently smouldering fire for the final dissolve. Rather than manifesting themselves as detached sequences, Kirsanoff creates a metaphorical, flowing montage.

In a sharp contrast, the next scene cuts to the two young sisters wearing white bows in their hair, happily playing in the woods and oblivious to the nearby discovery of bodies (presumably the girls’ murdered parents) by the local townspeople. The younger sister running toward the group suddenly stops and, through a series of extreme close-ups, makes the horrific realization that the bodies are those of her parents. She then rushes hysterically back to the arms of her older sister, who appears to have already grasped the tragedy of the situation.

After the dissolve we are immersed in a pastiche reminiscent of the end of scene one, as Kirsanoff cuts to a panorama of smoke rising from a chimney top before panning across the rooftops to the church cemetery, where the camera focuses on the two sisters huddling together in a state of mourning. Dressed in black and standing amongst elaborate gravestones, they are at first almost indistinguishable from their surroundings. It is then, through a long series of superimposed shots of their faces, that we feel the girls’ pain and the realization that they are now alone together. The final montage in the cemetery focuses on headstones overgrown with grass and images of their parents’ crosses and wreaths. It then crosses to a series of overlapping long shots of the girls walking arm-in-arm down a tree-lined country road. Here

91 they appear to be walking into the future, alone and with only their destiny before them. Parisian street scenes, surreal dream-like sequences where the younger sister dreams of a warm, comfortable home, superimposed flashbacks to the girls’ happy childhood and the happy sequence of the two girls excitedly bouncing on their bed with their cat on a Sunday morning after receiving an invitation for an outing (presumably from the young man) are Kirsanoff’s supporting framework that contrast the issues he felt strongly about. Most importantly he explored the themes of violence, betrayal, victimization and sexual deception, as they lay starkly poised among the humdrum of everyday life. The final montage suggests that these issues are often interwoven with our human world as we see passing landscapes, lampposts and trees silhouetted against the cloudy sky, and finally the hands at work making bouquets – life goes on.

Having looked at the synopsis, the next section focuses on selected cues within the score. These specific cues have been chosen as they represent the range of compositional styles and instrumentation used within the score, including the opening and closing waltzes, (cues 1 and 18) the sole vocal scene, (cue 8) and what is generally thought to be the most poignant scene in the film (cue 14) that I have named, ‘Cold Desperation.’ The full score for Ménilmontant is included at Appendix A.

6.4.2 Cues 1 and 18 – The Opening & Closing Waltzes

Kirsanoff was himself also a musician, having trained formally on the cello, and was active in film orchestras. His later film work was usually scored, such as the 1928 short film, Brumes D’Autumne with music by Paul Devred.111 Using a small orchestra and soprano voice ‘put together according to musical formulae’ the score is stylistically comparable to Satie’s score for Entr’acte. 112

111 Brumes D’Autumne, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff (France: Mentor-Film, 1928). 112 Walter Michel, ‘In Memoriam of Dimitri Kirsanoff, A Neglected Master,’ Film Culture 15 (1957) (accessed 11 October 2012, http://www.ubu.com/papers/michel_walter-kirsanov_memoriam.html

92 Kirsanoff’s Rapt,113 (1934) was scored by Arthur Honegger, ‘one of the finest of all sound films.’114 Having heard excerpts of these scores I began to formulate thematic ideas for the opening cue. The first frames of the film show Kirsanoff’s name, slowly coming in to focus, with elegant black on white typography, slowly fading to reveal the film title. Focussing on these first frames of the film, I wanted the audience to instantly identify with Ménilmontant both historically and geographically. The challenge in doing so is in keeping with Anahid Kassabian’s advice:

People subconsciously acquire socio-historically specific musical languages that function for them and for those who address them musically.115

To put that another way, people, both filmmakers and audiences, learn the roles that music serves in film and then call upon it during actual film events. Knowing only too well the violent and brutal content of the following scenes, the thematic concept for the opening scene firmed in my mind: a waltz played by the orchestra and led by the accordion – something uplifting that was instantly and undeniably French in origin. The live instruments for this cue are accordion, ukulele, snare drum, cymbal, tambourine and cabasa. The SBOS instruments are the full string section with violas and basses, and there are no virtual instruments. (See figure 25 below)

These were the first cues composed for the film. The challenge was to use these cues as a sonic model for the integration of real and virtual instrumentation, and then use this as an artistic framework throughout the score. In order to achieve this, there needed to be as much homogeneity between the various sonic sources as possible. Particular attention was paid to linear programming (e.g. inputting 4-part harmonies as sequential melodies) and note velocities to achieve as much realism as possible.

113 Rapt, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff (France: Mentor-Film, 1934). 114 Michel, ibid. 115 Anahid Kassabian, Hearing Film: Tracking Identifications in Contemporary Hollywood Film Music (USA: New York: Routledge, 2001), 49.

93 In order to create a positive and memorable opening waltz, my intention was to generate considerable harmonic movement using tension derived from various cadential forms. The opening waltz is played maestoso: beginning at VI and progressing down to V (bar 2) there is an interrupted cadence as III moves back through V (3rd in the bass) to chromatically approach the tonic, descending stepwise through B♭, before returning to VI. (Bar 5) Moving to the subdominant (bar 6) and ascending through ♯iv° to V, a stepwise descent through the F bass leads to III+ (bar 8) before heading through V, and this deceptive cadence marks the end of the first eight bar section.

Structurally, the 2nd eight bar section is a repeat of the first, except that the subdominant (Fm) is substituted for VI (A♭) in bars 9 and 13, bar 14 substitutes VI for the subdominant, (A♭ for Fm) and both are followed by chromatically ascending diminished chords to arrive at the stepwise turnaround that begins on the V and descends to the supertonic.

The inclusion of deceptive cadences (in bars 2-3 and 10-11) helps to maintain tension and momentum. There are multi phrase patterns of parallel and asymmetrical construction contained in bars 1-16. The melody in bars 1-8 is rhythmically identical to the second eight bar section and forms a parallel construction as the ideas of one phrase are repeated. The phrase in bar 5 is harmonized by a diatonic 3rd in bar 13 and the first half of the motif in bar 6 is inverted (by a tri-tone) in bar 14, before passing through chord and passing tones and finally resolving to the fifth and tonic of the chords, respectively in bars 7 and 15. Melodically, bars 1-8 comprise a series of motifs that are then grouped into sub-phrases that form phrases. Starting with the anacrusis into bar 1 and finishing with the C natural on the third quaver of bar 1, this motif is developed by way of sequence and finishes on a B natural on the third quaver of bar 2, thereby forming the first sub-phrase. The 4-note motif starting on B natural on beat 3 of bar 2, is rhythmically repeated twice (minus its last note – asymmetrical phrases) starting on the fourth quaver of bar 3 and ending on beat 1 of bar 4. These motifs form the second sub-phrase. Both sub-phrases together form the 7-bar phrase group that ends in the authentic

94

Figure 25. Excerpt from the Opening Titles for Ménilmontant cadence in bar 3 into bar 4. In the version of the waltz for the closing titles, there is an added 9-bar bridge, beginning in the relative major key (C major). With the cello section taking over the melody from the accordion, (00:38:52:00) there is an authentic cadence (ii – V – I7) before passing through Ebº to A7, (V of ii) and then the cadence is repeated before the bar of Ab – G7, (VI – V) which is repeated twice with accents from the drums and percussion section. The bridge section ends on the dominant G7 (V) in preparation for the tonic key (Cm).

95 The last frame in the film is the composer’s credit and the theme ends on the fade to black. The inclusion of the bridge in the closing waltz provides tonal contrast and this version would have been included in the beginning of the film had there been enough screen time over the opening credits.

6.4.3 Cue 8 – ‘He’s a Man’

The definitive study of the film is that written by Richard Abel in French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915-1929.116 Abel’s admission that the story is ‘complicated and ambiguous’ is an introduction to a film where the entire plot is delivered to the audience via imagery. While nearly all silent-film directors used intertitles to clarify puzzling twists in the plot, Kirsanoff opted for the flow of narrative and continuity rather than to include disruptive titles.117 Abel explains that, ‘the film achieves its coherence through a strategy of structural parallels and repetitions.’118

The ambiguity in the plot (along with the absence of intertitles there were no directorial instructions) brought complex challenges as far as reading the tone of certain scenes. With no dialog, there was often more than one way to score a scene and get it tonally correct. A clear example is in the cue from Scene 8 entitled ‘He’s a Man’ (00:13:41:00), where the young man is trying to seduce the younger sister. I have chosen to analyse this cue firstly because instrumentally it comprises both orchestral and traditional jazz instrumentation and it was challenging in terms of sonically blending the various sounds. Secondly, it was unique in that it was the only vocal song in the score.

Here, there were several possibilities that were suitable, and originally I opted to use an atmospheric piano background to accompany the on-screen

116 Abel, 395-402. 117 Abel, 396. 118 Abel, 397.

96 drama. I was aware that, because of the nature of the subject matter, the underscore for the film thus far (apart from sections of the scene entitled ‘Sunday Sleeping’) had been quite sombre tonally.

Ultimately, I chose to write a torch song principally to inject some humour into the film. Rather than score the scene from the ‘outside’, I decided to score it from the point of view of the younger sister. In order to do this I made the decision to write a song with lyrics and I felt that the outcome justified my reasoning. In a story where there is more tragedy than hope, the bad guy receives some well-deserved criticism. Lyrically, I wrote as ambivalently as possible in an attempt to capture what was going through the younger sister’s mind at that time:

Lyrics from Cue 8 – ‘He’s a Man’

He may be brash and bold, my dreams come true? and not so very old, but He’s a Man I take his charms, and feel his loving arms again He says he chooses me over all the girls he sees, and I know he’s bad but at times I He’s a Man find him irresistible

Some men are better lookin’ And he’ll never change but I and not so hard at pushin’ but hope to find the will to abstain He’s a Man from him

I try to see the best in him He may be brash and bold, sometimes the task is grim, but and not so very old, but He’s a Man He’s a Man

Will I give in, to his charms? He says he chooses me over because, I want to all the girls he sees, and Is it true love, that I feel, will He’s a Man….

97 From a musical perspective, a priority was to retain homogeny with the rest of the score and this accounts for the inclusion of the traditional live jazz ensemble instrumentation, which included piano, drums, ukulele and percussion. However, the remainder of the instrumentation for this cue (apart from the vocal) is generated virtually via SBOS. The virtual instruments that I considered to be aesthetically vital to include were two trumpets, two trombones, tuba, (playing the bass part along with the piano) three clarinets and a bass clarinet. The inclusion of the tuba and the horn/woodwind section, as well as validating historical and stylistic factors also helped to emphasise the satirical element found in the lyrics.

6.4.4 Cue 14 – ‘Cold Desperation’

I have included this scene in the analysis because it represents the emotional apex of the film and the score needed to clearly reflect this. The cue consists of around 90% virtual and SBOS instrumentation and runs for nearly four minutes. Compositionally, I tried to approach this scene in the way that I thought Bernard Herrmann might have done, yet I applied the techniques used by Newman and Zimmer with regard to studio collaboration with live and virtual instruments.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, scene 14 is a pivotal scene in the film and is often referred to in literature. Commenting on the dissolve from scene 13 to scene 14 (00:28:42:00), Abel notes:

What keeps her from committing suicide? As if in answer, the young man who deserted her is shown sitting on a park bench. He gets up to leave, and Sibirskaia and her baby dissolve in, sitting next to the spot he has just left. Is this an imaginary image, suggesting her final recognition of his abandonment, or an ironic condensation of time, creating a near meeting and reconciliation that never occur? 119

119 Abel, 400.

98 This scene presented a unique challenge because I felt that a link needed to exist between the younger sister’s deeply sad nostalgia and the earlier feelings of despondency she feels during the end of scene 4 – the Cemetery (00:03:47:00) – particularly the section that commences on the extreme close-up. In cue 4 the theme represents the disabling grief felt by both sisters after the brutal and senseless death of their parents. In cue 14, while retaining the deep sadness of loss, it also symbolizes the culmination of emotions she feels as a result of her abandonment by both the young man and her sister, in addition to the loneliness, despair and sense of hopeless gratification she feels toward the kind stranger sitting next to her on the bench, sharing his scraps of food. In a sense this theme could be described as leitmotif, but rather than thematically representing a character or place, it represents the emotions described above, with the same pain being felt by the young girl, even though the events causing her pain occur at different times and places. Although the two scenes contain comparable emotional subject matter, they occur some 25 minutes apart in the film, and I believe that sharing the same thematic idea created a narrative link between them and added to the overall homogeny of the score.

6. 5 Summary of the Aesthetic Approach

The approach I used was in effect, a culmination of techniques used by the composers within this study, but predictably with an emphasis on the methods of Newman and Zimmer, as they too, work with real and virtual instrumentation. From the point of view of rescoring a silent film, I took into account the historical precedents set by composers such as Satie, Saint-Saëns and Breil, and balanced these with the methodologies of current practitioners. Having studied the techniques the composers used in the real versus virtual studio environment, gave me a clear vision as to the direction I wanted to take artistically. Dealing with economic constraints that are not a part of the Newman/Zimmer methodology, was at times, frustrating, but this served to drive creative factors within me and think more deeply about Collective Conceptualization.

99 6. 6 Technical Issues

A typical example of the technical issues faced was the process of recording the accordion. The accordion can be a difficult instrument to record well. It requires a microphone placed at each end of the instrument; one at the bellows and also one where the sound grille is located. But because the accordionist needs to move around in order to pump air through the bellows, crucial decisions concerning microphone placement and compression levels need to be made in order to capture the sound cleanly. This is further compounded by to the need to exclude the mechanical sounds (from the bellows, keys and buttons) from the recording.

There were similar challenges on each cue in the score due chiefly to the inherent audio characteristics of digital technology or more accurately, the combination of SBOS, virtual instruments and digital audio. These combined sources often introduce unwanted audio characteristics that are sometimes difficult to identify and remove. Because these instruments were routinely mixed with acoustic instruments using the hybrid approach, it was crucial to indentify and remove these transients before the mastering process. For these reasons, the mixing process itself was problematic. Although the SBOS sampled instruments are recorded and processed in state-of-the-art recording facilities (string sections for example, use a total 30-40 instruments and higher), all of these instruments have been processed through the same audio equipment, which can lead to harshness as a result of certain frequencies being overrepresented. Matching the tone, warmth and natural fidelity of acoustic instruments is one of the difficulties that need to be overcome with processing when working with SBOS and virtual instruments.

In summary, the plethora of technical problems faced emphasises the need for the independent composer practising Collective Conceptualization to possess advanced audio engineering knowledge and skills, in addition to the essential skills already covered in this study. Overcoming technical challenges

100 can be time-consuming, especially if specific research needs to be applied. Fortunately, there are many publications and professional online forums dedicated to addressing application-specific problems. Although I already had knowledge of the mastering process, and routinely mastered audio for television and small projects, audio professionals mastered previous film scores I had composed in the post-audio process – during the mixing and sound effects phase. Again, because of economic restraints, I needed to complete a two-week on online mastering course to learn about final audio levels, compression levels for cinema etc.

6. 7 Precis

Throughout the composition and production phase of the score for Ménilmontant, one of the major challenges has been to assimilate the knowledge gained from the research into contemporary film score music production into my own conceptual space. This has been due in large part to practical aspects such as economic constraints, limitations with studio space, and limitations with regard to session musicians and access to instrumentation. There have been countless occasions when I needed to record a particular acoustic/real instrument that I felt could not be successfully substituted by something virtual. However, that is an artistic condition that many composers are forced to accept, and a vital stimulant and incentive for software designers worldwide.

Assimilating the theoretical and aesthetic knowledge is often an exercise in viewing, listening and analysing because of the lack of up-to-date research completed in this specific area. I have built up a library of recommended films and scores for study and I spend considerable time examining them. The process of assimilation is time consuming because of the subjective nature of film scoring, and what may seem appropriate to one viewer may not seem appropriate to another. Above all, close consideration needs to be given to the appropriateness of the music to the narrative and moving image. For

101 confirmation of this, one need only view the long list of rejected major film scores by well-known composers.120

Many of the recommended scores have been researched and commented on so that the overarching opinion of film historians is known. This is the barometer I have used where issues of appropriateness are in question. Once I feel that I have assimilated knowledge I feel comfortable engaging with that specific process or operation and I can then incorporate it into the Collective Conceptualization process. A particular example of this in a technical sense is the mastering issue on the previous page. When making judgements about the aesthetic decisions composers have taken however, a deeper level of analysis is required. For example, musically transcribing a scene in a film and then analysing the harmonic, melodic, rhythmic and timbral content. Once this is completed, one needs to consider, especially with virtual instrumentation, the tonal elements. Lastly, the issue of appropriateness needs to be examined and there are many trains of thought: whose point of view to portray, scoring the action or not scoring the action, (this is less syncopated than mickey-mousing) playing the situation, how dramatically to score the scene, whether to incorporate leitmotif(s), scoring diegetically, underscoring dialog or, hardest of all, scoring the scene that needs music to sound like nothing. (i.e. furniture music – see page 33, Satie’s letter to Jean Cocteau)

I believe that I have been able to assimilate and incorporate much of the knowledge that I have unearthed during this study, and it has enabled me to create the Collective Conceptualization framework that in turn, has helped me in my role as film score composer, and mediator of the physical and virtual recording space.

120 Cooke, 493.

102 7 REFLECTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

At this final stage it is helpful to revisit and respond to the research questions and aims outlined in the Introduction.

7. 1 Research Questions

1. How have film score compositional methodologies evolved to the present day?

Film music is subjective and as such, the perfect film score does not and will never exist. When viewing a film, humans react in specific ways and are subjected to a variety of emotions. As Manvell and Huntley point out, ‘the chief reason for introducing music to the (film) studios was, of course, to help the actors to create the correct mood and atmosphere in the particular scene they were playing.’121

As film production standards progressively developed in degrees of sophistication, so too did the musical scores that accompanied them. As mentioned earlier, the revolution in digital technology has brought about advances in all aspects of film production, and audio and film score production has transformed accordingly. The film score, once thought of as merely musical accompaniment, has now evolved in its own right. Many composers engage in what could be termed oblique scoring, or composing emotionally contrasting music for a scene, for example lighter music for a sad scene. In Ménilmontant, Scene 8, ‘He’s A Man’ is an example of this type of scoring. While it could be argued that Satie, for example, employed this technique during parts of the funeral procession scene in Entr’acte in 1924, the practice should be considered an exception rather than the rule.

121 Manvell and Huntley, 28.

103 The ‘Golden Era’ Hollywood composers mentioned in Chapter 4 established the symphonic, classical model of film music. As Cooke points out,

Indeed, a ‘symphonic’ or and indestructibly-tonal romanticism was so deeply ingrained in the consciousness of movie-goers and film composers that any dash of colour such as jazz, extreme chromaticism or atmospheric harmonies and suggestive instrumentation borrowed from more modern French impressionist composers such as Debussy and Ravel was instantly perceived as exotic and ‘other’ to the prevailing heart-on-sleeve melody-based norm.122

From the mid 1960s, however, composers such as Jerry Goldsmith began to break free of these traditions and challenged the association through instrumentation concept by introducing representational musical elements that were at odds with the visual images. An example of this was outlined in Chapter 4 with regard to ‘The Hunt’ from Planet of the Apes (00:29:53:00), where the scene depicts the natives being hunted by the apes. Here Goldsmith uses sophisticated harmonic language and instrumentation that hitherto was not normally associated with hunting scenes. On this point Cooke notes,

One of the most fascinating aspects of modernist film music is that most move-goers are perfectly content to listen in the cinema to the kind of grittily dissonant, often athematic and seemingly randomly shaped avant-garde propositions that they would be unlikely to tolerate when divorced from the visual images by which they seem to be justified.123

The research undertaken in this project has helped to clarify ways in which film score methodologies have evolved in terms of aesthetics as in the examples above, but with the arrival of digital technology and virtual instruments, the assimilation and development of the Conceptual

122 Cooke, 78. 123 Cooke, 199.

104 Conceptualization process looms as a constant challenge for film score composers.

I believe that the arrival of digital technology and virtual instruments has had the effect of simplifying the compositional aspect of film scoring for many composers. By that I mean that, putting the technical productions factors to one side, because of the infinitely wider scope of sonic possibilities now within one’s grasp, increasingly composers are simplifying the thematic/harmonic aspect, and placing prominence on the sonic realm.

2. How does the conceptual space – whether physical or virtual – shape the composer’s creativity and methodology?

The film composer’s conceptual space can take the form of the abstract workspace where embryonic thoughts and neural processes are associated, gathered and developed from inception to culmination. It can also be a physical space where composition and/or recording, and the design of the sonic palette, takes place. In both cases it is directly responsible for the composer’s musical output. As such, it should be identified and recognized as one of the fundamentals that are essential to comprehend in order to become competent in the art of film score composition. Clearly, the conceptual space is a tool that the composer needs to master in every way, and should be approached in much the same way as a student studies , music history, arranging or instrumentation.

Chapter 5 of this study looked at the ways that composers Thomas Newman and Hans Zimmer manipulated sonic factors within the conceptual space in order to produce specific musical outcomes to great effect. Collective Conceptualization shapes the composer’s creativity and methodology by operating as the critical focal point of the knowledge that the composer has acquired as a result of the theoretical and practical processes that he or she has put into practice. It is the physical, theoretical and spiritual embodiment of the sum total of knowledge of the art of film score composition.

105 3. What is the nature of the interaction between composer and performer/s within that space?

Each composer has his or her own preferences in terms of dealing with performers in the recording studio. Capturing the best takes can be an art in itself especially when improvisation and embellishment are required. In Chapter 5 Bill Bernstein was quoted while discussing the core group of musicians that collaborate with Thomas Newman, saying, ‘we’ll play very nascent ideas and start adding stuff over it. This is a great time to be really creative.’ Newman mentions how he uses the musicians to develop rhythmic cells to ‘make them more sonically interesting.’ This is a collaborative musical process that had been refined over many years – although it involves a delicate balance of experimentation and improvisation, Newman’s skill and experience enables him to extract the best performances from his players – and he relies on these performances to the same degree as he would if the musicians were sight-reading from a pre-written score.

During the recording sessions I conducted for the score for Ménilmontant, I felt that the interactions between the musicians and myself were inventive and innovatory and stimulated creativity. There was an reciprocal atmosphere as far as encouraging experimentation; at times I would try out playing various sonic textures or harmonies along with the film or overdub percussive parts while the musicians were performing. Using operations such as cycle recording, there would sometimes be thirty takes of a particular part that would then be made available for editing. I found that recording this way lessens the expectations and the pressure to perform that some musicians feel.

Specifically, for cues 1 and 18, the opening and closing waltzes, I used the cycle recording feature for the accordionist and the ukulele player. This was mainly because I sensed a degree of nervousness, and this was probably due to the fact that it was a new environment for the musicians, whom I had not met before. The musicians were not familiar with the cycle recording technique, but they seemed relieved after I explained that the repetitive

106 process was designed to capture and edit the best takes and fine nuances in their performances. Once the musicians had settled into the session, I also invited them to offer suggestions on how to develop and enhance the performance approach, or any other ideas they may have. They were keen to collaborate in this way and I appreciated their input. Most of the suggestions were creative and constructive and enhanced the overall musical aesthetic that I was trying for.

Although I had used similar techniques before, these methods of recording also used by Newman and Zimmer, profoundly influenced the collaborative approach to recording the score for Ménilmontant. As a result of using these methods, there were many instances where newly developed instrumental parts are featured on the final version of the score. One example is again, the waltzes. Originally there were pizzicato double stops on the violas on beats 2 and 3, and on 5 and 6, in a repetitive rhythm figure. (See figure 25) Purely on a whim, I happened to give the ukulele player the concert score I had prepared for the session, and asked if he could play along with the programmed SBOS sequence as I was setting up the microphones in preparation for recording the accordion parts. I felt that the ‘organic’ sound and feel of the ukulele part complimented the pizzicato violas – aesthetically, it sounded more French to me and so I decided to include the new ukulele part on the main theme. Listening to the final mix as compared to an earlier one without the ukulele, I feel that the theme is much less formal, less Straussian, and much more Parisian.

Similar outcomes were achieved on other cues. Much of the credit in these situations goes to the individual musicians involved in the recording sessions. When the musicians exhibit the characteristics of a generous artistic , and a desire to collaborate in the virtual and real studio environment – provided a creative atmosphere exists – the chances of generating innovative and original musical elements escalate. As Newman and Zimmer have shown though, the musicians involved need to be on familiar ground in terms of working and interacting with virtual instruments. For some musicians this is not a problem, however, there are practical issues such as latency, that can

107 substantially upset the flow of the session. Latency, a delay caused by data bottlenecks within the DAW, is a problem in some recording situations and requires the musician(s) to play behind the beat.

4. Can the approach to the composer’s conceptual space as demonstrated in the creation of a score for Ménilmontant be analysed and developed into a coherent compositional methodology?

The conceptual space can be thought of as where the process of Collective Conceptualization takes place. As such, all of the processes and operations integral to composing and producing the score for Ménilmontant have occurred as a result of the application of Collective Conceptualization. This study has shown how other composers (from various eras) have approached the challenges of film scoring, whether from the point of view of the real time or virtual/hybrid approaches. Regardless of which approach is used, all composers use the conceptual space to conceive the embryonic thoughts that are eventually developed into music. This study has put forward the theory that the process of Collective Conceptualization has come about as an exigency of the increased musical and sonic possibilities that are a result of the advancement of technology.

The Collective Conceptualization process is, in itself, a coherent compositional methodology (for real-time/virtual or hybrid composers) because it provides a theoretical framework within which the composer works. I believe that working within this framework has enabled me to conceive musical and sonic thoughts more clearly because, from the myriad of compositional and sonic choices I am faced with for each cue in the film, there are organized thought processes in place to facilitate making those choices. The individual examples cited in Chapter 6 from the cues in Ménilmontant constitute evidence to support this theory.

108 5. How and in what ways does the real/virtual compositional dynamics sit with the aesthetics of silent films?

In Chapter 2, figure 3 lists silent films such as Battleship Potemkin (1925)124 and Earth (1930),125 which have been the subject of re-scoring by Neil Tennant () and Jan Kopinski, respectively. I have chosen these two examples because they have been subjected to contrasting musical treatments. The former has been re-scored with a combination of real but mainly virtual instrumentation by Tennant, who appears to have made very little musical distinction between re-scoring silent film and producing a well- crafted Pet Shop Boys CD. There are scenes where atmospheric synth pads and lush orchestral string samples act as the foundation of the musical elements, that in turn, form the relationship with the moving image, before dance kick drum samples signal the entrance of a house-style drum loop.

On the other hand, Kopinski has produced a contemporary, at times dissonant, jazz score for Earth. The score is produced using real-time instrumentation but again, there appears to be little to distinguish the score from a contemporary jazz CD. The score is experimental and does not use conventional harmonic language to connect sound with the image. Factors such as music placement and visual attachment have been overlooked – the representational characteristics of the score appear at odds with the visual image.

Taking the score for Ménilmontant as a third example of the ways in which the real/virtual dynamics sit with silent film, we see yet again a contrasting aesthetic approach. It is not within the scope of this study to summarize all of the silent film re-scores listed in figure 3, however some of the scores feature hybrid and virtual instrumentation. Therefore, taking into consideration the

124 Earth, dir. Aleksandr Dovzhenko with Stepan Shkurat, Semyon Svashenko (Soviet Union: VUFKU, 1930) 125 Battleship Potemkin, dir. Sergei Eisenstein with Aleksandr Antonov, Vladimir Barsky (Soviet Union: Goskino, 1925)

109 variety of aesthetic approaches that have been used on these examples, I argue that it is not the instrumentation or the distinction between real or virtual instrumentation used that is relevant to the question, but rather, it is the aesthetic decisions made by the composer when using those elements to accompany the narrative in musical form. That is, how the composer reacts to the image and how the composer chooses to convey the emotional associations (using leitmotif for example) or not, whether to emphasise an on-screen moment or whether to use silence. As Tony Thomas points out:

It is a peculiarity of film music that if it isn’t just right, it can be very wrong. Appropriateness is the key concern and, in the happy circumstance where appropriateness is matched with inspiration, the film then gets a subtle added dimension. That, in a nutshell, is what film music is all about – the supplying of another dimension, the adding of something not conveyed by the script, the acting, the direction, or the photography.126

The fact that the question relates to silent film means that the issue of appropriateness is probably even more relevant because, in many cases, there is no director with whom the composer can confer and take direction.

In answer to question 5, I believe that the hybrid scores can and do, in the hands of skilful practitioners, fulfil the same functions as real-time scores, whether the film is silent or not. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the process is about Collective Conceptualization, it is holistic and needs to be approached on a number of intellectual levels. If a question is posed e.g. ‘Can Hans Zimmer (or John Williams for that matter) re-score a silent film?’ the answer would not be predicated by, ‘only if real-time instruments are used.’ Zimmer is surely capable of re-scoring a silent film and would probably use his standard arsenal of sonic devices that comprise hybrid methodologies. But more importantly, as Thomas mentioned above, the skilful composer uses appropriate music.

126 Thomas, 7.

110 6. How can this knowledge benefit future film score composers?

As the process constitutes an organization of operations that facilitate applied theory, it interlinks the many creative procedures involved in screen composition and production. Because the Collective Conceptualization process is, in itself, a coherent compositional methodology, it provides a simplified framework within which the composer can work.

I believe that Collective Conceptualization can help composers by nurturing, facilitating and realising creativity. By taking the view that each stage of the film scoring process is intimately interconnected, film score practitioners integrate resources from their conceptual space, within a framework that inspires creativity and clarity of thought.

7. 2 Project Aims and Objectives

1. By way of historical study and critical analysis, traditional and emerging trends in film score composition will be identified and evaluated for their impact and application to new methodological approaches to film score composition.

I believe that these trends were successfully identified and evaluated, and this is validated by the inclusion and application of many of the said processes into the score for Ménilmontant, as mentioned in Chapter 6. As expected, the methodologies of the contemporary composers Newman and Zimmer were the most relevant in this regard, and each composer’s approaches to improvisation and collaboration were incorporated into my own methodology. I envisage that I will continue to integrate and refine these approaches on future film scoring projects.

2. To identify, analyse and document the modus operandi of a range of film score composers.

111 The research documented the composers and their methods by looking at seminal works that reflected the composers’ particular musical persona and their pioneering methodology or compositional skill. Certain composers stand out as having more of an influence on my work than others. The work of Satie in general, and in particular his score for Entr’acte and its use of the modular structure, was adopted in cue 11, ‘Suspicion’. The cue consists primarily of only two modular forms – quaver-based string ostinati and a quarter-note theme played by English horn and harp – that are developed over the course of the scene.

As mentioned previously, I found the methodologies of Newman and Zimmer, as contemporary composers, to be a greater influence than the other composers studied. This was possibly due to the fact that in the case of Zimmer at least, Ménilmontant has some parallels with Sherlock Holmes. The experimental nature of the approach Zimmer used was something I put into action with Ménilmontant and had there been a budget, I would have pursued even further. Even so, the collaborative and experimental approach of both composers is an aspect I wish to explore further.

3. To make a significant contribution to the practise of film score composition by expanding on the theoretical, aesthetic and technical approaches that are integral to the conceptual/virtual studio methodology.

Through my research of the topic, I have found that a gap in the research does exist. There is no shortage of material on the study of the art of film scoring, in that there are many works dedicated to the history and analysis of the discipline. But there are very few studies of the holistic approach. I have found no examples thus far that focus on the approaches of the modern film composers such as those I have included in this exegesis.

With this in mind, I feel that this study has made valuable inroads into an area where future study is needed. It remains to be seen whether the notion of Collective Conceptualization is one that will be embraced by screen composers – I believe it would be valued by the growing number of

112 independent composers doing lower budget film/television/documentary projects.

4. To produce a score for the film Ménilmontant that demonstrates the artistic outcomes of the above.

In composing and producing the score for Ménilmontant, I created a work that embodies and assimilates all of the theories and concepts that I have discovered and absorbed during this project. To that end I believe that the work does demonstrate not only the artistic outcomes of the research, but also the theoretical and conceptual outcomes.

7. 3 Conclusion

The central subject for this discussion is the methodology and standards that need to be in place to take artistic advantage of the exponentially multiplying array of available musical/technical/sonic options. All this needs to be considered in tandem with, and complementary to, the traditional skills and roles of the film score composer. The process of Collective Conceptualization has itself been present since the earliest forms of virtual instrumentation, whether as an identified process or not.

Scoring film music is a process that requires years of dedication to the art – the creative thought involved is a highly intellectual procedure and it is this process that is the focal point of this study. Orchestrating the music can be as demanding as the composition task and now that SBOS and virtual instruments are commonplace, a comprehensive knowledge of composition, orchestration, performance practice and technique, and technology is required for the composer to integrate these elements into a successful film score. As time and technology move forward, inextricably linked, and virtual instrumentation evolves, composers will need to further develop the concept of Collective Conceptualization to include these as yet, unknown technologies.

113 8 APPENDICES

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227 8. 2 Appendix B

MÉNILMONTANT – THE FILM (DVD) AND DIGITAL VERSION OF THE EXEGESIS AND SCORE (CD)

228 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Weis, Elizabeth, and John Belton. Film Sound: Theory and Practice. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.

Wierzbicki, James. Film Music: A History. New York: Routledge, 2008.

Williams, Alan. Republic of Images: A History of French Filmmaking. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992.

Winogura, Dale. Cinemafantastique, Summer 1972: Special Planet of the Apes Issue. Los Angeles: Cinemafantastique, 1972.

Zak, Albin. The Poetics of Rock: Cutting tracks, Making Records. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

237 Film

Battleship Potemkin, dir. Sergei Eisenstein, with Aleksandr Antonov, Vladimir Barsky. Soviet Union: Goskino, 1925.

The Bride of Frankenstein, dir. James Whale, with Boris Karloff, Valerie Hobson. USA: Universal Pictures, 1935.

Between Two Worlds, dir. Edward A. Blatt, with John Garfield, Eleanor Parker. USA: Warner Bros. Pictures, 1944.

The Birth of a Nation, dir. D.W. Griffith, with Lillian Gish, Henry Walthall. USA: David W. Griffith Corp., 1915.

Brumes D’Autumne, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff, with Nadia Sirbirskaïa. France: Mentor-Film, 1928.

Citizen Kane. dir. Orson Welles, with Orson Welles, Joseph Cotton. USA: Mercury Productions, 1941.

The Crowd, dir. King Vidor, with Eleanor Boardman, James Murray. USA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1928.

Driving Miss Daisy, dir. Bruce Beresford, with Morgan Freeman, Jessica Tandy. USA: The Zanuck Company, 1989.

Earth, dir. Aleksandr Dovzhenko, with Stepan Shkurat, Semyon Svashenko. Soviet Union: VUFKU, 1930.

Entr’acte, dir. René Clair. France: Les Ballets Suedois, 1924.

The French Lieutenant’s Woman, dir. Karel Reisz, with Meryl Streep, Jeremy

Irons. USA: Juniper Films, 1981.

238 Gertrud, dir. Carl Dreyer, with Nina Pens Rode, Bendt Rothe. Denmark: Palladium Film, 1964.

Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film, dir. Kevin Brownlow and David Gill. USA: Thames Television, 1980.

King Kong. dir. Merian Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack, with Fay Ray, Robert Armstrong. USA: RKO Radio Pictures, 1933.

L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise, dir. André Calmettes and Charles Le Bargy. France: Pathé Frères, 1908.

L’Ironie du Destin, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff, with Nadia Sirbirskaïa. France: Dimitri Kirsanoff Production, 1923.

Ménilmontant, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff, with Nadia Sirbirskaïa, Yolande Beaulieu. France: Dimitri Kirsanoff, 1926.

Napoléon, dir. Abel Gance, with Albert Dieudonné, Vladimir Roudenko. France: Ciné France Films, 1927.

The Omen, dir. Richard Donner, with Gregory Peck, Lee Remick. USA: Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation, 1976.

On The Waterfront, dir. Elia Kazan, with Marlon Brando, Karl Malden. USA: Columbia Pictures Corporation, 1954.

The Passion of Joan of Arc, dir. Carl Dreyer, with Maria Falconetti, Eugene Silvain. USA: Société Général des Films, 1928.

The Phantom of the Opera, dir. Rupert Julian, with Lon Chaney, Mary Philbin. USA: Universal Pictures, 1925.

239 The Planet of the Apes, dir. Franklin J. Schaffner, with , Roddy McDowall. USA: APJAC Productions, 1968.

The President, dir. Carl Dreyer, with Richard Christensen, Christian Engelstoft. Sweden: Nordisk Film, 1919.

Psycho, dir. Alfred Hitchcock, with Anthony Perkins, Janet Leigh. USA: Shamley Productions, 1960.

Rain Man, dir. Barry Levinson, with Dustin Hoffman, . USA: United Artists, 1988.

Rapt, dir. Dimitri Kirsanoff. France: Mentor-Film, 1934.

Sherlock Holmes, dir. Guy Ritchie, with Robert Downey Jr., Jude Law. USA: Warner Bros Pictures, 2009.

Skyfall, dir. Sam Mendez, with Daniel Craig, Javier Bardem. USA: Metro Goldwyn Mayer, 2012.

Taxi Driver, dir. Martin Scorsese, with Robert De Niro, Jodie Foster. USA: Columbia Pictures Corporation, 1976.

240 Online resources

Aintitcool.com. ‘Scorekeeper Interrogates Hans Zimmer on Sherlock Holmes.’ Accessed 13, November, 2012. http://www.aintitcool.com/node/43520

Carl Davis, ‘The Phantom of the Opera.’ Philharmonia Orchestra. Accessed 10 May, 2012. http://www.philharmonia.co.uk/thesoundexchange/backstage/podcasts/pha ntom_opera/

Einhorn, Richard. ‘A Conversation with Richard Einhorn.’ Richard Einhorn Productions. Accessed 10 May, 2012. http://www.richardeinhorn.com/vol/VOLRichardInterview.HTML

Goldsmith, Carrie. ‘Preview of the Aborted Jerry Goldsmith Biography,’ Jerry Goldsmith Online. Accessed January 12, 2012. http://www.jerrygoldsmithonline.com/spotlight_biography_preview.htm

IMDB.com. ‘Carl Davis.’ IMDb.com. Accessed 8 May, 2012. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0002301/

IMDb.com. ‘Thomas Newman Biography.’ IMDb.com. Accessed 11 November, 2012. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0002353/bio

Michel, Walter. ‘In Memoriam of Dimitri Kirsanoff, A Neglected Master.’ Film Culture 15, 1957. Accessed 11 October, 2012. http://www.ubu.com/papers/michel_walter-kirsanov_memoriam.html

241 Newman, Thomas. ‘Notes on a Score Interview.’ YouTube.com. Accessed 15 November, 2012. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sg7dzJgljqY&feature=share&list=PL1E8 A9174347026B4

‘The Passion of Joan of Arc.’ Wikipedia.org. Accessed 4 March, 2012. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Passion_of_Joan_of_Arc

242 Music hardware

Focusrite ISA 428 Pre-Pack, microphone pre-amplifier with 192kHz A-D convertor, Focusrite Audio Engineering, Buckinghamshire, UK.

Mac Pro Nehalem 2.4 GHz 8-core 2010, 26GB RAM, 512GB Solid State HDD, computer, version MacPro5.1, Apple, Cupertino, CA.

Mackie HR 824 mk2 High Resolution Active Monitors, studio monitors, LOUD technologies, Woodinville, WA.

Rode Classic II, NT1000, NTK Microphones, Rode Microphones, NSW, Australia.

Music software

EastWest Quantum Leap Symphonic Orchestra 2013, SBOS software, version 3.0.32, EastWest, Los Angeles, CA.

Final Cut Pro X 2013, video production software, version 10.0.8, Apple, Cupertino, CA.

Komplete, 2013, virtual instrument software, version 9, Native Instruments GmbH, Berlin, Germany.

Logic Pro 2012, sequencing and recording software, version 9.1.6, Apple, Cupertino, CA.

Omnisphere 2013, virtual instrument software, version 1.5.6d, Spectrasonics, Los Angeles, CA.

Ozone 5 Advanced Mastering System, audio processing software, version 5.03, Izotope Inc., Boston, MA.

243 Sibelius 2013, notation software, version 7.1.3, Avid, Burlington, MA.

Stylus RMX 2013, virtual instrument software, version 1.9.6e, Spectrasonics, Los Angeles, CA.

Trilian 2013, virtual instrument software, version 1.8.6e, Spectrasonics, Los Angeles, CA.

Waves Gold Audio Plugins, audio processing software, version 9, Waves Audio Ltd., Tel Aviv, Israel

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