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Implications for Vegetation, Climate and Human Occupation During the Msa

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PHYTOLITHS AT SIBUDU (SOUTH AFRICA): IMPLICATIONS FOR VEGETATION, CLIMATE AND HUMAN OCCUPATION DURING THE MSA MAY LESLEY MURUNGI Student number: 675046 Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of the Witwatersrand, School of Geosciences and the Evolutionary Studies Institute Supervisor: Professor Marion Bamford October 2017 DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis is my original work based on research done by me and to the best of my knowledge has never been submitted for a degree at this or any other University or Institution of higher learning. All information from this thesis unless otherwise stated is based on my analysis and conclusions. Signed Date 31st October 2017 May L. Murungi i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Importantly, I would like to thank and acknowledge the Palaeoanthropological Scientific Trust (PAST), South Africa, the Leakey Foundation, USA, the National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa and Prof. Lyn Wadley (for awarding me the NRF bursary) for their financial support that made this study, my stay in South Africa and conference attendance possible. I also thank Lyn Wadley for providing access to the archaeological material from Sibudu Cave and other material used in this study. I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Marion Bamford who introduced me to archaeobotanical research. Her guidance, commitment and persistent patience with me made this project possible. I am grateful to Dr. Christine Sievers and Fletcher Reed for assistance during fieldwork to collect modern plant material in KwaZulu Natal and to Christine Seivers for providing some of the modern material used in this study and for discussions from time to time. I thank Prof. Muthama Muasya for assistance with identification of a few sedge species, Dr. Dolores Piperno and Dr. Mariana Fernádez Honaine on sedge phytolith discussions. I thank Prof. Fernando Abdala, Dr. Moshood Adegboyega and Badru Mugerwa who assisted me with the use of some software. I thank the Evolutionary Studies Institute (ESI) for hosting me in a pleasant environment, the staff and students of the ESI who made my stay worthwhile. I particularly thank Dr. Paloma de la Peña, together with Dr. Guillaume Porraz and Dr. Aurore Val who led me to my first archaeological excavation experience at Bushman Rock Shelter in Limpopo and the opportunity to grow in this field. Guillaume Porraz, the French Embassy in South Africa and the French Institute in Southern Africa (IFAS) are acknowledged for support to further my archaeological field experience at Comps sur Artuby in France in 2014. I am grateful to the administrators (Tandi Scott and Bronwyn Quinn) and the palynology lab techinicians Petrus Chakane and Prosper Bande for their kind help whenever I needed it during my stay at the ESI. I thank Dr. Julius Lejju and the Faculty of Science of Mbarara University, Uganda for according me office space towards the end of my write up. Aisha Kyakuwa of Mbarara University, I thank you for your assistance during this period. To the many people that made my stay in South Africa memorable and my life easier in one way or the other notably: Lucy Mbugua, Catherine Namono, Alice Novello, Ellison Tjirera, Anita Rwihandagaza, Fernando Abdala, Guillaume Porraz, Manfred Mahle, Rose Mugira, Marion Bamford, Bob Elwange, Norman Sempijja, Marine Wojcieszak, Monica Kiwanuka, ii Phiona Mpanga, Joseph Chikumbirike, Rosemary Kakai, Irene Esteban, Iris Guillemard, Viola Schmid, Itumeleng Mafatshe and Lisa Adolph; I am grateful. Lastly, my sincere thanks go to my family and friends back home and elsewhere for their help in one way or the other through the years. I could not have stayed sane without you! Notably my mother, Florence Murungi, for whom words could never be enough; my brothers, Richard Musiime and Peter Muheki, who have constantly called me out of my ‘comfort zone’ character, I still struggle but because of the two of you I have made progress; my friends Aisha Kyakuwa, Diane Kyobutungi, Cathy Kilyewala, Judith Nabaasa, Peter Twesigye, Charity Itungo, Rogers Ankunda, Marlon Mpamize, Esther Asiimwe, Winnie Ahumuza and Lilian Mayanja who constantly checked in or helped in different ways during this study; and finally my newest arrival, Judas Katatumba, you have been very influencial in your own special way as I completed this project. It is to you all that I dedicate this work. iii Contents DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................. ii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 General Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Phytoliths at Sibudu: a brief background ...................................................................................... 6 1.2 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................................... 8 1.3 Aims of the thesis ........................................................................................................................ 11 1.4. Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................ 12 1.5 Scope of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 13 1.6 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 13 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................... 15 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .................................................................................................... 15 2.0 History of archaeological research at Sibudu Cave ..................................................................... 15 2.1 Sources of evidence at Sibudu .................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Summary of palaeovegetion and paleoclimate at Sibudu Cave during the MSA ....................... 21 2.3 Occupation and culture at Sibudu Cave .................................................................................. 25 2.4 Phytoliths as a tool for reconstructing past environments ........................................................ 27 2.4.1 Advantages of using phytoliths as a proxy and their limitations ......................................... 29 2.5 Phytolith research in Africa: a short history ............................................................................... 31 2.6 Cyperaceae (sedges) phytoliths in this study: a brief background ............................................. 34 CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................................... 37 PRESENT-DAY SIBUDU CAVE: SITE DESCRIPTION ......................................................................... 37 3.0 SIBUDU CAVE: PRESENT-DAY ...................................................................................................... 37 3.1. Geographical location ................................................................................................................ 37 3.1.1 Geology ................................................................................................................................ 38 3.1.2 Local climatic conditions ...................................................................................................... 38 3.1.3 Local vegetation ................................................................................................................... 40 3.1.4 Human activities .................................................................................................................. 42 3.2 MSA Sediments at Sibudu: stratigraphy and age chronology ..................................................... 43 CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................... 51 MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................................ 51 4.0 Field-based sampling and Laboratory-based analyses ............................................................... 51 iv 4.1 Sampling of sediments ................................................................................................................ 51 4.2 Collection of voucher specimens and the rationale ................................................................... 51 4.3 Extraction of phytoliths from modern plant material ................................................................ 57 4.4 Extraction of phytoliths from archaeological sediments ............................................................ 58 4.5 Phytolith identification,
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