Filippo Scolari

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Filippo Scolari Ioan Ha Ńegan FILIPPO SCOLARI Un condotier italian pe meleaguri dun ărene CUPRINS În loc de prefa Ńă Lista abrevierilor Cap. I La r ăscruce de veacuri Cap. II Început de drum Cap. III Comite de Timi ş Cap. IV Campaniile italiene Cap. V Omul de stat şi o şteanul Cap. VI Marile campanii Cap. VII Leg ăturile italiene; mecenatul cultural Cap. VIII Contactele române şti Cap. IX Filippo Scolari în con ştiin Ńa european ă. Anexe (nu au fost incluse pe Internet): 1. Contribu Ńii la linia genealogic ă 2. Func Ńii 3. Procesiuni 4. Bibliografie 5. H ărŃi, schi Ńe CAPITOLUL I LA R ĂSCRUCE DE VEACURI Poarta de pătrundere spre Europa, prin existen Ńa Imperiului Bizantin ale cărui grani Ńe se extindeau atât pe continentul nostru cât şi în Asia Mic ă, fusese zăvorât ă pentru multe semin Ńii estice atâta vreme cât împ ăra Ńii de la Constantinopol mai dispuneau cât de cât de armate conduse de generali pricepu Ńi în arta războiului. Dar, cu timpul, ace şti militari de carier ă devin tot mai rari în Bizan Ń, numele unui general cum fusese Narse (c. 478–568) sau rivalul său politic Belizarie (c. 504–565) rămânând doar în legendele ce vorbeau despre vremurile de glorie. Deja, pe la finele secolului al XI- lea, aproape întreaga Asie Mic ă ie şise de sub st ăpânirea bizantin ă şi intrase în st ăpânirea noilor pretenden Ńi la hegemonie în sud-vestul asiatic, turcii selgiucizi (triburi turce, originare din Asia Central ă, conduse de către Selgiuk). Speran Ńele cur Ńii imperiale constantinopolitane de a recâ ştiga în viitor posesiunile din Asia Mic ă, n-au prins via Ńă nici dup ă ce s-a încercat să se apeleze la ajutorul Europei apusene, sprijin ce se concretiza în organizarea de oşti care să lupte pentru biruin Ńa crucii asupra semilunei – expedi Ńiile crucia Ńilor. Ba dimpotriv ă, cea de-a patra cruciad ă ini Ńiat ă de către papa Inocen Ńiu al III-lea (Giovanni Lotario, conte de Segni – 1198–1216) a avut efect dezastruos asupra imperiului. Oastea cruciat ă, condus ă de contele de Flandra, Balduin şi Ludovic de Blois, a ajuns, în urma unor abile manevre diplomatice ale dogelui Vene Ńiei, Eugene Dondolo, nu în Egipt, aşa cum s-a HATEGAN – SCOLARI 1 pl ănuit ini Ńial, ci pe meleagurile bosforene, amestecându-se în lupta pentru tronul imperial. Dup ă ce îl repun, pentru scurt ă vreme, pe tronul basileilor pe Isaac al II-lea Anghelos, în 12–13 aprilie 1204, Balduin se însc ăuneaz ă împ ărat şi întemeiaz ă Imperiul Latin de Răsărit. De abia în anul 1261 împ ăratul de la Niceea, Mihail al VIII-lea Paleolog (1258–1261 împ ărat al Niceei şi 1261–1282 împ ărat al Bizan Ńului) restaureaz ă puterea imperial ă la Constantinopol. În tot acest timp al rivalit ăŃ ii slujitorilor crucii, puterea turcilor se afl ă într-o înceat ă, dar necontenit ă ascensiune. Prin venirea în zona estic ă a Asiei Mici a turcilor oguzi, eveniment petrecut în prima parte a sec. XIII-lea, pericolul asupra Imperiului bizantin se accentua. Oguzii, sub conducerea emirului Osman (1259–1326) personaj de la al cărui nume supu şii săi fuseser ă denumi Ńi generic osmanlîi sau otomani – au creat împreun ă cu triburile turce venite anterior în peninsula microasiatic ă, o alian Ńă în fruntea căreia se situa tribul Kaia. Oştile lui Osman începuser ă deja să de Ńin ă suprema Ńia şi s ă cucereasc ă Ńinut dup ă Ńinut din teritoriul împ ăra Ńilor dinastiei Paleolog. Situa Ńia militar ă devenise de-a dreptul dezastruoas ă pentru imperiu când turcii, sub emirul Orhan (1326–1359) reu şesc să supun ă întreaga Asie Mic ă.Fără să izbuteasc ă a cuceri Constantinopolul, otomanii îşi îndreapt ă aten Ńia şi spre teritoriile bizantine de pe continentul european, urm ărind astfel să prefac ă ora şul împ ărătesc bizantin într-o insul ă în „marea turcilor otomani”. Deja în timpul lui Murad I (1360–1389), care s-a proclamat sultan, titlu echivalent cu acela de imperator , ceea ce păruse un conflict armat microasiatic, relativ îndep ărtat de Europa, mai mult o chestiune politico-militar ă a Imperiului Bizantin, începea să primeasc ă o nou ă turnur ă interna Ńional ă. Devenea limpede că puterea otoman ă nu se limita la hărŃuirea împ ăra Ńilor Constantinopolului, ci viza punerea în aplicare a unor cuceriri de propor Ńii pe continentul european. Erau oare statele Europei în stare să în Ńeleag ă în adev ăratele-i propor Ńii pericolul grav ce se contura tot mai pregnant? Întâiul pas în Europa încununat cu succes de oastea otoman ă fusese făcut în 1356, prin cucerirea micii peninsule şi a principalei cet ăŃ i a acesteia Gallipoli (actualmente Galibolu, în Turcia European ă). Orientarea politic ă a sultanilor către continentul european, trecând oarecum pe planul secundar al intereselor Ńinuturile asiatice, apare şi mai vizibil ă odat ă cu supunerea cet ăŃ ii Adrianopolu, în anul 1362, succes militar urmat de o extraordinar ă măsur ă politico-administrativ ă, şi anume mutarea re şedin Ńei sultanale din ora şul microastic Bursa (Brusa), ora ş ce din 1326 fusese capitala statului otoman, la Adrianopol, în anul 1365. Mutarea capitalei din Asia Mic ă în Europa, la numai trei ani dup ă cucerirea Adrianopolului şi doar la 11 ani dup ă întâia victorie militar ă turceasc ă la vestul Mării Marmara, era un semn clar că sultanul îşi dădea perfect seama că pe continentul european nu exista o for Ńă armat ă care să le zădărniceasc ă planurile de viitor, ale sale şi ale urma şilor săi: cucerirea treptat ă a întregii Europe. şi, într-adev ăr, Europa nu era în acel mijloc de veac XIV capabil ă să sesizeze însemn ătatea nefast ă pentru ea a stabilirii capitalei sultanilor în Peninsula Balcanic ă şi nici să îşi uneasc ă for Ńa militar ă care să îi poat ă alunga pe turci înapoi, peste Marmara. Principalele regate europene, Fran Ńa şi Anglia erau prinse în „R ăzboiul de o sut ă de ani” (1337–1453), în cursul căreia armatele franceze erau înfrânte succesiv la Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) şi Azincourt (1415). La rândul lor, Germania şi Italia, din cauza fărâmi Ńă rii excesive în zeci de st ătule Ńe feudale care se luptau pentru hegemonie, î şi iroseau for Ńele militare în numeroase confrunt ări interne. Nici înaltul pontif, papa, n-a reu şit să devin ă un punct de concentrare a for Ńelor militare de pe continetului european deoarece s-a implicat în conflicte cel Frumos (1285–1314), asperit ăŃ ile imperialo-regalo-papale s-au acutizat, culminând cu arestarea papei Bonifaciu al VIII-lea (1294–1303) în ora şul italian Anagno (1303). Iar prin mutarea silit ă a scaunului pontifical de la Roma în ora şul Avignon (între anii 1309–1376, cu o întrerupere între anii 1367–1370) situat în sud-estul Fran Ńei, rolul militar al papei pe continent a fost cu totul anihilat. Existen Ńa în paralel a doi de Ńin ători ai scaunului pontifical, la Roma şi Avignon a generat o serie de conflicte ce au dus la dezbinarea lumii catolice, fapt cu consecin Ńe grave pentru organizarea unei riposte eficiente pe care s ă o poat ă da cre ştinitatea „Semilunei”. La rândul lor, „republicile”, ducatele şi principatele din peninsula Italic ă îşi duceau fiecare în parte propria politic ă. Cele mai multe dintre acestea îşi iroseau for Ńele militare şi financiare în îndelungatul conflict social-politic mo ştenit înc ă din secolul XIII, purtat între guelfi şi ghibelini (categorii sociale-partide – care luptau pentru suprema Ńia politic ă). Situa Ńia material ă grea a popula Ńiei a dus la declan şarea unor mi şcări de mas ă soldate cu lupte interne, cum a fost răscoala Ńă răneasc ă condus ă de Dolcino, care a cuprins între anii 1304–1307 întreg nordul Italiei, insurec Ńia plebei Romei, 2 HATEGAN – SCOLARI intrat ă în istorie sub numele de „R ăscoala lui Cola di Rienzo” din anul 1347, la care se adaug ă revolta lucr ătorilor Ńes ători din Floren Ńa (1378) cunoscut ă ca „r ăscoala ciompilor”. Nici cele dou ă puteri maritime negustore şti „republicile” Vene Ńia şi Genova nu fac excep Ńie de la regula urm ăririi în exclusivitate a unor interese proprii şi de moment, disputându- şi întâietatea în regatul mediteranean şi acelui din Marea Neagr ă. Pe măsur ă ce puterea sultanilor devenea tot mai extins ă în sud-estul Europei, ambele republici comerciale” vor fi silite la felurite concesii materiale, politice şi militare în favorul turcilor otomani. Mai mult chiar, VeneŃia se va pune cu flota sa în slujba sultanilor de la care percepeau pentru respectivele servicii sume considerabile, într-atât de mult încât nu rareori ajuta cu navele sale la înfrângerea unor armate cre ştine. Statul papal, Regatul Neapoleului (1282–1442) şi Ducatul de Milano (începând cu c. 1395– 1499) se antreneaz ă în mărunte, dar epuizante războaie locale, sec ătuindu-se şi aşa modestele resurse financiare şi umane. În pofida situa Ńiei sale de relativ ă inferioritate pe plan militar, mai ales fa Ńă de „Sfântul Imperiu” şi fa Ńă de Fran Ńa, pontifii de la Roma au încercat să organizeze un front european antiotoman. Îns ă apelurile repetate ale papalit ăŃ ii adresate statelor catolice în special, şi lumii cre ştine în general, în vederea declan şă rii unei energice şi hot ărâtoare ac Ńiuni armate care să se soldeze cu scoaterea otomanilor din Europa, şi implicit cu salvarea de la pieire a ceea ce mai rămăsese din Imperiul Bizantin nu şi-au aflat audien Ńa necesar ă.
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