Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

SOCIAL REFORMS OF JUSTICE PARTY IN MADRAS PRESIDENCY

N.Anitha Assistant Professor of History V.V.Vanniaperumal College for Women, Virudhunagar

Introduction The Justice Party officially the South Indian Liberal Federation was a political party in the Madras Presidency of British India. It was established in 1917 by T.M Nair & P. Theagaraya Chetty as a result of a series of non-Brahim conferences and meetings in the Presidency. Communal Division between Brahmins and non Brahmins began in the Presidency during the later 19 th and early 20 th Century. Mainly due to caste prejudices and disproportionate Brahminical representation in Government Jobs. The Justice Party’s foundation marked the culmination of several efforts to establish an organization to represent the non - Brahmins in Madras. The Struggle for social justice in Tamil Nadu started as a continuation of the political social movements that took place in India owing to the impact of western political thoughts and growth of English Education. As a prelude to the social awakening the rise and growth of political consciousness worked a s a contributory factor. The introduction of western education judicial system and administrative reorganization paved the way for the rise of a new middle class.

The Indian National Congress Founded in 1855, the regional faction in Madras was known as the Madras Presidency Congress. In 1921 it was trifurcated to reconstitute the Madras, Andhra and Kerala Congress Committees Madras in the Present context stands for the whole contemporary state of Tamil Nadu and not the Madras City alone. Therefore “Madras” in the title for the Present paper covers not only the metropolis Madras but also the entire Madras state if not the Madras Presidency. At the National level several distinguished leaders such as Vijayaraghavachariyar of Salem S. Srinivasa Iyengar and K.Kamaraj served as Presidents during different periods of time. The congress committee of the Madras circle was led by leaders of standing such as C.Rajagopalachariyar (Rajaji) C.Satyamurti and Thiru V.Kalyansundaranar and K. Kamarajar

Justice Party The Justice Party (Tamil, ‘Nitik Katchi’) known in Tamil as “Ten Intiya Makkal Nala Urimai Kalakam” (South Indian Peoples Good rights Union) was founded in 1919. The founding fathers were justice C.Singara Nayar. Dr.T.M.Nagayar, Sir.P.Thiyagaraja Chettiyar, Dr.A.Natesa Mutaliyar and a host of others. The formation of the party was mainly striggered by the neglect of south Indian affairs in the National Congress that was dominated by the Brahmans. In order to claim their legitimate share at the national front the aims of the Justice party were laid down as follow: 1. Upliftment of the educational, social and economic status of the non - brahmanas. 2. To represent the grievances of the non - brahmanas to the government. 3. T rejuvenate the status and spirit of the non - brahmanas in the society. To begin with it was like a “Humble Petition” that turned out to be the charter of demands in course of time. They had a fight and go a long way a realize these goals because the British Government misguided by the brahmanas officers not independent India headed by the Brahmanas would not yield to the pressure of the non-brahmanas hat easily. The effort was directed to get the legitimate share of the majority Dravidians vis-a- vis the minority Brahmana - Anjans.

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The Jusitce party to begin with started few news papers to propagate their ideals. These are “Justice” in English edited by T.M. Nayar and Tiravitan (Dravida) edited by Bhaktavatsalam Pillai. Another Journal in Telugu came out that was “Andhra Prakasika. It would appear from the caste designations of the leaders of the Justice party, they were high caste non brahmanas e.g Mudaliyar, Chettiyar Pillai, Nayar, Nayakkar and so on. It was the beginning of the end. It turned out to be an organ voice of the caste non brahmanas and not the SCs and STs that were later called Dalits. Census Reports of the 1960s say though the Justice party was started with enthusiasm it was not ‘thoroughly reactionary’ Professor K.A Nilakanta Sastri of the University of Madras was of the opinion the justice party was founded to minimize the influence of the brahmanas in society and the Government. It was quote natural because he himself was a brahmana. In those times brahmanas were professors in University services and brahmana Students were “given” first class university examinations. When “Power” passed on to the hands of Dalit IAS officers they reversed the table on the wrong side by appointing unqualified and under serving candidates in Government College as Principals. This ugly turn ruined not only standard in education but also efficient administration.

Montague -Chemford The Montague-chemford reforms were implemented in 1919. The renascent Justice Party demanded the reservation of 70% of the constituencies for non brahmanas. The reservation meance began with this. This is to suggest: i) The British Government was not far -sighted ii) The British Government must have listened to the advice is brahamana officers at the ICS level, they were also imbecile. The alien rulers did not known anything about reservation (e.g the Untied-States) and granted 50 far the non-brahmanas. The Justice party wisely said it was the scheme of the brahmanas and Governor was nick- named Lord Wellington -Brahmana. Something was better than nothing 50% was indeed a major achievement for the nascent political party. In the general elections the justice party was defeated during the 1920s. This shows brahmanical influences with the mass was over domineering. The nationalist Justice party was branded anti - nationalist.

Economic side of Madras Government On the economic side the Madras Government undertook many steps for the upliftment of the untouchables. 1. It provided house- sites for the relief of congestion and for freeing them from the duchess of landlords. 2. It created co–operative organizations which looked after the smooth running of the various co- operative societies for depressed classes. 3. It repaired the old wells constructed new wells, allotted burial grounds and fulfilled the sanitary requirements for them. 4. It assigned land for cultivation to the depressed people by means of reservation and by free allotment. The cost of assignment of lands was recovered by easy installments and. 5. It granted agricultural loans flood relief measures and rural credit. As a matter of fact in 1920 there were over 14,600 members of depressed people in about 10 Co -operative societies. In 1931 there were only six districts in Madras state which were untouched by the activities of the Commissioner of labour.

Social Organizations Social organizations and societies too came into being for their upliftment. Among those the notable were servants of untouchable society. Servants of India, the Danish Mission, The Arcot Mission, Roman Catholic Mission, SPG Mission, The Lutheran Mission, Panrutti Mission,The salvation Army Society, The Depressed Class Union, The Poor School Society, the Madras Social Service league the Madras depressed classes

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 2 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X federation and Nandanar Kalvi Kazhagan. The Madras Government, endorsing the resolution of All -India Conference of Depressed classes in 1930 passed an Act which enable all classes irrespective of caste or creed to have access and to all public places such as streets, markets and water reservoirs maintained from Municipal funds and penalised any obstruction to their use.

Equal Rights for Women The liberation of women from the thraldom of cruel customs and traditions formed one of the declared principles of the justice party and its ministry. It championed the cause of Women and fought at first for their enfranchisement. The Justice Ministry was also congratulated for its liberal policy towards women by passing a resolution enabling them to stand as candidates for election. In the election held in 1926 in the Madras State for the legislative council. Mrs. Kamaladevi Chathapadhyaya and Mrs. Hannan Anglo were the first women candidates to contest. Unfortunately neither of them could win. In recognizing the clam of women demonstration in that election, the Ministry nominated S. Muthulakshmi Reddi from a list of twelve prominent woman. In 1928 she was unanimously selected by her follow members as the first women Deputy President of the Madras Council. Thus the Ministry led the way in every movement for the recognition of women’s claim for equal Civic right, It was the first go give women the franchise and the right to contest the elections. First to allow a woman member to enter legislature and the first to make a Women deputy President of any legislature in India.

Prevention of Child Marriages The Ministry worked relentlessly in Tamil Nadu for the shaping of public opinion against early child marriages. It demanded that a more effective step should be taken to eradicate the evil of early consummation for which the Prevention of early marriages come to the regarded as a proper remedy. As a major social evil child marriage mostly spread among the caste Hindu families. Therefore the Justice Ministry to show its loyalty adopted the resolution of S.Muthulakshmi Reddi without dissent, on 27 March 1928. It stated that the Minimum age of marriage for girls should be fixed at 16 and boys at 21. When S. Muthulakshmi Reddi the Deputy President of the Council asked for sanction for the introduction of a bill in the council as a measure prohibiting child marriage in the madras Presidency. The Sarda Act or the child marriage Restraint Act of 1929 came into force from 1 April 1930. It fixed the age of marriage for the girl child at fourteen. The Madras Indian Women Association passed a resolution thanking Harbilas Sarda and the Justice Ministry in Madras for its favourable support. The Hindu remarked that the passing of the Sarda Bill into an Act was a decisive step in the social reform in Tamil Nadu.

Abolition of Devadasi System The Devadasis numbered more in Tamil Nadu than in North India. It was calculated that were more than two lakhs devadasis living in Madras State alone. S. Muthulakshmi Reddi, the ideological sympathises of Justice party and a social worker relentlessly waged a crusade demanding abolition of devadasi system. She introduced a resolution on 5 November 1927, demanding the Madras Government to recommend to the Government of India a legislation at a very early date to put a stop to its practice of dedication of young girls and young women to Hindu temples for immoral purposes under the prefect of caste custom or religion. Supported by many members in the council it was considered as a clear verdict and right Path for the abolition of devadasi system

Conclusion Tamil Nadu during the period from 1916 to 1936 was experiencing a totally different scenario when compared with early 18 th or the 19 th century. The middle of the ninettenth century took place progressive changes in the socio political and intellectual thinking of the people in the general. The British administration

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 3 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X manifested its qualities of dissemination of knowledge and education during the period. The introduction of western education Judicial and revenue systems and administrative reorganization paved the way for the rise of a new middle class which comprised of advocates, public servants, revenue collectors and so on. Keeping madras metropolis as the centre of their intellectual transfer they contributed to the consolidation of political ideas of the time. The Madras Native Association and the Madras Mahajana Sabha came to be established as on outcome of this trend- status, Purity and Pollution, social inequalities and the ban an inter-caste have disappeared due to the social justice movement in Tamil Nadu. The future alone can show a way in this direction. The movement was launched by a united front of the Tamils the Telugus, the Kannadigas and Keralites. Even if others of the Dravidian faction forget the ideologies, it is a living phenomenon in the minds of the Tamils Generalization is not possible at this stage because eternal “Justice” is a living entity.

References 1. Asrivatham, E., Law and Administration in Madras Presidency , Indian Journal of Political Science, 1940 (vol )2 2. David Arnold, The congress in Tamil Nadu The Nationalist politics of south India 1919-1937 New Delhi, 1967 3. Rajaraman, P., The Justice party A. Historical Perspective 1916 – 1937 Madras, 1988. 4. Rajayyan, K., History of Tamil Nadu 1565 1982 Madurai 1982. 5. Nambi Arooran, K., Tamil Renasisance and Dravidian Nationalism 1905 – 1944 Madurai, 1980. 6. Rao, M.S.A, social Movements and social Transformation New Delhi 1987. 7. Mangala Murugesan, N.K., Self Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu 1920 – 1940 Madurai

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A HISTORY OF KUMBAKONAM CATHOLIC DIOCESE

R.Jayaraj Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of History St.Joseph’s College, Thiruchirappalli

Rev.Dr.M.Arockiasamy Xavier Supervisor & Guide

Christian Religion The central message of Christianity is universal love, fellowship and charitable human activities. It is one the greatest religions of the world and it began to spread all over the world especially throughout the Roman Empire where it was made the state religion in fourth century A.D. Later the church split into two broad groups such as the Western Church under the Pope of Rome and the Eastern Church under the Patriarchs of Antioch. The western church has a Catholic hierarchy is led by the Pope and includes Cardinals and diocesan Bishops. The Eastern Catholic churches, the personal ordinariates and religious communities such as the Jesuits, the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Eastern Church is officially called the Orthodox Catholic church is the second largest Christian church in the world. It comprises the Christian traditions and churches that developed in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle- East, Africa, India and parts of the far-east over several centuries of religious antiquity. The origin of Christianity in India has been the subject of controversy among Christians owing to the near absence of documentary evidence for the first few centuries. The Christian message is claimed to have been brought to India by St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew, two apostles of Jesus Christ. After St. Thomas, the history of Christianity is totally dark till upto 13 th century when a few Franciscans made sporadic attempts at Goa and Malabar missions. Proper history of the church in India begins with the arrival of the Portuguese in 1459”.

Jesuit Mission in India At the dawn of Jesuit Mission in India, the rays of faith began to shine in the land of South India and also in the area of the diocese of Kumbakonam. Under the tireless efforts of Jesuit missionaries, the Faith grew strong and many embraced the catholic faith. St.Francis Xavier was the pioneer in Evangelization. Tr. Robert de Nobili, Called as “Thanthuva Pothagar” and C.Beschi, Known as “Veeramamunivar” were the pioneers in inculturation in the diocese. St. John de Britto visited places like, Thathuvanchery and Koovathur. And the contribution of Fr. C.H. Beschi to the Faith and the literature is so evident as crystal, to those who may visit the Shrine at Elakurichi. Fr. C.J.Beschi sang the epic “kavalur Kalambagam” in Tamil in praise of our Lady who gave protection to the Christians”. When the Society of Jesus was dissolved in 1759 by Pope Clement XIV, the famous Madura was handed over to the Fathers of foreign mission society of Paris. From 1776 to 1899, the pastoral care of the Catholics of the area of the diocese of Kumbakonam was also with the MEP priests.

The Birth of the Diocese When the Diocese of Kumbakonam was bifurcated from the Arch Diocese of Pondicherry on September 1, 1899, it was entrusted to the able leadership of MEP Bishops. Comprising of a vast area and including four civil districts of Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Thanjavur and South Arcot, it had the velar river in

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 5 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X the North, Patchamalai and Collimalai in the West, Cauvery and Coloron rivers in the South-West and the Vennar and Vettar rivers in the South east as its boundaries.

The Position of the Diocese in September-1899 Bishop 1 Priests Europeans 16 Priests Indians 16 Parish 29 Churches 80 Schools 53 Convents 6 It had the Catholic Population of 85,595.

Bishop Hugo M.Bottero th He was born on 20 January, 1837 at Chembery, in France. And he was ordained priest at parish on st 23 rd December,1859.After a Zealous career of Apostolic Ministry, he was chosen on 1 September,1899 to head the newly constituted diocese of Kumbakonam and was consecrated Bishop by the Most Rev.J.Gandy, Arch Bishop of Pondicherry.He divided his time into three 1.Prayer. 2. Reading and writing 3.Mission work. He relaxed his time by playing violin. He learned Sanskrit and studied Hindu religion and he was able to give talks and explain it. As the head of the new born diocese, he had to face a host of difficulties. A lot of things had to be done for the spiritual as well as material needs of the people. He built a house for the poor children. He prayed for the sinners and baptized the prisoners. He stayed with the sentenced prisoners and spends his time and consoled them. As a Bishop of Kumbakonam he came with empty handed. He did not at all have money. As he came in 1845 he did not have a room to stay. So he stayed in Parish Priest house. Later with the help of the Rome in 1900 January he started to built a house for his residence. Then to care the sick and the poor children he called the congregation of Sacred Heart Sisters. They too enthusiastically wished to work and on March 25, 1900 the convent was started the Old Age Home and had done a great service. Bishop Bottero was also a great scholar and pundit in Tamil language. In the midst of his absorbing and exhausting labors, he found time to translate into Tamil the entire Bible. After fourteen years of Episcopal ministry in the diocese he died on 21 may,1913.

Bishop Augustine Marie Chapuis th Born on the 20 April, 1869, at Hostien, HauteLoire, in France, Marie Augustine Chapuis entered the th Society of Foreign Mission of Paris and was ordained priest on 24 September, 1892. As he was working in Koneripatti, news arrived from Rome appointing his co-adjutor to the venerable prelate Hugo M. th Bottero. He was Consecrated Bishop of Kumbakonam on 25 July, 1911. When the venerable prelate Msgr. Bottero went to his eternal reward in 1913 Msgr. Chapuis assumed the reins of the government of the diocese. Mindful of the regulations of his own society and the words of the far-seeing Pontiff, Leo XIII “India, thy sons shall be the ministers of thy salvation”, he encouraged vocations and admitted in the seminary all the promising native students and increased their number from 19 to 50. Thus encouraging and multiplying the Indian clergy he prepared the way for the Indianization of the diocese, and when the Holy See expressed its mind to hand over the diocese to the Indian clergy, he was able to say yes. A great lover of Indian clergy, he had the happiness of seeing them progressing in every respect and testifying that they could, without much difficulty, take up the management of the diocese. Among all the

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 6 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X outstanding monument of his episcopate there stands in bold relief the Indianization of Kumbakonam Diocese. A few months after his return from Europe in 1928, he gave up practically the government of the diocese in the hands of his two Vicars-General, Msgr. A. Sovignet and Msgr. M. A. Xavier and after resigning his office retired to Wellington. However till the appointment of a bishop he was made the Adiministrator Apostolic of the diocese of Kumbakonam. From Wellington he saw the birth of the diocese of Salem and the total Indianization of the diocese of Kumbakonam through the appointment of Msgr. M.A.Xavier as the Administrator Apostolic, with a heart throbbing with delight, he commended his soul th to God on 13 1930.

Indianization rd By the letter of Pope Pius XI, known as Pope of the Missions, dated 3 July, 1929, the parishes of Perumpanniyur, Karaiyur, Moolangudi, Mayuramm Mandai, Pillavidanthai, Tharangambadi, Erukkur and Palayamkottai were attached to the diocese of Mylapore, and later to the diocese of Thanjavur in 1952 th when it was formed a new diocese. Again, when the diocese of Salem was constituted o 26 May, 1930, the parishes of Attur, Namkkal, Koneripatti, Kakkaveri and a few villages of Tholurpatti were ceded to the newly created diocese of Salem. MEP fathers who had worked in this part about 160 years left to the th new diocese of Salem. Msgr.M.A.Xavier was appointed jby the Holy See on 27 May, the apostolic administrator of the kumbakonam diocese, and thus the diocese was handed over to the sons of the soil. One may wonder how the diocese of Kumbakonam became Indianized in preference to other dioceses entrusted jot the Foreign Missionaries of Paris, in the South. His Holiness Pope Benedict VX issued and encyclical to the heads of the Missions, exhorting them to cede to the native clergy such portions of the Missions, as can be easily managed and reasonably financed. It was decided to give away the diocese of Kumbakonam for reasons: 1. That Christianity in the diocese was ancient, 2. That there was hope for recruitment of the clergy, 3. That many parishes were self-supporting.

MSGR.M.A. Xavier, The Apostolic Administrator He served in the parishes of Konankuppam, Kottapalayam and when there was some trouble in Purathakudi in 1907, he was sent there by the superiors, where he worked for 32 years and brought back the dissidents to the catholic fold. Most Rev. Augustine Chapuis chose him to be one of his two th vicars general in 1928. On may 27 1930, the Holy See appointed him Apostolic Administrator of the diocese to succeed Msgr. Chapuis who had resigned as bishop. To establish the Church of Kumbakonam on firm grounds, he built the Little Flower High School and started to work on the new cathedral. The th building was nearing completion, but he was not there to see it consecrated, for he died on 13 September,1936, at the age of 78 and was buried in the Cathedral burial grounds.

Bishop Perter Francis, The First Indian Bishop st Born on 1 August,1882, at Kottaipalayam of Tiruchirapalli district, Msgr. Peter Francis was educated at St. Joseph’s college, Tiruchy. He did his philosophy and theology at the Papal Seminary, rd Kandy, and was ordained a priest on 23 December, 1911. He worked as parish priest at Karaiyur, Kokkudi, Vadugarpet, Pullambadi and Viragalur. While he was at Viragalur, he was nominated by Pope th Pius XI as the first Indian Bishop of Kumbakonam and was consecrated bishop on 29 June, 1931. When Msgr. Peter Francis took over the administration, the material resources of the diocese were at the lowest ebb. Under such conditions, it was his undaunted courage and his immense trust in God

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 7 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X that helped him to carry on his work unflinchingly. Shortly after he took over, there was an agitation by the Adi Dravida Christians, from different parts of the diocese, demanding sweeping changes in the age- old traditions and customs, mostly due to the self-respect movement prevalent in the parishes around Lalgudi and Thirukattupalli. In the process, the agitators in their ignorance abstained from attendance at church and even contracted civil marriages. The Lutherans exploited the situation, and shallow as their faith was, enticed many catholics to join the Lutherans. The agitation continued for two years. The bishop and his priests went to Elakurichi in pilgrimage and prayed to Adaikalamatha. After sometime peace was restored. With due reparation, the catholic life was once more revived with intensified vigour. In 1936, the whole diocese celebrated the Sacerdotal Silver Jubilee of Msgr. Peter Francis. It is no exaggeration to say that within the short span of five years of his episcopate, the diocese had made a rapid and all-round progress in the number op priests, seminarians, establishments etc., great indeed was his joy to see the Sacerdotal Silver Jubilee of Msgr. Peter celebrated in the new cathedral built by him. For, as soon as he took charge of the diocese, his first attention was to complete the cathedral construction work. Though hard pressed for funds, he was determined to continue and complete the work at any cost. He lost no time in trying to collect funds. He appealed to the public. The faithful both at home and abroad responded to the call as best6 as they could. The building work was undertaken on war-footing. Finally when the construction was over, the beautiful and stately house of God was th consecrated by Msgr. Peter Francis on 8 December along with the ordination of three new priests.

Mission Stations In the process of establishing the Church in the diocese, the Bishop focused his attention very much in evangelization. It should be granted that conversions did not come anymore on great numbers as it used to be in the past. Hence he felt it all the more necessary to carry on the work more vigorously and zealously. In order to facilitate this, he decided to form a few mission stations in the diocese.

Ariyalur Ariyalur was the first mission to be opened in the diocese. It was inaugurated in 1931 by Msgr.M.A.Xavier. A priest was appointed there in order to attract a number of pagans especially the caste Hindus. But it was reserved to Msgr. Peter Francis, the new Bishop, to perfect this work. Ariyalur, a great mission station, held a prominent place in the new Bishop’s heart. Soon he took many measures to make it a full-fledged mission station. With this view in mind, he started there a school th and a dispensary. On 11 February, 1936,he laid the foundation for a Church to be built in honour of Our Lady of Lourdes, to whom the mission is dedicated. The priest in charge was assisted by two lay brothers. A few Hindu families had already been converted. Many more people were baptized from the villages of Thiruvalandurai, Nagamangalam,Gunamangalam, Palayakudi, Ulliagudi, Vilangudi, Tirukona,. Pudupalayam etc. Among the priests who worked in this mission, special mention should be made of Fr. Ignacinathar and Fr. Rayappan for their zealous and dedicated missionary apostolate.

Kulumur As a number of non-christians at Kulumur were willing to receive baptism Msgr. Peter Francis, started this station, in 1949. The congregation of Salesian Missionaries of Mary Immaculate came readily to serve in this mission in 1944. A school and an orphanage were soon started for the boys and girls of this mission and for the other missions as well. Many non-Christians were converted in Kulumur and other neighbouring stations such as Kovilpalayam,. Keela Perambalur, Arasamangalam, Kudigadu, Thirumandurai, Velumangalam etc. Later on two other stations, Thirumandurai and Vadakkaljur were to be formed from this vast mission. The

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 8 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X architect and pioneer of this mission is Fr.Ignacinathar. Thanks to his selfless sacrifices and services, many people were converted and thereby the mission was well established. In the year 1949, the mission had 557 new Christians.

Thiruvalandurai In 1949, Thiruvalandurai was separated from Kulumur because of the increasing number of converts from the surrounding areas. In 1939, Fr.A. Ignacinathar converted one Hindu, Arul by name and his family. He lived an Exemplary life. So Fr. Ignacinathar named him as his catechist. Arul helped the priest to convert many more from this place. In July 1943, Fr.Ignacinathar baptized 13 people. This infuriated the caste Hindus and they opposed the priest and the new Christians. But the new converts withstood and remained firm in their newly obtained faith. Impressed by the faith of these new Christians, more than ten other families received baptism. In 1947, a church and a small presbytery were built. Soon afterwards many more were baptized at Pasumbalur, Kalathur, Kalanivasal, Peraiyur etc. The total number of Christians in 1948 was 275. Advanced in age, Msgr.Peter Francis felt keenly the weight of his years, fraught with care, he th requested the Holy See to appoint a successor to him. On 5 May 1955, Fr. Paul Arulswamy, the then parish priest of Kottaipalayam, was nominated to succeed him. Msgr.Peter Francis retired to th Sagayamatha hospital, Pullambadi, where he expired on 4 May 1973.

Bishop D.Paul Arul Samy He was consecrated as the bishop on August 24, 1955. He continued the zeal of his predecessor on mission and extended the mission at Thirumanthurai, Fatimapuram, Elakurichy, vadakkalur and Padalur. His personal interest to improve the shrine of our lady of Refuge at Elakurichi had made it known to the Catholics both in and outside Tamilnadu. The contribution of Fr.C.J. Beschi S.J. to Tamil language was highlighted and the fame of the Shrine spread far and wide. The tenure of the Bishop envisaged the dawn of the Second Vatican Council. He personally participated in the council sessions and was convinced of the changes of the times. He took keen interest to implement the the teaching of the Vatican II. He promoted renewal in the fields of Liturgy, Catechesis, Bible etc. The pastoral centre was his creation made in 1979.After his resignation accepted on 16 August, 1988, Msgr. M. Antony David became the diocesan administrator and continued the mission of the former Bishop until the nomination of the next Bishop.

Bishop Peter Remigius He was a priest foKottar diocese was nominated the Bishop of Kumbakonam on January 3,1990. He built chapels in majoriaty of the substations. He gave importance to dthe education of children and awareness. Many schools were upgraded and new buildings wre constructed with the help of the benefactors thanks to the hard efforts of the Bishop. Our Lady of Miraculous Mother of Pooondi was raised to the level of Marian Minor Basilica with the approval of the Holy see. His missionary pastoral works came to the highlight during the centenary celebration of the diocese of Kumbakonam of th September 1, 1999. He was transferred from Kumbakonam as the bishop of Kottar on 30 June 200t. He th took charge of his diocese on 24 august 2007.

MSGR. C. Peter Francis th He was elected to be the diocesan administrator of Kumbakonam o9n 27 august, 2007. With the help of the College of consulters he continued and completed the works of the former Bishop. He coordinated the mission of the diocese and prepared the way for the next Bishop.

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Bishop F. Antonisamy Francis He was a priest of Thanjavur diocese and the Parish Priest of Vailankanni was nominated Bishop of st th Kumbakonam on 31 May, 2008. He was ordained as theBishop of Kumbakonam on 9 July, 2008. The diocese is given a focus in all possible ways to improve the mission of the diocese. He renewed the diocesan pastoral council and encouraged the different commissions of the pastoral centre to work more effectively with full time priest secretary to each commission. The statutes for the diocese of Kumbakoam, rules and regulations and memorandum of the diocese are all revised and updated on par with the other dioceses of Tamilnadu. The centralized educational employments and appointments of the teachers begun by the previous bishop are brought to perfection with an independent diocesan secretary for education and diocesan education commission. His focus on evangelization and education and prayer meetings etc. create renewal of Christian faith in the diocese. His spiritual outlook is made clear through his attractive homilies and reflections in the news letters. Apart from the continuation of improving education he shows keen interest in the Professional and higher education of the students of our diocese.

Present Conditions of the Diocese Social Life Our land is rich in culture and social customs. Almost all the important events like birth, baptism, puberty, marriage and death are very much woven into social celebrations. The society in our villages exercises control by appreciation of the good and consume of evil done. Marriages are mostly within the castes and this created a close-knit society. Batch sub-caste has its own culture which helps it to retain its identity. The various communities (castes) represented in out Diocese are: Reddiyars, Vellalars, Brahmins, Udaiyars, Mudaliyars, Vanniars and kallars. The scheduled communion are: Parayan, Pallan, Cobblers, Dhobies.., Though these different castes by and large live in social amity, there are sub-sects within each division, that are considered forward or backward by traditional classification. The scheduled caste Catholics form a little less than half of the total catholic population of the Diocese.

Economic Life Among the areas of cultivable land, 2/3 is dry land. Cultivation is possible only if there is rain. The remaining 1/3 is wet-land irrigated by the Cauvery river. The river flows from the neighboring State of Karnataka. As they have built two new dams across the river, the water-flow into Tamilnadu is very minimal rendering raining of even one crop per year a near impossibility whereas two crops per year were easily rained earlier. As much as 70% of our Christians working under the Land-lords are landless labourers, who are severely affected by the twin factors of local drought and fact of river water resulting in joblessness and utter misery. 26% are marginal farmers who, if the rainfall is sufficient, have just enough to maintain their families. They too become pray to the pitiable conditions. 3% are big farmers managing to keep up their status and the rest are business people.

Education In this Diocese, we have with the help of the government 151 schools. Yet with all these, we are able to achieve only a low percentage of literacy in the Diocese. Education of our poor rural children has become one of our utmost important tasks. Our main concern is to make the parents realize that they should educate their children as learn upto 12 std.

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The Social Service The Kumbakonam Multipurpose Social Service Society, registered in 1973 co-ordinates the social work. During late seventies KMSSS, While alleviating the plight of flood and cyclone-hit victims, launched the Indian Overseas Bank –KMSSS joins venture scheme. As a result in the early eighties massive loan schemes got under way. After the Diocese Seminar in 1980 a shift was effected from projects to awareness and education programs. In 1983 an evaluation of the KMSSS programs was volunteered, to gauge the impact on the people. In 1998 to have more contact with the people and to monitor the social work, Perambalur Social Service Society was established now the function of PSSS has been in 9 taluks. It has 300 Madhar Sangam and 150 men association.

References 1. John Vidmar,op., Paulist press, ‘Mahwah New Jersey, United States of America, 2005, p.10. 2. Ronald knox, caliban in Grub street, New York, 1930, p.113. 3. Jubilee Souvenir, Diocese of Kumbakonam, Sep-24, 25, 1980. 4. Centenary Souvenir, Diocese of Kumbakonam, 1999. 5. Jubilee Souvenir, op.cit., p.1 6. Centenary Souvenir, op.cit., p.102. 7. Jubilee Souvenir, op.cit., p.2 - 8. எ.எ$.மZய தா$, 0பேகாண மைறமாவட வரலாN, பாக 2, பக.125. 9. Necrologie, Ibid. p.328. 10. M.S. Mariadhas, Ibid. p.129. 11. Necrologie, Ibid. p.328. 12. Archieves, SMMI, Paris. No. Sec. P.1. - 13. ச.இ. அK சாமி, வ*வ*லிய வளத வரலாN, (1899 1999) பக.128. 14. Necrologie,Ibid. p.333. - - 15. 0பேகாண மைறமாவட வரலாN, (1899 1999) லி லி 5ைச ஆெச, ெசைன 14. 16. Centenary Souvenir, op.cit., p.103. 17. M.S. Mariadhas, Ibid. p.301. 18. Ibid. p.307. 19. 0பேகாண மைறமாவட வரலாN,, op.cit.,p.150. 20. Jubilee Souvenir, op.cit., p.7 - 21. 0டநைத மைறமாவட பண* தளக , Aறா: நிைனV ெவள+ய.:. 0பேகாண,(1899 1999). 22. 0டநைத மைறமாவட பண* தளக , op.cit.,p93-94. 23. Jubilee Souvenir, op.cit., p.8. 151. 24. 0பேகாண மைறமாவட வரலாN, op.cit., p. 25. Ibid.., p.175. 26. Diocese of Kumbakonam at a Glance, Pamphlet, Bishop House, Kumbakonam. 2004. th 27. 40 year Souvenir, Multi Purpose Social Service Society, Kumbakonam.1973-2013.

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CASTE PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE EMERGENCE OF FOLK GODS IN SOUTHERN DISTRICTS OF TAMIL NADU

Dr.(Mrs).A.Bhavani, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Assistant Professor in History Department E.M.G. Yadava Women’s College, Madurai

Abstract The present study is based on understanding the folk gods worshipped by people in Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu. Through secondary sources the present paper tries to show how the emergence of folk god is interconnected with that of conflicts based on Caste injustice in the Tamil world. The study reveals the nature of the problem of the society. It shows how in the present time the injustice has been reframed and worshipped to suit one’s needs out of fear.

Introductiuon Caste has been one of the most important system which has been creating stratification in the society since a long time. The nature of caste is more often visible in the interaction of day to day life of an individual. It is also well known that due to the nature of Indian villages caste system is stronger in the villages than in the cities. These layers of caste is depicted with not only with men but with the gods one worships too. Caste and religion has always gone hand in hand. It is also observed that studies on folk gods reveals this discrimination of caste complexity. This shows the necessity to observe folk gods in the present times. One of the prominently worshipped gods in the Southern District of Tamil Nadu is the guardian gods. These gods are called with different names like Sudalai Madan, Nondi Madan, Irralapan, Karuppan. These gods are believed to be protecting fields and crops and the villages at night. In the following section we would see how the origin myths have shaped today in different form. Secondary sources are being used to explain this point.

Individual Temple Myths of Sudalai Madan and Other Madan 1. Nondi Madan - In a village called Kari Solla Magalaam Pathi, a temple called Nondi Madan temple exists. The history of the temple is such that a weaver who was in love with an upper caste woman and was chased down around nine village and killed by the upper caste people when they came to know of the affair. However, after his death the villagers encountered many sufferings and the people thought that it was because of the weaver’s death and they started praying him. As he was lame the temple name was called as Nodi Madan). The Nondi Madan shows how the caste based killing led to the emergence of temple. 2. Idaikarai Pulai madasamy-In Thiruvaanathapuran, a priest of Padmanabhaswamy temple fell in love with a young girl during the process of his religious duties and he also proposed her. However, the girl denied his proposal and complained to her father. Her father a lower caste man was worried but put a condition that for marrying his daughter the priest should shun his sacred thread (symbol of being Brahmin) and wear leather sandal. However, the girl’s father feared the consequences viz. earning the wrath of the king, being isolated from the community and hence decided to kill the priest and summoned him to his house. There the priest was pushed into a well and was killed. Later, a group of villagers from kulasekara pattinam (a village) who came to visit Padmanabhaswamy temple. One among the group members who was Magician felt that they were being followed by the ghost of the priest. He claimed to

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 12 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X tie the ghost in a well. The people of Iraviputhur started worshiping in that place as Idaikarai Sudalai Madan and the God’s idol is upside down. This story also shows how the caste based love affair was denied in the village and the worship of folk god started. 3. Madhusudhanaperumal Madan- In the taluka called Agastheswaran, a young man named Madu Sudhana Nadar lived he was considered a nuisance for the people. Once he raped a poor lady from Vellar (caste name) and the villagers chased him and he ran and hid inside a hut and the villagers burnt the hurt. After this incident, there was lot of crisis happening in the village. People believed that the crisis caused in the village was because of his death and they started praying him. 1. Nodi meaning lame and Madan meaning protector. 2. Idaikarai is a name of a place, Pulai Madasamy is a name of folk god. 3. Name of a place. 4. Sudalai Madan, Apart from myths, the following are some other important reasons to construct temple for Sudalai. During the annual festival in popular Sudalai temples, devotees who come from different regions expressed their problems to the Shaman or priest and asked for remedies to come out of their problems. The shaman through his prayer gets the answer and told the devotees to build a temple for Sudalai in his village in order to quit their problems. Accordingly they build a temple for Sudalai in their village and started worshipping. The spirit of Sudalai goes along with the meat of the sacrificed animal in Sudalai temples and it troubled the devotees on the way back to their home. Therefore, devotees construct a temple for Sudalai and worship. The spirit of Sudalai is also goes along with the wood that is brought from the forest and it start disturbing the life of the people. Consequently, people buildup a temple for Sudalai and worship in their village. Sudalai appeared in dream of the devotees and asked to construct temple for Him in his village.

Pidimun Eduthal It is very important to note how the spirit of Sudalai is carrying from one temple to other places in order to build a new temple. Devotees who are willing to construct a temple for Sudalai at their village, brings clay pot to an existing Sudalai temple in that region and took some mud at the bottom of the statue or altar. Then they give this pot to the priest or Shaman. The Shaman prays and asked the deity whether he is willing to go to this devotee’s village or not. If he gets positive answer, he hands over the pot to the devotee and asks them to construct a temple and worship. Thereafter the devotees brings the clay pot to their village, select a suitable place, made a small pit and kept a cock alive together with some eggs into that pit, kept the clay pot and construct an altar upon it and worship. This method of bringing the Spirit is known as pidimun eduthal. This story also continues in the same lines where the caste based violence led to the death of the individual and worship started.

Secondary Literature to Support My Argument In the article tries to show how the folk heroes who were killed due to several reasons represent a class. The examples he gives is of Madurai Veeran, Kathaavararayan. He has used a folklore methodology through which he has studied the bow song called as Villu Pattu in Tamil, which helps in celebrating the dead heroes. He through his documentation of several heroes show the differences that a high-class hero/Puranic hero has and a folk hero/ local hero has, he states that the local hero protects the interest of the local poor lower caste groups while the Puranic ones are usually Brahminical. 4 Folk gods names

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5 Bow song sung with traditional instruments like pots, bells, bows sung at the night of the festival. Villu pattu is called as bow song in English. In the book on Tanjore village (Gabriele Dietrich, 1977), the writer shows the case where the lower castes people prefer their own temples of worship specially the Village goddesses as it gives them a sense of closeness. In the book, Dalits and Religion, the writer (Manohar, 2009) notes that on the grounds of purity and pollution, the lower castes were not allowed into the precincts of the temple of Brahmanism deities. Since ancient times, many anti-caste movements revolted against the socio-cultural domination of Brahmins. Thus, many parallel religions came into existence. To express their identity and self-respect, the marginal communities opted for these parallel religions. In the Gazetteer of Tirunelveli, (Pate, 1917) notes that when calamities come, first worship is made to the village deity who is approached by all castes. He states this kind of worship are old Dravidian deities whose power, despite of invasion of Brahmanism has remained undiminished. They are, it is said, the spirits of men who have met with violent deaths; they haunt the burning grounds and all desolate places. He also notes that a ‘rationalistic’ explanation commonly given of the origin of these demons is that, like the bhuthams and pisaschas (spirits) they are the troubled spirits of men and women who died by violence or were terrible in their lives. Thus, in the above paper one could observe how caste plays an important role in the emergence of folk gods in Tamil Nadu. Through the different sources the paper shows how worship emerges in the Tamil world through a particular situation which is different from Vedic Hinduism.

References 1. Blackburn Stuart H. (1978) The Folk Hero and Class Interests in Tamil Heroic Ballads Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1 pp. 131-149 2. Gabriele Dietrich, (1977) Religion and Peoples organization in east Thanjavur; Christian literature society, Madras. (pg. 126). 3. Pate, H. R. (1917), Gazetter of Tirunelveli , Tamil Nadu. 4. Shanmugasundaram, (2007), Sudalai Madan, Kavya Publications, Chennai. 5. Meyer E. (1986)Ankalaparamecuvari: A Goddess of Tamil Nadu, her myths and cult, Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden GMBH. 6. Manohar M. D. (2009) Dalits and Religion (ed.) Atlantic publishers and distributors Private limited, New Delhi. 7. Madras Government, Museum, Bulletin V, no. 3, p. 174 in Elmore W. T. (1915), Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism-A study of local and village deities of Southern India. New York; Hamilton.

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CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS OF CHRISTIANITY - A SELECT ANALYSIS

P.Charles Christopher Raj Research Scholar, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore

Introduction In Christian theology the term charity which has the root from the Latin language caritas, is by St. 1 Thomas Aquinas understood as the friendship of man for God, which unites us wth God. He acclaims that the most excellent of all the virtues is almsgiving. The core idea in the Roman Catholic Christianity is that individuals, organizations and the state should offer help to those in need without any expectation. The Christian concept of charity is unique because it promoted the idea that charity is not just limited to one's own family or even to one's own social or cultural group. Right from the days of inception of Christianity the act of Charity executed by the Christians has been telling effect on humanity. Puducherry 2 Christians are also known for their charity as they donated lands for the construction of Churches and gave their wealth to the orphanages and charity organisations. Our study deals with the noble concept of charity as propounded by the Holy Bible and elaborates the pivotal role played by a number of charitable organisations benefiting the poor, the needy and the neglected strata of the society.

History of the Development of the Concept of Charity In Roman Catholic Christian ideology Charity is the greatest of the three theological virtues. Charity is dignified as the ultimate perfection of the human spirit because it is said to glorify and reflect the nature of God. The term caritas stands for pure love and is divine in nature and its manifestation is drawn from the soul and not conditioned by vagaries of emotions. According to St.Thomas Aquinas, charity is an absolute requirement for happiness. which he holds as man's ultimate goal. The obligation to perform acts of charity is taught both by revelation and by reason. The Lord said: thou shall love thy 3 neighbour as thyself; as you like other do unto you; . The notion of charity is common to all religions. There may be shades of differences between them in espousing the degree of charities in the public eye. There are extensive doctrines that promote the idea of charity in all religions. He goes further to demonstrate the subtle distinction between charity and justice. The former is not individual centric but holistic whereas the judiciary is more individualistic not withstanding its broad generalisations and universalisations. If charity becomes the way of life in a deprived society issues of justice will automatically perish. It automatically will take care of the individual dignity and his natural rights. The charity inculcated by Judaism is of a very high order but does not contain all the elements of charity as 4 5 found in the New Testament. Although both love of the neighbour as one's self and care of the poor are strictly commanded in the Pentateuch as duties to God, the neighbour meant only the Jews and the strangers dwelling within their gates. It did not embrace all mankind. The Jewish religion taught and still teaches the Fatherhood of God. It embraces only the children of Israel. The Hebrew idea of the brotherhood of man is correspondingly restricted to cogitative doctrine, but the motives of its charity are not having universal appeal and catholicity. It does not command its followers to love their enemies but advises them merely to refrain from hating them. Ecclesiastical organisation accounts for charity. Relief can be individualized by means of the Parish and centralized by means of the diocese. In many places, Catholics are co-operating with non-Catholics through the charity organization societies. This is laudable, for two reasons. In the first place the methods and purposes of what have come to be called organized charity includes investigation, attention to causes, specific treatment, self-help, record-keeping, and co-

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 15 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X operation among the different charitable agencies in order to eliminate duplicity and misdirected efforts. 6 Secondly, Catholics have a qualified claim upon these principles and practices .

The Ecclesiastical Doctrines of the Charity There are well-formulated doctrines of charity in Christianity. Some of them are cited below: • Charity is the theological virtue by which we love God above all things for his own sake, and our 7 neighbour as ourselves for the love of God . • Jesus makes charity the new commandment. By loving his own "to the end," he makes manifest the 8 Father's love which he receives . By loving one another, the disciples imitate the love of Jesus which they themselves receive. Whence Jesus says: "As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you; abide 9 in my love." And again: "This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you ." 10 • Fruit of the Spirit and fullness of the Law, charity keeps the commandments of God and his Christ : 11 "Abide in my love. If you keep my commandments, you will abide in my love ." 12 • Christ died out of love for us, while we were still "enemies". The Lord asks us to love as he does , even our enemies, to make ourselves the neighbour of those farthest away, and to love children and the poor as Christ himself. • The Apostle Paul has given an incomparable depiction of charity: "charity is patient and kind, charity 13 is not jealous or boastful; it is not arrogant or rude. Charity does not insist on its own way ; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right. Charity bears all things, 14 believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things ." • "If I . . . have not charity," says the Apostle, "I am nothing." Whatever my privilege, service, or even 15 virtue, "if I . . . have not charity, I gain nothing." Charity is superior to all the virtues . It is the first of the theological virtues: "So faith, hope, charity abide, these three. But the greatest of these is 16 charity ." • The practice of all the virtues is animated and inspired by charity, which "binds everything together 17 in perfect harmony"; it is the form of the virtues; it articulates and orders them among themselves ; it is the source and the goal of their Christian practice. Charity upholds and purifies our human 18 ability to love, and raises it to the supernatural perfection of divine love . • The practice of the moral life animated by charity gives to the Christian the spiritual freedom of the children of God. He no longer stands before God as a slave, in servile fear, or as a mercenary looking 19 for wages, but as a son responding to the love of him who "first loved us" . • If we turn away from evil out of fear of punishment, we are in the position of slaves. If we pursue the 20 enticement of wages, . . . we resemble mercenaries . Finally if we obey for the sake of the good itself 21 and out of love for him who commands . . . we are in the position of children . • The fruits of charity are joy, peace, and mercy; charity demands beneficence and fraternal 22 23 correction ; it is benevolence; it fosters reciprocity and remains disinterested and generous ; it is friendship and communion: Love is itself the fulfilment of all our works. There is the goal; that is why 24 we run: we run toward it, and once we reach it, in it we shall find rest .

Roman Catholic Charitable Organisations These organisations exist everywhere and are naturally found in Pondicherry too. If we examine them they will provide general parameters with which they operate universally not withstanding a few additions or deletions or modifications in their content and character. Let us take few examples in Pondicherry.

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1. The Society of Saint Vincent De Paul It is a lay Catholic organisation whose mission is ; to live the Gospel message by serving Christ in the poor with love, respect, justice and joy. They are called as Vincentians by which they see Christ in anyone who suffers, come together as a family, have personal contact with the poor and the needy and help in all possible ways. This Charity organisation was founded by St. Frederic Ozanam in May 1833 with five students. The word poor designates to every Vincentians of men, women and children who, either as individuals or as families, are encountering difficulties in their lives. This society was first organised in Pondicherry by Rev.Fr. Dupuis in 1852. They looked after the Leprosarium under the direction of the MEP. Later, they turned their attention towards other people especially the homeless, the immigrants and refugees and those with no source of income as well as to those searching for employment and to those living alone with few resources especially those suffering physically or mentally and also to those who are going through a strike or a lockout. They also take care of those abused physically, sexually or psychologically, the working poor who have problems in making ends meet and to those who have a 25 problem of dependency on drugs, gambling, alcohol .

2. The Missionaries of Charity In October 1950, with the permission received from Vatican, Mother Theresa started her own order labeled as the Diocesan Congregation of the Calcutta Diocese. It was later known as the Missionaries of Charity. In her own words, the meaning for the name is 'the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and shunned by everyone. There are many deprived people in Pondicherry under all these categories and they are given asylum in the Missionaries 26 of Charity . In the beginning it was a small group of 12 members now it has grown very big with 4500 nuns running an orphanage, AIDS hospices, charity centres, world wide and looks after the refugees, the aged, the alcoholics, the poor, the homeless and the victims of floods, epidemics and famine. In 1965, by the Decree of Praise by Pope Paul VI the Congregation expanded to other countries. Its first house outside India was Venezuela and others were in Rome and Tanzania. It gradually extended to other continents of Africa, Asia, Europe etc., By 1996, Missionaries of Charity had 517 missions in more than 100 countries. It takes nine years to become a full - fledged member. For one year candidates are allowed as visitors. At first, potential Sisters work as Assistants in Shishu Bhavan and Nirmal Hirday, tending the patients there. A sister/nun of Missionaries of Charity possesses three sarees one to wear, one to wash and one to mend, a pair of sandals, four sets of underclothes, a crucifix and a rosary. They also have a plate and a metal spoon, a canvas bag and a prayer book. In cold countries they posses cardigan. They never wear anything but sandals on their feet. The nuns/sisters must adhere to the vows of chastity, poverty and obedience to 27 the fourth vow that they should abide by wholehearted and free service to the poorest of the poor . In the year 1978, Pondicherry house was opened with four sisters and another house was opened in Reddiyarpalayam in 1982. It was managed by Sr. Prisantha and at present the nuns number had increased to 22. They have totally 645 inmates as destitutes, orphans, old age people, widows and divorcees. The devoted sisters spend their time in cleaning the wounds of the people and they take care 28 of persons with traumatic diseases and they pray at the bedside for those people nearing their death .

3. The Legion of Mary For the charitable deeds, Puducherry has gone to a great extent in establishing the Legion of Mary which was started in Ireland by the Servant of God Bro. Frank Duff in the year 1921 and in Pondicherry it

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 17 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X was started in 1945 and the main Charity Apostolate of the Legion consists of giving prioritisation to the homeless, prostitutes, prisoners and also protect non-Catholics. The basic unit of the Legion is called a Praesidium, which is normally based in a Parish. It is usually a group of 3-20 members and meets weekly in its Parish. The Curia is the next level up and one Curia supervises several Praesidia. The next level is the Comitium which is in charge of several Curiae, usually over an area like a medium city or a part of a province. The following level is the Regia, in charge of larger territories like a Province or a state (in the U.S. and Brazil). The Senatus is the next highest level, and it generally has control over the Regiae in a very large area, usually a country or very large territory. The Concilium is the highest level. It has its seat in Dublin, Ireland, and has control over all of the Legion. The essential aim of the Legion of Mary is the sanctification of its members through prayer, the sacraments and devotion to Mary and the Trinity, and of the whole world through the Apostolate of the Legion. Thus the idea of a Catholic lay apostolate organization where ordinary laypeople in all situations of life would work for their own sanctification and for the conversion of the world. It is the first of this kind in this direction.

4. Pondicherry Multipurpose Social Service Society It is the registered social service agency of the Archdiocese of Pondicherry and Cuddalore. Headquartered in the heart of Pondicherry, PMSSS has been shaping the socio economic destiny of numerous people in the union territories of Pondicherry and Karaikal and the districts of Cuddalore and Villupuram in the state of Tamil Nadu for the past 32 years. This Charitable organisation was started in the year 1967 by Fr. Becker with the intension to help the farmers, the daily wages masons, orphans, society driven people, the sick, the physically handicapped, downtrodden, people considered low in the society were given finance to improve their living condition by the help of foreign countries. Agencies like Caritas Asia, Menas Yundas and Miserio 30 come forward .

5. Volontariat It is a Pondicherry based Charity organisation which has support organisations in Belgium and France. It was established in 1962 by Madeline de Blic a social worker from Belgium. Madeline worked in a maternity hospital in Pondicherry and in the evening she would go to slum areas dispensing much needed medicines to the people who lived there. Before returning to France she set up this Charity organisation and left a Management Committee in place to manage the charities operations. Once at home her focus was to raise funds to support the organisation and their beneficiaries in Pondicherry. Starting with little to no funding Madeline called upon her friends and family to contribute and raise enough funds to support 50 families back in Oupalam, which is a poor ex-farming Dalit community in Pondicherry. They started to deliver programmes that were driven by their ethos of not restricting their developments. Their principle goes as follows: we always leave the door open, not shut ourselves in planning actions or in fashionable programmes, on the contrary we act according to each situation. The charity initially started with treating children and babies with life threatening diseases which was coupled with a health prevention drive by teaching basic hygiene. They distributed milk to infants to prevent mal-nutrition and helped jobless farmers to find work. Alongside this they also worked to improve the lives of local Dalit communities. They built a new road which provided better access to the Dalit huts which were situated on waste land. They worked with the local Indian government to help Dalit families own their own houses. They introduced public lighting along the streets and they managed to get some of the men jobs as dustmen in the town. They also started to structure the Panchayat (village council) so that regular meetings were held and the Dalit communities started to be heard. The

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 18 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X organisation has a strong focus on children, ensuring that their basic human rights are met. They worked hard to lower the rate of postnatal deaths, increasing levels of good nutrition and also increasing levels of literacy by helping children to go to school. For adults the organisation took donations of medicines from Belgium and helped a growing number of people by treating their illnesses. With an escalating population they started a family planning programme, educating people about the use of contraception , building their confidence and tried to put an end to the both male and female sterilization. In 1968 the organisation secured European funding to build a community centre where the acts of charity could be coordinated. The centre would also act as shelter when disasters struck, they mentioned that the Dalit huts had to be re-built four times in three years. The next social problem that organisation tackled was that of leprosy. A leprosy colony existed just south of Pondicherry and in the sixties the organisation started to rebuild the mud huts and gave one young boy who had been cured of leprosy prosthetics. For those who had been effect by Leprosy, 31 Madeline and her husband began a small weaving unit . After securing funds from Belgium, the organisation set about training these individuals in all weaving techniques. They started to make dish clothes and traditional men's cloth. Eventually they moved into making cotton fabric and for table cloths, wall hangings etc and started to export them to the European market. As the workers were suffering from poor nutrition, they were initially given meat, eggs, vegetables and other food items against a part of their salary. Once their physical health returned to normalcy then they would receive full pay. Following a surge in the green movement the organisation started a farm project just west of Pondicherry in Tuttipakkam. The farm took awhile to get going due to the quality of the soil. They now grow rice, sugar cane, coconut, guave trees, bananas, maize, vegetables and cotton. The charity has a proactive feel about it and it is obvious that they have done a lot of good work over the years. They are well established and well know within Pondicherry. Today the organisation has a large office building, big community kitchen, a comprehensive after school and training site, a children's home, an old people's home, a built up village, a farm, a centre for people with Leprosy with a decent sized weaving and cloth factory, a crèche, a doctors and dentists surgery and access to social workers. The kitchen provides lunch for over 1000 people daily. They work with the medical staff and children who are mal-nutrious receive a special diet ensuring that they remain healthy. in total the organisation sponsors 1450 children from the surrounding slum area, many of whom are orphans and works with a further 500 unsponsored children. Though the organisation is doing some fantastic work there is still more that it can do. It would be great to see them take advantage of their enterprising activities imagine how more they would be able to do.

Conclusion Christianity propounds charity as a fundamental principle of their religious wisdom. Its antecedents date back from the days of founding of Christianity by Lord Jesus. There are well-defined doctrines of Charity which encompass all the needs and aspirations and well-being of all the people who are totally deprived of their natural rights to dignified living. In essence, economic and social alienations of the unprivileged masses seek asylum in the endearing Charitable institutions of Christianity. There are a number of institutionalised Charitable organisations in Christianity whose tremendous service to the suffering humans is beyond comprehension. Service to God is service to humanity. This motto is the guiding principle of Christianity. Catholic division of Christianity added an extraordinary fillip to this social service dictum with the advent of Society of Jesus by Ignatius Loyola. Their service has become universal in appeal and action. They extend medical services of all types, take care of the down-trodden sections of the human society, provide educational and employment opportunities to the neglected

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 19 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X sections of the social matrix and above all the helpless orphans, destitute, uncared widows, old age sufferers and the medically disabled people are taken care of. The service institutions like the Missionaries of Charity, the Volontariat, the PMSSS, the Society of Vincent de Paul and the Legion of Mary serve the cause of the suffering humanity and Christianity puts this as the basic roadmap to achieve real spiritual salvation.

References 1. He was the foremost philosopher and theologian of the Roman Catholic church. He was born in A.D. 1224(approx.) and born of noble parents; he studied at the University of Naples, joined the Dominicans, and taught at a Dominican school at the University of Paris. His time in Paris coincided with the arrival of Aristotelian science, newly discovered in Arabic translation; his great achievement was to integrate into Christian thought the rigours of Aristotle's philosophy, just as the early Church Fathers had integrated Plato's thought in the early Christian era. He held that reason is capable of operating within faith; while the philosopher relies solely on reason, the theologian accepts faith as his starting point and then proceeds to conclusion through the use of reason. This point of view was controversial, as was his belief in the religious value of nature, for which he argued that to detract from the perfection of creation was to detract from the creator. He was opposed by St. Bonaventure. In 1277, after his death, the masters of Paris condemned 219 propositions, 12 of them Thomas's. He was nevertheless named a Doctor of the Church in 1567 and declared the champion of orthodoxy during the modernist crisis at the end of the 19th century. A prolific writer, he produced more than 80 works, including Summa contra Gentiles (1261–64) and Summa theologica (1265–73). 2. Cyril Antony Francis,(ed.) Gazetteer of India, Union Territory of Pondicherry, Vol-II, Pondicherry, 1982, pp- 1223-1228. 3. Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Gospel of St. Mathew, Chapter 25. 4. Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, Leviticus Chapter.19 versus 18. 5. Ibid, The book of Deuteronomy Chapter 15 versus 4 to 11. 6. Jose Kuriedath, Christianity and Indian Society (Studies in Religious Sociology) Bangalore 2013, pp.12-36. 7. St. Teresa of Avila, Eccl. 15:3. 8. John Paul II, Discourse at the of Closing of Extraordinary Synod of Bishops, 7 December 1985, n. 6: AAS 78 (1986), 435.see also Codes Iuris Canonici 1257. 9. John Bossy, Christianity in the West 1400–1700 (Oxford 1985) 168.see also Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, Jn 13:1. 10. Layman, Christian Colligation of Apologetics Debate Research & Evangelism see also Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, Jn 15:9, 12. 11. New Catholic Catechism, 1822 see also Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible,Op.cit, Jn 15:9-10; cf. Mt 22:40; Rom 13:8-10. 12. Mackay, The State and Charity London and New York, 1898 see also Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, Rom 5:10. 13. New Catholic Catechism, 1827 see also Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible,Op.cit, Cf. Mt 5:44; Lk 10:27-37; Mk 9:37; Mt 25:40, 45. 14. www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c1a7.html see also Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, 1 Cor 13:4-7. 15. Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, 1 Cor 13:1-4. 16. Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, 1 Cor 13:13.

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17. Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, Col 3:14. 18. Revised Standard Version, The Holy Bible, Op.cit, Cf. 1 Jn 4:19. 19. St. Basil, Reg. fus. tract., prol. 3:PG 31,896B. 20. St. Augustine, In ep. Jo. 10, 4:PL 35,2057. 21. John XXIII, Discourse at the Opening of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, 11 October 1962: AAS 54 (1962), 788-91. 22. Paul VI, Discourse at the Closing of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, 7 December 1965: AAS 58 (1966), 7-8. 23. John Paul II, Discourse of 25 January 1985: L'Osservatore Romano, 27 January 1985. 24. Final Report of the Extraordinary Synod of Bishops, 7 December 1985: the Enchiridion Vaticanum vol. 9, II B a, n. 4:p. 1758, n. 1797. 25. Cyril Antony Francis, (ed.)Gazetteer of India, Union Territory of Pondicherry, Vol-II, Pondicherry, 1982, pp- 1425-27 also see Clement Iswar, Diocese of Pondicherry – Cuddalore (A.D 1545-.2000), Puducherry, 2003,pp.65-78. 26. Meg Greene, Mother Teresa, A Biography, London, 2004, 134-139. 27. Ibid, pp145-154. 28. Clement Iswar, Diocese of Pondicherry – Cuddalore (A.D 1545-.2000), Puducherry, 2003, pp.115-156. 29. Ibid.pp-158-159. Also see http:/legion of mary/ 30. Souvenir published in 2002 for the Jubilee year of PMSSS. pp.5-18. 31. Cyril Antony Francis, (ed.) Gazetteer of India, Union Territory of Pondicherry, Vol-II, Pondicherry, 1982, pp- 1454-65 and also see Clement Iswar Opcit., 32. Interview with Prof. I. Kathirvel who got graduated with the help of this organisation Volontariat.

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CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: SOME REFLECTIONS

Dr.S.Rajangam Guest Faculty, Department of Sociology Gandhigram Rural Institute, Gandhigram

Rural Community Scenario Indian social structure is marked by socio-economic inequalities and various other forms of disparities due to caste, gender, religion, regional, property ownership identities of social segments which has determined the livelihood of a particular segment in Indian context. The rural social structure is abundantly marked by pursuit of agriculture as not only and people’s livelihood security but also traditional and culture based way of life. As agriculture and allied activities cater to the needs of about 75% of rural population, agriculture remains the predominant source of occupation and employment for rural land lord and landless population. Since agriculture is affected by the vagaries of monsoon agricultural employment over the years was not promising to the dependent population unlike the self sufficiency, self reliance, and self dependency identified with agriculture in traditional rural communities. Since independence, there had been a number of development initiatives undertaken by both governments of India and state governments as part of a national agenda of community development. The new strategy introduced in agriculture as a part of agricultural modernization saw the launching of agricultural development programmes like IADP, IAAP, HYVP, DDP, Grow More Food Campaigning etc, introduced as part of Green Revolution though increased the production and productivity of various food and commercial crops in agriculture yet it also simultaneously created the problems of displacement of agricultural labour, unemployment, poverty, migration and various other problems accompanied thereof. This has created a sort of rural urban divide and disparities and ultimately destroyed the livelihood securities of rural population. The worst victims of the new strategy in agriculture and allied activities were the peasants, artisans, craftsmen and other services castes. The farmers in view of higher input cost and unremunerative prices had been faced with the problems of indebtedness, occupational mobility, spatial movements, etc. Taking advantages of this rural scenario prevailing in agriculture and allied activities the urban capitalists particularly the small and medium scale industrialists, real estates, proprietors of educational institutions and other capitalists started purchasing lands comparatively at cheaper cost for their respective purposes.

Urban Economy Urban social structure and economy were predominantly marked by existence of non agricultural pursuits with cross sections of population identified mostly on the economic criteria. The primary occupation of urban / city unlike rural / hamlet is trade, business, commerce, mostly related with industries entrepreneurs and companies the production and productivity in urban economic pursuits comparatively is higher and provide livelihood safety and securities to the proletariat at bottom and capitalist at the top of the urban economic stratification. Both the employer and employees in the industrial setting in urban areas are far better than their counter parts in rural area namely land owner and land less labour. The prosperity of urban mass is remunerative employment as well as wider choice of employment and interest based work naturally resulted in gains and profits.

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Unlike in agriculture, costing of materials for the industrial products took into account every minute expenditure went into the process of production with a component of profit to the management. Accordingly the urban sector technical job is rated higher than non technical agriculture based jobs. The industries, companies, entrepreneurs, firms, etc. concentrated in urban metropolitan cities had led to corporatization and a different life style. The urban experienced mass production of materials, access of market, quick distribution of these materials to various countries and even outside country taking advantages of connectivities through surface, harbour, airport, etc. are concentrated mostly in these urban and metropolitan cities. The industrial capitalism grew leaps and bounds due to consistent availability and access of all these infrastructures. Consequently the corporate have experienced multi- dimensional growth and elevated not only their economic condition but also contributed to urban development. The governments in India on its part also effectively contributed the necessarily infrastructure support for further expansion and multiplication of corporate gains in the form of constructing new Road, Rail, Airport, Market, Special Economic Zone, WTO based LPG, Tax concessions, supply of p0ower, provision of land for construction of industries etc to the entrepreneurs. These incentives motivated entrepreneurs further towards corporatization and concentration of urban capitalism and its expansion in its neighbourhood and also its spread effect in rural areas too.

Corporate Social Responsibility and Community Development The concentration of capitalism and corporatization had led to the emergence of certain responsibilities to the corporates, companies, industries, firms, etc. to conduct their business with a sense of ethical and moral principles. This has given rise to the concept of CSR by which corporates etc. are to involve in community developmental works as part of its social responsibilities not only in urban area but also in the neighbourhood communities and rural areas particularly. It is observed that int eh post liberation era (since 1991) there is a decrease in the role of government in fulfilling the welfare commitments to all. The companies and industries involved in rural reconstruction and community based organisational and socio-economic development activities. The corporate exploitated the new opportunities for industrial growth and rapid race among industrialists to enlarge their industries either individually or collectively. The New Companies Act (2013) initiated a new face of corporate spending on community development which is estimated around Rs.60000 crores and XII plan had also earmarked about Rs.173000 crores towards corporate spending for community development. CSR is the responsibility of the organisation towards labour, community, environment and society. CSR is the continuing commitment by business to conduct ethically and contribute to economic development. While improving quality of life of labour, families, communities and society of large. CSR is a form of self regulation integrated in business morality. It is a built in self regulative mechanism whereby a business monitor ensures its active compliance with the spirit of law, ethical standards and industrial laws aim to empirical responsibility for the company’s action and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders, and all other members of the public sphere. Ultimately CSR is viewed as a commitment towards sustainable economic development by working with employees, families, community and society in order to improve their lives in ways that are good for business and for development. The CSR and CD in view of its role and responsibilities obviously deal with the dimensions of community development which includes area, segment, occupation, time, target and result oriented developmental activities. India being a country of villages the CSR commitment is more towards rural community’s development.

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Activities under CSR and CD 1. Agriculture and related activities 2. Animal husbandry and allied activities 3. Cottage industries related activities 4. Community based organisation, its formation and promotion 5. Micro-finance institution related activities 6. Micro-credit related activities 7. Micro enterprises related activities 8. Outreach / extension / awareness creations 9. Infrastructure support to the community 10. Social welfare programmes for cross sections 11. Empowerment of marginalized community 12. Sustainable development 13. Social marketing activities 14. People’s participation in development 15. Formation and promotion of voluntary organisations 16. Promotion of rural entrepreneurs

CSR and Smart Governance CSR implies involvement of corporate in socio economic development of the stakeholders, care and support to the clients, production and distribution between industry and market should be identified with values and social responsibilities with larger vision and mission. The CSR is to be inter linked with industry (production), customers (consumers), market (exchange), distribution through a wide network of infrastructure based movement of finished products from corporate. This involves ethics and moral principles in the entire social process interfaced with corporate and mass. Many corporates have exemplified the sense of social responsibility towards upliftment of marginalized community’s development. The smart governance in this regard involves integration of stakeholders namely management, employee, community, consumers and others. It should deal not for profit alone to shareholders / capitalist / corporate but benefit to stakeholders, inter dependency of company and stakeholders leading to CSR in business and community development organisation.

CSR, Social Development and Sustainable Social Development The CSR as part of its community development commitments has the other dimensions of social development and sustainable development. Social development encompasses the dimension of socio, economic, educational, recreational, ethical, moral, health, environment, etc. integration of CD and SD involves engagement of corporate in social change and structure and functional transformation to create a new generation with a mindset of transparency, spirit towards non discrimination, elimination, of disparities, a culture of social cohesion, tolerance, peace and tranquillity, communal harmony, social integration and peaceful coexistence. The social development is to be sustained through its continued existence for larger periods to develop the feeling of participation with unity in diversity, liberty, equality, fraternity and social justice. This invariably set in motion building better quality for all human beings and it involves integration of dimensions like socio, economic and environment. Obviously it calls for an appropriate policy for CSR to link socio economic and environmental dimensions to promote CSR with CD. Here Gandhiji’s concept of trusteeship and Nehruji’s thought on industrialization for economic development with CSR as well as Manmohan Singh’s social charter (2007) exclusively address CSR and CD.

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CSR and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) The Millennium Development Goals (MGDs) as promoted by United Nations (UN) deal with certain major thrust of community development such as literacy, employment, health, empowerment of women, and marginalized communities, sustainable environment, poverty alleviation, elimination of chronic diseases etc. kept as community development agenda as part of CSR for every corporate to discharge its social responsibilities. In addition Dr.Abdul Kalam’s concept of PURA covering certain connectivities between rural and urban like electronic, energy, marketing, infrastructure, economic etc. are expected to serve effectively and efficiently the delivery of the agenda of CSR and CD as grass root level.

Conclusion CSR involves a specific charter incorporating the facets of community, regional development within the larger framework of social service in the backward areas, community and regions towards socio, economic upliftment of downtrodden and other marginalized communities. This warrants a specific policy based development programme and support taking into account the empirical realities in the vicinity and neighbourhood communities. The Ministry of Company Affairs should formulate a plan of action towards CSR and CD. The trade unions and FICCI should compliment as stakeholders in this regard. The regular social audit on the performance of companies on CSR would reveal the nature, extent, impact, limitation, etc of CSR. The CSR and CD framework certainly make the entrepreneur into a social entrepreneur wherein the former earns profit and the latter engage in social service leading to community development in Indian context. In this type of complementarity between entrepreneurs and social service not only links CSR with CD but also ensures micro, macro linkage within the larger framework of economic growth with equitable and distributive social justice and also a better urban- rural community relations and development.

References 1. Barton, D. (2011). Capitalism for the long-term. Harvard business review, 89(3), 84-91. 2. Bernstein, A. (2010). The case for business in developing economies. Johannesburg: penguin. 3. BATSTONE, d.(2003). Saving the corporate soul and (who know?) maybe your pwn, San Francisco: Jossye-Bass. 4. Ackoff, R.(1999). Recreating the corporation, New York: oxford university press.

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DANCE IN EARLY TAMIL LITERATURE

T.Dhanalakshmi

Assistant Professor & Head, Department of History

Arumugam Pillai Seethai Ammal College, Thiruppattur

Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The nd yearly tamil literature starting from Sangam age 2 BC. This paper deals with dance in early Tamil litrature in Tamilnadu. Dancing was cultivated as a fine art and rules were given in detail for the performance of the several kinds of dancing then in vogue. There were Tamil and Aryan systems of music and dancing and plays. Dance in its pure form has its origin in the four great Vedas. The four main aspect of the Dance are drawn from the Vedas; the basic themes from the Rig-Veda, the captivating ‘abhinayas’ from the Yajurveda, the vocal music from Samaveda and the enchanting ‘rasas’ from Atharvana Veda. Dance with its well-defined rules (shastras) is capable of granting dutiful life dharma), wealth (artha), enjoyment (kama) and liberation (moksha). The dancer gains fame, self-confidence and dexterity. Dance brings peace and divine happiness dispelling sorrow and misery. The total bliss obtained from pure Dance is valued by scholars as much more than that attained through sever spiritual meditation. No wonder Dance is more than an art form. The two major Hindu cults in India, Saivism and Vaishnavism simplified this philosophy to communicate easily to the mass. They attributed good qualities to their respective Gods and depicted them through juicy myths. These Gods were portrayed as showering love and affection over the worldly beings. This love became the central theme in the later literature. In the hands of the Indian genius dance mingled with music, rhythm and movements became the quickest and the sweetest vehicle to establish an instantaneous rapport between the on looker and object of message i.e. God. Hence dance holds a very sacred place in India. Indigenous sources in Tamil do provide ample information about the music and drama in the Tamil country. Dance has always part of the Tamil culture. Brief introduction to them in the background of the various political changes that took place in Tamilnadu will serve as the necessary prelude. The earliest known ere in the history of Tamilnadu is known as the Sangam age (c-the first three centuries of the Christian era). Tamil tradition holds that there had been during this period a literary organization at Madurai consisting of poets of the language patronized by the Pandyan rulers. The art of the music and dance seems to have attained maturity and numerous references in early Tamil literature compared them to nature. Tholkaappiyam the authentic work on Tamil Grammar that was written in 500 BC by Tholkaapiyar- considered to be a student of the great sage ‘Agaththiyar’ mentions a lot about classical dance. Starting from Tolkappiyam, many texts like Pancha Marabu, Kooththa Nool, Bharata Senapathiyam have defined the grammar of classical dance.‘Pancha Marabu‘by Arivanaar which was also written almost the same time as Tholkaapiyam – describes in detail about music and dance. It talks about various hand gestures, abhinaya, kooththu, naatyam. It also describes the letters to be used for jathis- tha, thi, tho, ki, k. Then there is ‘Kooththa nool‘authored by Saaththanaar. This is the oldest available text on the grammar of classical dance. ‘Kooththa Nool’ has two sections, ‘Suvai’ and ‘Thogai’ with 153 and 162 verses respectively and says that the sound, the letters and the music emanated from the Dance of the

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Lord. It also says that ‘Om’ is the beginning and the end for everything. The author seems like a good psychiatrist, philosopher and most importantly an intellectual. The link between human life and the Nava Rasaas have been described in detail by the author. Here is a verse form Koothanool. Tastes emerge from the feelings within and these are expressed as dance. Feeling is the soul, Taste is the Mind, and expression is the body’. . அக உய ஆக ைவ உள ஆக இைழ உட ஆக இயவ  It is a cryptic verse with very deep meanings but what was written nearly 2500 years ago holds good even now. And this is applicable to any art form. The Kottanool, Indrakaliyam, Isainunukam, Sayantham, Agattiyam, Seiriyam, have been assigned to this period. Dance goes by the name of kootu in earlier Tamil literature. Tolkapiyam speaks o velan veriyadal, as a dance in the temple by the possessed priest. The earliest of the inscriptions relevant to dance art seems to be the one found at Archalur. It is assigned to the period 200-250 A.D. on paleographical grounds. It has a series of rhythmical syllables analogous to sollukattu. The syllable ‘ta’ is the fulcrum and because of it, it is called tattakkaram. It pertains to foor- work (padapatam) in dance. The text fits into the kantachapu variety (tala variety currently used) and the antiquity of the dance tradition is confirmed by this inscription. The silappatikaram is the earliest of the Tamil classics which contains lot of information relating to dance. Though dance, drama and music were the three fold and allied fine arts which received princely encouragement and were developed a rare degree, it is unique to note that Elango in the arngerrudadai of silappatikaram has portrayed a vivid picture of dance in connection with other aspects. As it was playing a dominant role in the life of the Tamils, the author should have employed that as a basis to narrate his story to achieve his purpose of revealing the importance of three truths about the social character of life during his period . An analysis of it will suggest that Elango succeeded in achieving his purpose in addition to the making of the future society in knowing more about his days. The Silappathigaaram one of the five major epics in Tamil is considered to be a complete book on classical dance. ‘Silappathikaaram’ gives a perfect description about Classical Dance and Music. We find that in literature too, small things have played major roles. A small gemstone ankle-bell (silambu) influenced an entire epic. Silappadikaram refers to a number of religious dances, with the advent of the worship. One must start learning classical dance at the age of five without any compromise on Musical, Dance and Aesthetic Elements, practice rigorously for seven years and perform at the age of twelve.

ஆட பாட அழ எ இ

றிய றி ஒ ைற! படாம

ஏ$ ஆ%& இய'றி ஓ ஈ ஆ%* . +, கழ மன' கா.ட ேவ%* However, it is the description about Classical Dance in ‘Silappadhigaaram’ that calls for special mention and appreciation. Ilango adigal must have been a perfectionist. The author elaborates on the qualifications of a Dance Teacher, Percussionists, Vocalist, Flautist, and the person(s) playing the ancient instrument ‘Yaazh’. He deals with each and every aspect of dance starting from the vocalist, the lyricist, the percussionist, and the instrumentalists. What amazes one is the way he has defined the structure of the stage. Not only has he given the dimensions of a stage but also that he has mentioned about the lighting, and the way the stage has to be decorated. If the verse

எ$ேகா அகல எ%ேகா ந2ள

ஒ3ேகா உயர உ5பன ஆகி

உதர5 பலைகெயா& அர8கி பலைக

ைவத இைட நில நா'ேகா ஆக

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ஏ'ற வாய இர%& ெபாலிய

ேதா'றிய அர8கின9 ெதா$தன gives the desired dimensions of a stage,

:% நிழ ;ற5பட மா% வள எ& ஆ8

ஒ3<க எழின9= ெபா3<க எழின9=

கர> வர எழின9= ;?>ட வ Talks about the lighting. He then goes on to describe the ‘Pancha Sandhi’ Kavuththuvum-an item that is performed in the beginning to ward off evil forces-and then the 11 different dances called as ‘Pathinoru aadal’, and that is the reason Ilango Adigal paid importance to music as well while talking about dance. , , , ரேல த ைககிைள உைழேய , , இள9ேய வள? தார எறிைவ

எ$வைக இைச எA ெபயேர

சB! ?B! கB! மB!

பB! தB! நிB! எறிைவ

ஏ$ அவ'றி எ$ேத ஆ Sa-Kural; Ri-Thuththam; Ga-KaikkiLai;Ma-Uzhai;Pa-ILi;Dha-ViLari;Ni-Tharam. In another verse, he says Pans(Ragams) are obtained by arranging the 12 Kovais(swaras) in a specified structure in the ascending and descending scale.But more than all these, what leaves one wonder struck is his definition of Gruha Bedam-tonic shift. He calls this as ‘Kural Thiribu’. He says‘ If the Thuththam(ri) of Mohanam is the base, it would give Madhyamavathi, if the Kaikkilai(ga)is the base it would give Hindolam, the Ili(pa) would give Sudhha Saveri and the Vilari(dha) Sudhha Dhanyasi’. Silapathikaram describe the preparation of the stage they devoted much attention and the stage known as arangu measured 7x8x1 kols in breadth length and height with two entrances. The stage was fixed at a selected place as pointed out by the text books. Proper lighting arrangements were made in the stage in such a way as to avoid the disturbances ceased by the shadows of the pillars. The stage for dance and drama was generally called adarangu. The stage had three types of screens called arumuga elini, porumuga elini and karandu viral elini. As dance and drama were of unique forms the stage was known as aruntolil arangu with attractive drawings and decorated garlands. The Tails had certain customary practices associated with the stage performances. It was customary among the artists to enter the stage by placing the right leg. At the commencement of the performance in the stage and sing the invocation song and the sound of the different musical instruments succeeded it. Dances commenced from the right pillar of the stage. The dancing girl was to undergo a strenuous training for a period of seven years in dancing and music and also in preserving her natural beauty. Dancing was executed with make-ups known as ulvari. Manimegalai points other references such as ulvaripani, ulvarikolam points that dance was performed with required make up to make the expression more clear the audience. For a preper execution of a dance, the kutti, the dancer, adal acan, rusician pulavan, the composer temmummai Mudalvan, the crummer, the kulalon, the flutist and instrumental musician who plays the instrument called yal constituted a team. Every one of them had to be well trained master in his respective field. The dance master was well aware of the two types of kuttu, viz., ahakkuttu and purakkuttu i.e., vethiyal and poduviyal. Among them vethiyal was appropriated exclusively for the kings and the latter was performed in the presence of common people. The kuravai kootu a prominent dance during the Silappatikaram days is performed by seven or nine women of the cowherd community. They perform by joining hands and dancing to the accompaniment of their own singing. Aline in canto xvii of aaichiyar

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 28 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X kuravai (Silappatikaram) reads “to alleviate the grief of our cattle, we dance the kuravai”. They dance in a circling movement singing airs varying in melody and tune. This variety of dance is a community dance which belongs to the category of dances symbolic of the welfare of the community. As pictured in Tolkapiyam, kuravai is a dance celebrating a victory in war; later it seemed to have developed into a dance to please the Gods. An extension of the divine aspect is the interpretation of the term kuravai as the consort of Siva, the Goddess worshiped for victory in war. Through they are repeatedly mentioned in subsequent literature, we are unable to assess whether regular enactment confirmed to the original patterns mentioned in the texts like panchamarabu , Agatiyam, koottanool etc. Another variety refered to Silappatikaram is vettuvari (hunter’s song). It reads “Salini born of the clan of maravar began her dance with appropriate gesture and became possessed of divinity, her hairs standing on ends, her hands raised aloft; she continued to dance moving from place to place to the wonder of the foresters she them proclaimed these unfulfilled vows post Sangam anthologies regard to many such community dances. The Silappatikaram features the play of mud pots (kudam) a dance sacred to Krishnas. A casual perusam of the evidences gives the impression that a number of concepts are blended in this art. By origin, a play of the cowherds of the days of Silappatikaram seems to have been played with mud pots filled with milk. Later milk or water seems to have been alternatively used. This has given it a character in fertility cult or rain making ceremonies. Still, later empty pots have been used evidently because of the need to safeguard against the spilling of the water. Paripadal, the anthology mentions about kootu and kunippu as specialized arts practiced by women. Certain modes of dance like vallikoothu and kalanilaikoothu are mentioned in Tolkapiyam. Vallikoothu is a ritualistic dance performed in honor of the Goddess valli Kalanilaikootu is a communal dance performed in honor of a victory scored by the soldiers in war. Adal is the term which describes a dance by a sprit posed person. The songs which were apt for dance numbers were Paripadal and Kalipa. These were excellent in musical and tala content. The theme of these songs is love, nature and God. The method of singing constitute slow as well as fast tempo which can be apt for performing dance. In these songs the name of the name of the composer and the singers are given, for e.g. naganar, nannaganur, pettanaganar, kannanaganar etc. However we do not get the original tune and method of singing these gripadals. As gleaned from the Pallava sculptures for instance lord Vishnu is the supreme God who finds a pronounced mention in the sings of the Alwars. An examination of the body of the Sangam creature reveals that Vishnu had already been accepted by a legation of the Sangam Tamils. The popularity of Krishna legends and which are associated with Vishnu suggest considerable antiquity of the ideas. The concept get a formal shape in the literature of the sangam age Iconic representation have to be visualized from the literature of the period. As it was a custom among the Tamils of the sangam age to associate different types of dances with various Gods it was considered necessary that the dance masters should be in the knowing of 11 types of those dances. They were aware of the songs and drums associated with them. Moreover they knew the poses or abhinayam and talas or musical notes. In the same way the musician, the composer, the drummer, the flutist, were all experts in their respective areas. From this one can have an idea about the perfection attained in fine arts by the Tamils. Further even without the availability of such works, Elango, the erudite Tamil poet, who was more acquainted with many things as a prince, would have produced such works with elaborate details. It is obvious that the Tamils would have gained mastery over specific arts owing to the ever increasing Aryan contacts during the course of the Sangam age. Dance was not the hereditary right of anybody. As the Tamil had contact with the Kuttar or dancers from Konganam and Karnatakam, they even danced with the people of Kudagu region. The kings, who

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 29 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X were entertained by dance and music, were pioneers in allowing his subjects to indulge in such kinds of pastimes. Kuravi was a popular form of dance among the ayyar hunters etc. The Kuravaikuttu was executed by clapping of their hands and that was also known as Karkkadam and kuttul padudal formed a part of ayciciyar kuravai. Andarakkottu and Kadayaham also were parts of dances. Different types of dances were associated with Gods, for; the deities were treated as superhuman beings having all the qualities of the human beings. Alliyattogudi was a dance associated with Mayon i-e Tirumal. Imayavan or Siva is said to have performed the dance known as Kodukkotti or Kodukattichedam after destroying the Tripura. Kannan performed the alliyam after destroying the asura who came in disguise of as in elephant at the request of Kamsa. Kudai and Tudi of Murugan, Kudam of Tirumal, pedi of Kannan, Marakkal of Mayaval, Pavai of Ceyyol Ayirani’s Madanthai were some other forms of dance include in the dance performed by Madhavi. Like Kuravai dance mentioned Cilappatikaram which was popular among the Tamils of that period. Velan Veriyadal associated with Murugan worship as narrated in Cilappatikaram was popular among Tamils in the form of Murugan propitiation. So, dance was executed for specific purpose. The Tunangaikkuttu a dance performed in battlefields by women in an extract manner will substance Tiete that. Manimekalai considered to be an offshoot of ‘Silappathikaaram’ since Manimekalai was the the daughter of Madhavi and Kovalan also talks a lot about the dance. Written by ‘Seeththalai Saaththanaar’, the text mentions about Tala Aruthi, the eleven different forms of dance-as already mentioned in detail in ‘Silappathikaaram’the two forms of ‘Kooththu’ and the existence of a grammar book on ‘Bharatam’. In another major text, ‘Seevaka Chintamani’, the chief protagonist, Seevakan himself is a dancer. In Bhakti Literature, texts like Thevaram and Tirumanthiram talk a lot about the dance of Siva. Some verses in the ‘Naalayira Divya Prabhandam’ describe the dance of Krishna.‘Thiruppugazh‘written by ArunaGirinathar has lot of verses that use the dance syllables. In one of the verses, ‘Athala Sethanaar aada’, he makes all the gods in the heaven dance. Apart from these texts that are exclusive books on Grammar, classical dance finds a mention in Sangam Literature, works that preach Wisdom and Values like Thirukkural, Naaladiyaar etc., Tamil Nadu is now the home of Bharata Natyam, which among all the Indian dances, as now practiced follows most closely the Natyashastra. Bowers declares that Bharata Natyam ‘while being India’s most brilliant dance, is also the most classic.” All the four elements of classical dance, namely angitka (gestures), vachika (words), sattvika representation of feeling) and aharya (custumes) are used effectively in the Bharata Natyam.

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DEVOTIONAL CHARITY OF THE OFFICIALS UNDER THE CHOLAS - A STUDY

Dr.(Mrs.).M.Geetha Associate Professor & Head, History Research Centre V.V.Vanniaperumal College for Women, Virudhunagar

The monarchical form of government prevailed in the Chola period with numerous palaces, officials and ceremonials and its majestic display of the concentrated resources of an extensive empire. A highly organized and efficient bureaucracy existed during the time of the Cholas. The hierarchy of officials was in the service of the king in the enjoyment of titles and distinctions. The recruitment and promotion to high ranks were decided with birth and high connection at the starting period but subsequently the career might have depended largely upon the individual ability of a person. The most common method of remunerating officials was that of assigning to each according to his status a certain extent of land which he held as his jivita.

Category of Officials The Chola inscriptions mention two grades of officers. A more general distinction often found in the records of the period is that between the higher grade and lower grade of official nobility. The terms Peruntaram and Sirutaram were used. For officers and servants Karumigal and Panimakkal were used. The earliest mention of the Peruntaram in a datable record was found in the fifth year of Maduraikonda Rajakesari in 961 A.D. The intermediate status of officers was known as Sirudanattu – Peruntaram. The officers formed the Udankuttam which appear to have been used for instant consultation. The terms Peruntaram and Sirutaram were used only for a sort of grading the military officers and not civil officials. The number of Adikari or the important officers of the government increased in the reigns of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. They had the king’s titles prefixed to their individual titles and they had Muvendavelan titles generally. Another important officer was Naduvirukkai. The bhattas were the holders of this office and it might have been a judicial office.

Madhyastha Madhyastha is an officer usually associated with the Sabha or Ur assemblies. It means an arbitrator. But the best translation of it in the inscriptions would be Secretary or Registrar of the village assembly. They made endowments to the temples. Nakkan Amudan, the arbitrator of the village made a gift of land by purchase for midday offerings and for a pot of water daily from the river for the sacred bath to the image of Rishabhavahanaperumal. Another Madhyastha gifted a land for sounding a sandaikodikulam and conch during the mid-night offerings in the same temple. Tiruorriuran, the Madhyastha of Alambakkam built the temple of the goddess Pidari and made a gift of land for food offerings and for a seven day festival. The Madhyastha of Manalur namely Manalurudaiyan Tiruvagattipalippili granted land for the purpose of raising a flower garlands to the god Tiruppulippagadevar of Sirringur.

Alunganattar An inscription in the 22nd year of Parantaka I states that a gift of 1/8 sey of land by Donaya Kramavittan of Kondampatti, a member of alunganam of the village for offerings during the ardhajama

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 31 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X service to god Srikudittittaiperumal at Avaninarayana chaturvedimangalam. Another inscription of the same king registers the gift of tax-free land to the temple by the alunganattar of Tirupasurpuram, a village in Tanayurnadu, a subdivision of Palkunrakottam. Sri Govindapadi Narayanan of Urupputtur, a member of the alunganam of Avaninarayana chaturvedimangalam consecrated an image of god Manavalapperumal and made provision for the mid-day offerings to the deity by an endowment of land during the 31st year of Uttamachola. In the 4th year of Parakesarivarman, Asuri Adittapidara Kramavittan, a member of the alunganattar of the village made a gift of land for a perpetual lamp in the central shrine of Matsyapurisvara temple, Koyil Tevarayanpettai, Papanasam Taluk. An inscription of Sundarachola registers a gift of 400 kulis of land for a perpetual lamp in the temple of Pulippagavadevar at Kavanur in Miyarunadu, made by Kurovichannaya Kramavitta Sarvakratukkal, a member of the alunganam of the village. Another inscription of the same king records an endowment of land for a perpetual lamp made to the temple of Tiruviramisvarattu Mahadeva at Madamanjeri chaturvedimangalam in Nenmalinadu by Akkumara Kramavittan, a member of alunganam of the village. Agnisarma Dasapuri Bhatta Somayajiyar of Pullalur, a member of the alunganam of the village made an endowment of land to the temple for a perpetual lamp in the temple of Mulasthanam Udaiya Paramaswami at Peringur, Tirukkoyilur Taluk, South Arcot District. Mudumbai Solaippiran Kramavittan, a member of the alunganam of Peringur made an endowment of land for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple of Mulasthanam Udaiyar. Abhiyandi Rishikesvara Kramavittan, a member of alunganam of the village for burning a lamp in the mukha-mandapa of the temple of Kaliyaditta Vinnagaralvar of the village and for rearing a flower garden to the temple. For the feeding of Brahmins, the officials donated lands to the temple. Tiruppondai Somasiyar, a member of the alunganam of Rajamalla chaturvedimangalam of Tiruvegambapuram donated land for the daily feeding of a Brahmin at mid-day in the temple of Sripondai Perumanadigal.

Muvendavelan The title of the officers like muvendavelan and brahmarayan are often found in the inscriptions. Muvendavelan is the title given to the officers of Vellala caste and Brahmarayan is the title given to the Brahmin officers. The title holders of muvendavelan and brahmarayan must have played an important role in the Chola administration. The officials made many endowments. Their main contribution was to provide for offerings and lamps. The village Kundamangalam was endowed to the temple of Bhumi Sundaravinnagar Paramaswami by Kannandaiarivanan Bhumisundaran (alias) Sundarasola muvendavelan of Valaippandal in Palkunrakottam, a subdivision of Tondainadu. An inscription issued during the reign of Uttamachola states that Tiruvadigal Aiyanadi (alias) Sembiyan Vesalippadi, muvendavelan of Siruvelur in Ilaiyurnadu made a gift of land as endowment for the daily offerings during the evening service in the temple of Tiruchchelur Mahadeva and for providing for the daily supply of 4 pots of water from the river Kudamurutti for the sacred bath of the god. An inscription records sale of 700 kulis of land as tax-free devadana by the mahasabha of Sirringur to Adavallan Vasudevan (alias) Mudikondasola muvendavelan, who endowed it to the temple to provide for the services and offerings connected with the procession on every Sunday and the morning worship of the god Tiruppulippagavadevar. An inscription dated in the 15th regnal year of Rajaraja I records a gift of 13 mas of land by purchase by Adigal Niradi (alias) Parakesari muvendavelan of Urrukadu in Avurkottam in Sonadu for burning perpetual lamps in the temple of Emberuman in Srivaikuntam, a devadana in Varagunamangalam in Tiruvaludi Valanadu and for feeding daily 10 Brahmins well versed in the Vedas and Sastras coming from outside at the time of food offerings to the god during mid-day worship. An inscription in the North wall

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 32 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X of the Vedaranyesvara temple the gift of one and a half and 1 ma of land by Panganvay Udaiyar (alias) Rajaraja muvendavelan of Kiliyur for burning a perpetual lamp to the deity Tirumarakkadu Udaiyar in Umbalanadu. For the maintenance of a flower garden, the officials donated lands to the temple. In an inscription dated in the 12th year of Uttamachola Udaiya Marttanda muvendavelan of Nagarkudi in Ambarnadu donated half a veli and 2 mas of land for the maintenance of a flower garden for god Tirukkadudaiya Emberumanar. Neriyan muvendavelan donated land in Vilathurnadu for a flower garden for supplying 200 garlands and some specified quantity of paddy to the temple. For playing music during three services of the Sandhis of ardhajama and paliieluchchi in the temple of Tiruvelladai Mahadeva at Tirukkarugavur in Tiruvalinadu, Uttamachola muvendavelan made an endowment of one veli, 3 mas and 3 kani of land for the maintenance of 9 persons and an additional piece of a ma and kani of land was also given to them towards their service during the paliieluchchi. For the long life and victory of the king Parantaka II Sundarachola, Elunayarradigal, a muvendavelan made a gift of common and unapportioned land to the temple of Tiruvenkattil Parameswara of Igalampakkam in Kanrurnadu.

Brahmarayan Brahmadhiraja was the title of distinguished Brahmin Senapathi in the Chola period. They also endowed lands to the temples. An inscription in the 27th regnal year of Aditya I records an endowment of land by payment of a lump sum to it by a brahmadhiraja for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple of Isvara Bhattaraka at Tiruttavatturai in Idaiyarrunadu. During the reign of Parantaka I Achchiyan Bhattan (alias) Sri Vasudevan, a brahmadhiraja of Peruvengur in Vilanadu made a gift of land in Sasanamangalam in Vilanadu for food offerings on the occasion of the bathing ceremony of the god on the day of rohini, the day of Tirumulaippulundi during the panguni uttiram (April) festival. The same Senapathi made a gift of two pieces of land for cake offerings to the god on the day of ekadasi and during the panguni festival in the temple. In an inscription dated in the 3rd year of Gandaraditya, Kaviniyan Kirtimarttanda brahmadhirajan made a gift of land for an offering to the deity during the early morning service in the temple of Udittalaiperumal of the village. Vikramadittan (alias) Kirtimarttanda brahmadhirajan set up an image of Uma Bhattaraki and gave one perpetual lamp to Kuttaperumanadigal for maintaining the lamp and for offerings once a day, he gave 1700 kulis of land which he purchased from the villagers of Jayameru Srikarana mangalam. Araamudu Madevan (alias) Vikramachola brahmarayan made a gift of two velis of land as tirunamattukkani to the temple of Visvesvaradeva built by him at Panchavanmadevi chaturvedimangalam. Rajendra II had an efficient senapati by name Jayankondasola brahmadhirajan. During the reign of Virarajendra, the successor of Rajendra II, he made a gift of 4450 kulis of land near the village of Manimangalam for the expenses of worship. Parantakan Siriyavelar of Kodumbalur was one of the leaders of the Chola army during the reign of Parantaka II Sundarachola. In the 4th year of him Parantakan Siriyavelar gave quarter veli and one kani of land to the god at Tiruvisalur in Amaninarayana chaturvedi mangalam for mid-day offerings in the temple of Tiruvisalur Perumanadigal for that he paid 130 Ilakkasu to the great men of the big assembly. Another grant of a half veli of land made by the same general in the 7th year of Parantaka II Sundarachola in order to provide for the offerings to the temple at Srikudittittai in Vembarrur. An inscription issued during the reign of Uttama Chola records an endowment of 300 kulis of land made by Achchan Senachchan of the regiment Muttavalperra-Kaikolar to the temple of

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Tekkitundanakkar at Kodumpidugu Melkappu for offerings to god Karikalasola Pillaiyar within that temple. The donor purchased the land from the nagarattar of Kanchipuram. An inscription dated in the 3rd regnal year of Rajaraja I registers an endowment of tax-free land for mid-day offerings to the deity in the temple Unchisvarattalvar at Nedungunram by Vidangan, the commander of the regiment called Anukkabhimarpadai after purchasing it from the urar of the village. In his 8th and 11th year the cavalier namely Sabhanayyan made a gift of land for a lamp to the shrine of Tribhuvanasundara and lamp to the temple of Tiruviramisvarattu Mahadeva. The Tiruvunnaligaiyar of Somanathesvara temple, Attur agreed to provide for offerings to the deity from the land endowed to the temple by the kings regiment called Arulmolideva Terinda Parivarattar in the 22nd regnal year of Rajaraja I. Senapatigal Gangaikondasola Munaiyadaraiyar of Kottur in Arulmolideva Valanadu made a gift of land for a flower garden named after him and for offering on 2 festival days when the god was taken to the Arigandadevan tirumandapam during the period of Kulottunga I.

Other Officials For the welfare of the king and the village and to conduct procession and sacred bath during the new moon days to the deity of Tiruvidaithittai Udaiyar, Vanadhiraja, an officer of the king Rajaraja II made a gift of land with remission of tax. An accountant of the assembly namely Narayanan Madisudan granted tax-free land for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple of god Manomayaisvarattu Perumanadigal. An epigraph of Kulottunga III dated in 1189 A.D records that Uttamanidhi –Kannappan, a military officer of Tiruchchuram in Kil-Mangattunadu purchased 600 kulis of land after bringing it under cultivation by Atkondan Arikularaja Marayan of the Virasola Anukkar so as to provide 10 kalams and odd of paddy to meet the expenses of worship of god Manikkakuttar on all days of amavasya in the year and to pay taxes on the land. The temple servants also donated lands to the temples. During the reign of Rajadhirajadeva, the Sribhandaram of the temple of Tiruttindiludaiya Mahadeva made a gift of 1100 kulis of land after purchasing it for 11 kalanjus of gold from the sabha of Rajagandiva Chaturvedi mangalam for burning two perpetual lamps in the temple.

Conclusion Royal ministers, officials, generals and servants made endowments to the temples. On many an occasion, their officials instituted new images and provided for their worship either independently or jointly. In many cases, the images were established jointly with the king or queen. In the name of the king and for the welfare of the king the donations were made. It proved the prevalence of the theory of divine right theory of kingship. The warriors made endowments to the temple after their safe return from the campaigns in gratitude. When warriors died, their sons or other family members made endowments to the temple for the merit of his father. They believed that their success or failures were with god and they made liberal endowments to the temples for their success in the battles. In the medieval age, the temples because of its richness acted as a landholder, consumer of goods and services, as an employer, as a focus of social life and development. The temple acted as a educational centre of Vedic learning and provided ample employment opportunities to a large section of people.

References 1. A.R.E., 419/1923. 2. K.A.N. Sastri., Colas, University of Madras, Chennai, 2000, pp.462-463. 3. A.R.E., 246/1912. 4. Noburu Karashima., A Concordance of the Names in the Chola Inscriptions, Vol. I, Madurai, 1978, p.1. 5. A.R.E., 265/1923.

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6. A.R.E., 273/1923. 7. S.I.I., Vol. XXVI. No.755: A.R.E., 704/1909. 8. S.I.I., Vol. XXVI. No.430. 9. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.418. 10. A.R.E., 178/1994-95. 11. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.319. 12. A.R.E., 236/1923 13. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.262. 14. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.272. 15. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.83. 16. S.I.I., Vol. XXII. Part I, No.216A. 17. A.R.E., 265/1938-39. 18. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.292. 19. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.151. 20. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.189. 21. S.I.I., Vol. XXVI. No.404. 22. A.R.E., 245/1973-74. 23. S.I.I., Vol. XVII. No.540. 24. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.309. 25. S.I.I., Vol. XXIV. No.28. 26. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.326. 27. A.R.E., 396/1922. 28. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.325. 29. S.I.I., Vol. XXIV. No.7. 30. A.R.E., 95/1936-37. 31. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.36. 32. S.I.I., Vol. III. Part I and II No.50. 33. A.R.E., 467 and 468/1922. 34. S.I.I., Vol. III. Part I and II No.30. 35. S.I.I., Vol. III. Part III and IV No.120. 36. S.I.I., Vol. XIX. No.365. 37. S.I.I., Vol. XIII. No.79. 38. A.R.E., 146,147/1911. 39. A.R.E., 419/1929-30. 40. S.I.I., Vol. XXIV. No.69.

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SOCIAL REFORMS OF SREE NARAYANAGURU IN SOUTH TRAVANCORE

Dr.P.Malarvizhi Assistant Professor in History V.V.Vanniaperumal College for Women, Virudhunagar

Travancore was one of the princely states of India. It is situated in the southern most part of the Indian peninsula. The name Travancore is derived from the term Srivardhanapuri or Srivazhumkode, which means the seat of prosperity. The four Tamil speaking Taluks of Kanyakumari District viz, Agasteeswaram, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode constituted the erstwhile South Travancore. It was located in the south-west portion of the Indian Peninsula, forming an irregular triangle with its apex at cape comorin. Being bounded by the western ghats on the east and the Arabian sea on the west, and it has a peculiar cultural environment, the present district of Kanyakumari, was a part and parcel of erstwhile south Travancore. In 1950 with the recommendation of the state reorganization commission on Lingustic basis, the Tamil speaking southern four taluks were separated from Travancore and organized into a new revenue district in the name of Kanyakumari to be merged with the state of Tamil th Nadu. The early decades of the 19 century witnessed the beginnings of powerful social reformers in south Travancore. The beginning of the present century people of South Travancore witnessed the dominance of the three major religions-Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. The ruling families and majority of the subjects were Hindus by religion. The Hindus were more divided than united. Caste-system divided Hindu society mainly into two viz., Saravanas or caste Hindus, who belonged to the fold of Chathurvarnya and the Avarnas or non-caste Hindus, who were outside the fold of Chathurvarnya. In South Travancore the savarnars considered Avarnas as untouchables, unseables and unapproachables, however well placed th they would be, and kept outside the frame of the social system. In the early years of the 20 century, Swadeshabhimani criticized. “It is extra ordinary and unique to coin terms like ‘low-castes’ ‘untouchables’ and ‘unapproachables’ to denote certain classes of human beings. Among the backward communities Ezhavas were severely oppressed by many social prohibitions. In the name of caste even fundamental rights were denied to a major section of society, which accounted for great inequality in the social life of South Travancore. In this critical situation Narayana Guru, the Ezhava reformer emerged in South Travancore in the th th second part of 19 century. He was born on 20 August 1854 (1032 Chingam) in Chathayam Star, at a village called Chempazhanthy, about ten miles North-East of Trivandrum. He was born in Ezhava Jati as a son of Modan-Asan and Kutti Amma. He sacrificed his life for the caste and fought against these social evils and won in his motto. He was pained by the social, cultural, economic and religious disabilities to which the Ezhavas and low castes had been subjected at that time. He decided to resist the high castes for the uplift of the depressed classes. Narayana Guru had to fulfil his mission among a people numbering about 23 lakhs in the west coast of India. They had been forced for many centuries to live outside the pale of civilization, they had been denied education, denied freedom to walk along roads and culture, and by all the force of society, religion and the state kept down to a life subjection, ignorance and degradation. The Guru worked among them in a way no other teacher did, and made them in his own life time a nation of self-respecting men and women, who could not work out their own salvation, but proudly point the way to the emancipation of

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 36 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X all Hindus. He moved among them for over forty years. In his daily conversations he told them unnecessary customs which had to be given up the superstitions they had to abandon and the beneficial habits they had to cultivate, and how they were to work for their own community uplift. He addressed no meetings. His preaching was sufficient, and his teachings spread from mouth to mouth and the people organized themselves in every place to carry out his given instructions. Thus he reformed their domestic and social life, abolished superstitions and bad customs and wasteful ceremonies, encouraged temperance and economy, created a yearning for knowledge and power, strengthened industrious habits, promoted public spirit, co-operation and union and made their lives in all ways poor, richer and stronger. The Guru hardly condemned anything or attacked any one. He said do right thing and he showed how to do it. He demonstrated how the worst of institutions could be used to good purpose by intelligent men. Whether it was the caste, ceremony, or a temple or the Sannyasin, he was always constructing something fresh and useful out of the old. So that no one even among the Orthodox was provoked and followed him. He created a revolution before anybody knew its exact nature on consequences, without antagonizing any one, or demolishing any doctrine or attacking any sect or creed. No other great teacher ever accomplished his mission so peacefully. His distinctive contribution to Hindu Nationalism may be observed in his handling of the three great problems the caste, the temple and the Mutt (Monastry)

Reforms of Sree Narayana Guru Abolition of Caste th In 19 century the chief social evil in South Travancore, as elsewhere in India, was caste. Though the traditional caste system was not in Vogue in South Travancore, the upperclass people had more privileged than lower classes people. The caste is a divinely ordained institution or one of such hoary antiquity that it is almost impossible to changed it. The Guru used to say it was all a silly phantom. The caste does not correspond to any ascertainable difference in men’s condition whether mental or physical. It is a mere convention, and its sole support as of all conventions, is the willing recognition to it. In his teachings, he put in his own pithy words thus: “There is in truth nothing like caste, Ask not, say not, Think not caste’, This seems quite impracticable at first sight and yet it is the most practicable, and probably the only means of solving the caste problem. The Guru said, “Whatever be one’s religion, it is enough if the individual becomes good”. In fact, through this message he was exhorting every individual to work for the establishment of classless and casteless society. He advocate inter caste marriages and inter dining between the various castes. Without being persecuted by any one, he also preached all imperative need for tolerance and goodwill among all communities. In fact in 1924 he took the initiative in bringing all communities and together the followers of different religious on a common platform and himself presided over an interreligious conference held Alwaye. He allowed parayas and pulayas in his ashram and they were used to Kitchen work. Among the Ezhavas somebody says those people are untoucha bles and they were polluted. So they were illiterated. Sree Narayana Guru told a Hindu should be no more than a Hindu, just as a Christian is a Christian only and a Mahammadan a Muslim, without caste qualifications taked on. This state alone can abolish the present practice which is mainly a result of previous state influence. K. Ayyappan was the great follower of Sri.Narayana Guru. He started Sahodara Prasthanam for the purpose of eradication of untouchability. This organization form a Sama-panthi among Ezhavas and Pulayas.

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Abolition of age old customs and traditions In those days, the society gave more importance to culture, traditional customs and festivals. In that period the society had a customary rituals and ceremonies like, Talikattu Kalyanam, Tirandukuli and Pulikudi etc and gradually persuaded the Ezhavas to give up these irrational practices. Guru was against of luxurious Thalikettu Kalyanam, and he declared that this Talikettu (tying of the Tali) function was meaningless, so he advised the Ezhava peoples to avoided this type of ceremonies. This community peoples marriage procedure and customs among them also became more enlightened and liberal as a result of his guidance. Similarly the practice of celebrating girls puberty by conducting public feast, etc. Guru stopped this custom in the society. He also against the systems like, child-marriage, polygamy and Marumakkathayam etc by his preachings.

Modernizing Religious Worship Narayana Guru was almost everyday using his miraculous Spiritual powers for the matrial and moral uplifting of the people, and began to work hard for people all over south Travancore. In those days the Ezhavas form a pious and orthodox Hindu-Caste. Thought they cannot enter the inner courtyard of temples and make their pious offerings. So they fought for entering the temples and theirs public rights. Narayana Guru left his hermitage in the Maruvamalai and came to a forest on the banks of the river Neyyar at Aruvippuram and consecrated his first temple in 1888 at Aruvippuram. The Brahmins critisced the temple and Guru. He gave an answer that had become famous in Travancore. “I am consecrating the Ezhava siva and not the Brahmin siva”. All classes of peoples are come their and worshipped the siva. Curiosity was aroused, and soon he become a centre of attraction. He also intended such temples to symbolize the equality of the Ezhavas with all other castes. He consecrated the mirror rather than any particular deity. This came to be known as Kannadi Pratishta avoiding the idol worship. According to Narayanaa Guru temples are useful for the following reasons. “People go there with cleanliness, the cherish good and healthy thought, speak about good thing. Remember God, Breath good and fresh air, fasting is good for body and mind. Desire disappears when one believers in God” He also wanted the temples could become instrumental in changing the life style of the people. He built Scores of temples, big and small, and demonstrated how they could be user for the uplift of the community in all directions. His concept the temple had played a predominant role in the Socio- religious life of the people. The temple assemblies became the makers of rules and regulation to control the life of the people. The temples were surrounded by monasteries, Schools, lecture hall, banks, dispensaries, libraries, rest house, gardens and similar things which ennobled and enriched the collective life. The influence and resources of the temples were used for the good of the worshippers. The Guru used the temples as educational institutions and it is demolish old superstitions and introduce reforms. Even idolatry could be abolished by having temples without idols. The temples can be made a source of blessing in this world much more than in the next. That is the great teaching of this temple movement.

Establishment of Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (S.N.D.P) The caste organizations played a major role in bringing about the social change in South Travancore. Sri Narayana Dharama Paripalana yogam and Nair service society are the most important organization. The Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam was founded May 15 in 1903 (M.E. 1078) Dhanu 23. The first annual session having been held at Aruvipuram in 1904. Sree Narayana Guru was the first president of Sree Narayana Dharma Pariplalana yogam and Dr. Palpu was the vice president and Mahakavi Kumaran Asan as the general secretary.

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Sree Narayana Dharma paripalana yogam among the masses and for the uplift of the down trodden castes of South Travancore. The swami’s ideal which was one of universalism was not affected by this circumscription of the society’s leadership because everyone of them working under the Guru was heart and soul for the uplift of all depressed castes. This yogam fought for the representation for the government, educational opportunity, and reservation for employment, untouchability and temple entry. He believed that there was only one caste form an and that was humanity. In this attitude he was uncompromising. This yogam took up the formal education of people and struggle for social justice. On the advice of the Guru the yogam conducted enlightened the people on matters of religion, morals and industry. There are 150 educational institutions under Sree Narayana Dharama Paripalana Yogam. This yogam now had its vast annual gatherings. The disabilities of the depressed castes dropped one by one like leaves in autumn. They could walk along public roads without fear of polluting anyone, use roads around temples, get admitted to schools, colleges and hostels, secure jobs in government service and even have certain percentages of jobs reserved for different groups of castes – and then finally came the entry into temples in 1936. The Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam had started a magazine called “Vivekodayam” which aimed at raising the cultural level of the Ordinary man by a process of selective modernization. Kumaran asan who the journal, was the greatest disciple of the Swami and one of the greatest thinkers and poets of modern Kerala. This Yogam was the milestone of Ezhava Communities.

Sree Narayana Dharma Sangham The well organized institution of Sannyasins was called Sree Narayana Dharma Sangham. This Sangham was registered in Trichur in the year 1926 (M.E.1103). Narayana Guru was not very happy with the way in which his disciples were conducting their life mission. He would not accept anything less than a world community of the human life. He hated the very idea of caste and man’s adherence to irrational social prejudice and psychic colouration. So he decided to trust the materialization of his teaching in the hands of his Sannyasin disciples who had come from all classes and communities. So he registered this sangham. After the registration of the Dharma Sangham, the Guru instituted a will and testament by which all the ashrams and mutts and temples founded by his were transferred to the care, custody and administration of the Dharma Sangham. The Guru nominated Swami Bodhenanda to be his successor and Nataraja Guru to be adviser of the Dharma Sangham. Sivagiri Mutt was the head quarters of the Sangham. Temples, Sanyasi Sabhas and Other institutions are managed by this Sangham. In such a bad situation Sree Narayana Guru emerged as a Savier of the downtrodden people. He was a thinker, philosopher and preacher. He rightly felt that social equality is not possible without economic independence. He proclaimed a war against social evils, such as caste system, suppression of woman, lack of right to worship, slavery and uppercloth etc. He preached vohimently against caste system, fought against alcohol, eradicate superstitious believes and agitated against slavery. His idealogy and philosophy were made familiar with the people by way of his eloquent speeches and prolific writings. As a result the people fought enlightened and understood their rights and responsibilities in the society. This made the people to march towards social equalities, political opportunities and cultural efforasance. As a result society of south Travancore after Narayana Guru developed in every sphere. Consequently social equality is achieved. Now South Travancore paves the way for other regions of this country for achieving the way for social equality. Thus but because of Narayana Guru the society of South Travancore was liberated and enlightend. As a result this region became a part of the main stream of the national life. Therefore the social reforms of Narayana Guru is an epoch making event in the history of South Travancore. Suppose if he did not born

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 39 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X during the time in South Travancore it is sure that the people of South Travancore continued to suffer many more years over the evils of casteism and untouchability. So the credit of eliminating social evils goes to Sree Narayana Guru alone. The preachings of Narayana Guru crossed the boundaries of south Travancore. It spread in neighbouring Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh etc. Their also his preaching might have done greater changes in their societies. Therefore a sincere research is essential to find out the impact of his preachings in the neighbouring state in the light of Travancore.

References 1. Shungoonny Menon, P., A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times, Madras, 1915, p.208. 2. Travancore Directory. 1938, Trivandrum, 1938, p.107. 3. Sreedhara Menon, A., Social and Cultural History of India, New Delhi, 1979, p.201. 4. Madras Political Proceedings, 27 Aug. and 21 Sept. 1859, p.130. 5. Murkot Kunhappa, Sree Narayana Guru, Trivandrum, 1982, p.61. 6. Samuel Mateer, Paria Caste in Travancore, London, 1883, p.181. 7. Koshy, M.J., Genesis of Political Consciousness in Kerala, p.31. 8. Krishna lyer, V.R., Religion and Politics, New Delhi. 1991, p.217. 9. Edger Thruston, Caste and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. II, Madras, 1909, pp. 415 & 416. 10. Mitra, C.R., Sree Narayana Guru and Social Revolution, Shertalli, 1979, p.87. 11. Parameswaram P., Sree Narayana Guru Swamikal., (Calicut 1971) pp. 81-73. 12. Moorkoth Kumaran, M, Biography of Narayana Guru, Calicut, 1971, p.224. 13. Murkot Kunhappu, Sree Narayana Guru, Trivandrum, 1982. p.61. 14. Prasobhanan, K., The Impact of Sree Narayana Guru on Malayalam Literature, Ph.D, Thesis, University of Kerala, 1979, p.43.

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EDUCATIONAL EMPOWERMENT SCHEMES FOR WOMEN IN VIRUDHUNAGAR DISTRICT

Dr.G.Chandrasekaran, MA., M.Phil., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of History Devanga Arts College, Aruppukottai

Women Empowerment is an ongoing project all over the world. It is the key to sustainable human development. Education is an instrument of social change and eliminates gender disparities and ensures equal opportunities and social empowerments of women. Education is an important facilitating factor for women’s empowerments and for eradicating poverty among women as it expands women’s capabilities. Women both urban and rural who have level of education have higher decision making power in the household and the community. Further more, the level of women’s education also has direct implication on maternal mortality rates, and nutrition and health indicators among children. Hence both central and state Government sponsor various schemes for the educational empowerment of women.

Pidiarisi Schools The Nadar women are the major contributors in forming pidiarisi schools in 1889 (Boys School) at Virudhunagar for the free education school in Madras province. Several people under the suitable of K.M.A.VadivelMurugaNadar used to reach home to home to collect the pidiarisi from women for fund rising to manage the school finances. After the starting of women education, the Nadar women in the 1910 sand 1920s changed their most unique practice of wearing heavy ear gold ornaments called pampadams to normal ear ornaments usually a kammal.

Midday Meal Scheme Another revolution in the girls education of Virudhunagar district is the introduction of midday meal scheme by the then chief minister of TamilnaduK.Kamaraj a notable person from Virudhunagar. The main objective of the scheme as not only to ensure nutritional support to girls but also to act as an effective incentive to achieve universal enrolment and ..2.. /2/ retention in primary school. The state Government provides text books free to all children studying up to class VIII in the government and government-aided schools. Abolition of child laboir is also one of the objectives of midday meal scheme.

ArivoliIyakkam For bringing the school drop outs and illiterates under educational mainstream, the ArivoliIyakkam has been implementation since early 1990. The scheme was first introduced in three districts ViZ, Sivagangai, Virudhunagar, and Pudukkottai on a pilot basis. Encouraged by the good results obtained in these districts, the total literacy campaign was extended to other districts in a phased manner. The district identified learners and Voluntees, produced field-tested primers, training and motivational materials including periodic newsletters, trained full-time workers and part-time Volunteers, arranged and monitored classes, and administered tests.

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Continuing Educationprogramme Continuing Education programme, popularly known as ValarkalviThittam is lunched in Virudhunagar district in the year 1998 along with 8 others districts. With the success of this scheme in Virudhunagar district, this programme is introduced in other 20 districts of Tamilnadu also in the year 2002. The major beneficiaries of ValarkalviThittam are neo-literates. The basic objective of this scheme is to provide opportunities of continuing education to neo-literates to facilitate retention of their literacy skills, enable the learners to continue their learning beyond elementary literacy and to create scope for application of their learning skills for improvements of their living conditions.

Female Special Literacy Campaign Continuing Education programme (CEP) is an area and community based programme. According to the need of the community,the activities of the campaign are modified. As per this, Female special Literacy campaign was launched in Virudhunagar district as this district lags behind in female literacy rate. It was implemented in Virudhunagar district along with 16 other districts of Tamil Nadu for a period of one year from 2006-2007. This scheme was implemented with central and state share in the ratio os 2:1. The Government of India has sanctioned 37 lakhs for implementation of this literacy programme for women in Virudhunagar district out of this Rs.12.60 lakhs has been released as first installment on 17-03-2006. The state Government has sanctioned 150 centres in this district 20 learners per center are being covered under this project. Totally 50200 learners are covered under this project.

Special Literacy Centres In Virudhunagar district minority Muslim Women are identified as illiterates. To eradicate the illiteracy, special literacy centre was started for the muslim women. So women studied in this special literacy centre in Virudhunagar. For the empowerment of eunuchs, literacy centre had been established under CEP in Kariapatti, Rajapalayam and Virudhunagar. They are considered to be the socially backward people and 500eunuches had been recognized in Virudhunagar district. Along with the NGO VMMK literacy classes had been conducted for the eunuchs under CEP.

SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) The scheme of sarvashikshaAbhiyan was started in the year 2001-2002 with the objective of universalisation of elementary education. It is an attempt to provide an opportunity for improving human capabilities to all children including the girl child, through the provision of community owned quality education in a mission mode. Launched in partnership with the state Government in 2001 SSA aims to provide useful and relevant education in the age groups of 6-14 years by the year 2010. At the time of SSA’s commencement in 2001 there were 3.40 crore out-of-school children between the ages of 6-14. Four years after the launch of SSA (2006) with more then 85% of the funds utilised 40% of the children (1.36 crore) remained out of school.

Activities under Girls Education Vocational Training – for upper primary girls supply of learning materials / workbooks / Maths Science kit.Remedial coaching – for upper primary girls English communication skills development training – for upper primary girls.

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Exposure Visit Sanitary Napkins Preparation Periyar EVR NagammaiFree Education Scheme To protect the interest and the welfare of the girl child and to get free highereducation, periyar EVR Nagammai free Education scheme was implemented from 1989 -1990 to girl students irrespective of caste, creed and community to encourage their education and to reduce dropout rate. As per this scheme, those students whose parental annual income is less than Rs.24,000 are exempted from payment of tution fees in under graduate courses in Government and Government Aided colleges. In 2009-2010, a sum of Rs.7 lakhs has been allocated for this scheme in Virudhunagar district.

Free Coaching Exclusively for Women Students for Appearing in IAS/IPS Examination So as to enable women students to appeae in the IAS and IPS examinations, two centres one at Queen mary’s college, Chennai and the other at ArulmiguMeenakshi Government Arts college for women, Madurai have been established by the Government to give free coaching for appearing in IAS/IPS Examinations. Many students from Virudhunagar district are attending the centre every year. For instance muthumari a student of V.V.Vanniaperumalcollege for women Virudhunagar and now the Deputy Revenue officer of Nagapattinam is a beneficiary of this scheme. She had attended the centre and passed the IAS exam in 2010.

AdiDravida Girls Education Scheme Women particularly AdiDravida women of Virudhunagar district are dispriviledged since because of their caste. So they are devied education social status and others. So to enhance their educational and social status the district AdiDravidar welfare Department put forth various education schemes to uplift the AdiDravida women of the district.

AdiDravida girls Hostel For the welfare of the AdiDravida women hostels are run by the Government itself under the AdiDravidar welfare Department. In Virudhunagar district, there are 53 hostels which are maintained by the AdiDravidar welfare Department. Out of 53, 11 hostels are exclusively for AdiDravida girls providing food and other basic amenities to the inmates, the cosmetic artucles like soap, oil, shampoo, soap powder ect., are also provide by the AdiDravidar welfare Department to the girls of the hostel from 1999 onwards. For this the Government is issuing Rs.25 for the school students and Rs.35 for the college students.

Special Incentive Scheme for Encouraging Girls Education To encourage AdiDravida girls education and to prevent them from being dropped out from the school, special incentive scheme has been implemented in virudhunagar district. The scheme is rd th applicable to all girl students studying in government and aided schools. From 3 std to 5 std, Rs.500 per th annum and for 6 std, Rs.1000 per annum is given as incentive to girl students in the school. The money is deposited in their respective post office savings account.

Merit Awards and Scholarships To encourage the girls in the field of education, various merit award and scholarships are sponsored by the AdiDravidar welfare Department of the State.

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Merit Award Chief Minister Merit Award In 1995, the Government of Tamilnadu announced the merit award scheme for the AdiDravidar the merit award scheme for the AdiDravidar Girls. This merit award would be given to the first one thousand girls among AdiDravidas who secure the highest marks in the +2 examinations to continue their college studies. They would be given Rs.,150per month till they complete their college studies or 5 years whichever is earlier. So through this award Rs.1500 is provided per year by calculating the award money for 10 months. Now this scheme is known as Chief minister’s merit Award.

Scholarships Tution Fees concessions All the AdiDravidar girls come under the tution fee concession. They are given the free education in st th all the schools, i.e., no tution fees are collected from them from 1 standard to 12 standard. The tution fees would be reimbursed by the government to the educational institutions. Thus all the Adidravidar girls of Virudhunagar district come under this concession. Students studying in all the educational institutions are given concessions in tution fees. The various scholarship sponsored can be categorized into two types as pre matric scholarships and post matric scholarships.

Special Scholarship Special Scholarship is the one which is sponsored specially for the girls students based on their th academic merit. The first 10 girl students who secured highest marks in the 10 standard are given special scholarship of Rs.42635 to continue Higher Secondary school studies in best schools or th recognized institutions. In 2007, 10 merit students who secure high marks in the 10 examination were admitted to kashatriya Girls Higher Secondary school, Virudhunagar for their higher studies.

Conclusion The female literacy rate of Virudhunagar district has been above the national average and in line with the state average. the enhancement trend is just because of the successful implementation of th government schemes by the district education department and social welfare departments. The 20 century schemes like ArivoliIyakkam brought a tremendous change in the educational status of women of the district. It only gave basic education to students as well as to neo literate women. The midday meal scheme reduces the dropout rate of the children from school and enhances the retention of students in school. The new millennium education and give incentives and award to girls and women in educational field. It is found that Virudhunagar district fares reasonably well (above the all-India level and state level) in terms of indicators such as female literacy and girlsenrolement. while the absolute literacy condition of women in Virudhunagar district is better than that in most districts, the position of women vis-à-vis men with respect to literacy and education has not improved.

References 1. Annual report of KVS Higher Secondary School, Virudhunagar, 2010, P.2. 2. Ram, B.Sc., “Women Education, Women Liberation and women empowerment”, paper submitted to NadarSangam, Coimbatore, 2009, P.1. 3. Monitoring report for the implementation of Action plan for Erudication of child Labour, ILO, Virudhunagar District, 2006, P.1. 4. Athreya and chunkath, Literacy and Empowerment, New Delhi, 2002, P.24.

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5. GangadharSivaswamy, “ArivoliIyakkam in Tamil Nadu, Kamarajar District, A Documentation.” Directorate of Adult Education, Government of India, 1993, P.20. 6. Statistical Report, Assistant Director of statistics, Virudhunagar, P.6. 7. “Valarkalvi Thittathilvalkai Tharathai Ooyarthum Thittam”, Training Guide, SRC, Chennai, 2002, P.11. 8. ValarKalviYetram, Monthly Magazine, March, 2007, P.2. 9. Special functions of CEP in Virudhunagar District, collectorate, 2007, P.2. 10. Activities and Performance Report, Continuing Education Programme, Virudhunagar District, 2007, P.10. 11. Inauguration Invitation for Labourers Literacy centre, dated, 11.09.2003. 12. Policy Note 2009-2010. Department of Higher Education, Chennai, 2009, P.10.

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ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF KUDAL ALAGAR TEMPLE IN MADURAI – A STUDY

Dr. (Mrs.)T.Selvanayaki Associate Professor & Head, PG & Research Department of History

Arulmigu Palaniandavar Arts College for Women, Palani

Mrs.C.Umapoorani Part- Time Ph.D., Research Scholar in History Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore

Tamilnadu is noted for beautiful temples with rich architecture, sculpture and paintings. Madurai in Tamilnadu has numerous ancient temples and among them the Kudal Alagar temple is located at Alagarkovil in a natural serene environment. Madurai lies between 9°30´ and 10°50´ of the North 1 latitude and 77°30´ of the East latitude . Madurai is the headquarters of Madurai district. Anamalai, Nagamalai and Pasumalai which are associated with the sixty four legends of Siva are in the neighbourhood of Madurai. Hinduism is aprominent religion in Madurai. Tamil is a popular language of the people. Saivism and Vaishnavism are two major sects of the majority of the people of Madurai city. Sri Kudal Alagar temple is a Vaishnava temple, situated three kilometers from Madurai Periyar bus stand. The 2 temple occupies an area of about 2.5 acres covered by an enclose wall . The word Kudal implies a conjunction of things or an assembly. Lord Vishnu is known as Kudal Alagar. Alagar means beauty. He is also called ‘Akooya Varadan’ meaning voluntary protection of his devotees. Arulmigu Kudal Alagar th 3 temple is one of the 47 sthalas among the 108 Tirupathies and one of the renowned padal sthalams . It 4 is said to have been built during the pre- Sangam Age . The Sangam Pandya rulers seem to have shown more devotion to the temple. Madurai-Kanchi of Mangudi Marudhanar says that Talayalanganathu 5 Seruventra Nedunchezian conducted many festivals for Kudal Alagar . Perialvar describes him as ‘Mallanda Tindolan’ and Tirumangai Alvar describes Kudal Alagar as ‘Koodal kovil konda kovalar’ and in 6 another place “ koliyum koodalum kovilkonda kovalarai oppar” . The presiding deity of the temple Kudal Alagar is seen with His consorts are Sridevi and Bhudevi. The Utsava Bhera is called as Vyuha Sundaraja perumal with his consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi.

Inscriptions of the Temple There are six Vijayanagar-Nayak inscriptions found on the adhistana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and the compound wall of the temple. These epigraphical records belong to the Vijayanagara king th th Sathasivaraya (1562-70 A.D). An unpublished inscription datable to 16 and 17 Centuries mentions the 7 renovation work done in the temple . Another inscription of Ramaraja Vilthala Deva Maharaja dated 1547A.D. states that Kondai Konamman supplied stones for building the graphagraha and the 8 ardhamandapa of the temple. This work was completed by Immudi Yellappa Nayak . A fragmentary inscription of Tribhuvana Chakkaravarthikonerin meikondan (1539 A.D) mentions that Vasavana 9 Nayakkar and Timmappa Nayakkar gifted money and house to the temple . An inscription of Virapratapa Sadasiva Deva Maharaja (1555- 56 A.D) which is found on the walls of this temple records the gift of 10 three villages for offerings and festivals of this temple by the king Timmappa Nayakkar . An inscription th belonged to the 16 century character is found on the doorways of the Mahamandapa of the temple. It

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 46 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X mentions that the doorways of Mahamandapa were built by Perumanalur Alagar deiva chilaipperumal of 11 Anda nadu . An undated inscription in granda scripts is also found in the temple. Another stone th inscription Palaeograhically datable to the 16 century mentions that Navamanickam Alangarappattar 12 built the doorways of ardhamandapa of this temple .

Architecture of the Kudal Alagar Temple 13 The Sanskrit term Vimana refers to a temple of southern order . The Vimana belonged to Ashtanga Vimana type. In its vertical segment the Vimana from bottom to top is composed of six main parts Viz. Adhistana (basement), pada (foot pillar), prastara (entablature) griva (neck), sikhara (roofing) and stupi 14 (final) . In short a Vimana means entire edifice from Upana to stupi, A vimana has often small vestibules in the front called ardhamandapa, mahamandapa, mukha mandapa on its adhistana axis. In the Kudal Alagar temple has six parts namely, adhistana, pada, prastara, griva, sikhara and stupi. The lowermost part of Adhistana is Upapita. The Upapita is composed of kanda, Padma, little Padma, kanda and kabota. The nasikudu of upapita are decorated. Upapita kalapadas are decorated with carvings representing the Ramayana stories.

Adhistana Adhistsna consists of nine parts namely karna, panjara, agarai, panjara muhabadra, panchara, agarai, panjara and karna. Vertically upapita is composed of kanda, Padma, kampu, kanda, kampu, muppattai kumudha, Padma kampu, kanda, kampu, Padma, kandakampu, kanda and vedigai. Varabeda is used in the couse of adhistana and is noticed in panjara and agarai as muppattai kumudha and Vritakumudha respectively. To cite a muhabadra section of adhistana parts from bottom to top there are such parts as jagati, Virita kumadha, Padma, vedi, kampu, mahapadma, padmakampu, kanda, Silampukumudha, kampu and Padma vedigai. The variation in parts between karna and muhabadra are noticeable features in this temple.

Pada The Pada is also used as source of decorations. There are eleven pilasters are richly decorated. The pilasters range from eight to sixteen pattams. Each pilaster exhibit its own decorations. The bottom and top of the pilasters are marked with Simhas. The lower part of each pilasters are decorated like a miniature vimana. The ornamentations of the Padma palaka are very impressive. The bottom of each Padma is decorated with either round or parallel lines, square and triangular designs are also used. In few pilasters karukku designs are noticed. The potigai is perfectly executed and belongs to three headed puspapotigai. In addition to the pilasters, panjara (pict.1) pilasters are also seen with decorations. Miniature carvings depicting dancing girls and seated Durga are minutely designed in the stone windows. The false deva- kostha (pict-2,3) half pilasters remind one of the main pilasters in decorations. The devakostha is devoid of sculptures.

Prastara Prastara parts are decorated with hanging garlands in different designs. There also elutagam. The inner sections of kabota are designed like pigeon nest. Carvings of Narasimha, Durga , Vishnu, Garuda, dancing girls, Vimana, Yalis, fluting Krishna, devotees and floral designs adorn the prastara kuduas with minute details (pict -3,4). Yalivari is marked with moving Yali’s.

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Griva It has two tires. The segregation divisions of adhistana are followed in the griva section, the first and second storeys are beautified with stucco figures representing the Ramayana stories. The stucco figures bear modern colour paintings.

Sikhara and Stupi Four mahanasis are decorated in the Sikara. No griva devadas are noticed in the vesara sikara. Three stupis are at the top of the sikara. Ardhamandapa and its architectural features remind one of the Vimana architecture. Hence, the Vimana and the ardhamandapa belong to one period i.e. Vijayanagar.

Thayar Sannidhi Thayar sannidhi from bottom to top consists of adhistana, pada, prastara, griva, sikara and stupi and it is divided into nine parts. Upapita, kabota,kudus remain in their original form. No divisional arrangements are followed in the pada section and the Padma potigai pilasters are devoid of decorations. Eluthagam and Yalivaris are plain. One tier griva has dummy pilasters. Three kalasa’s are in the stupi sections.

Sculpture Sri Kudal Alagar The principle deity of the temple is SriKudal Alagar. The main shrine of this temple belongs to ashtanga Vimana type. In the Shrine, three varieties of the images of the Lord in seated, standing and redlining positions are installed in the lower middle and upper sanctuaries respectively. The image under study is seated on the coil of the serpent Sesa, in Sukhasahna, the right leg is extended and the left one is rested on the seat. He wears his usual kirita makuta. He has four hands. He carries chakra and sankha in his two back hands. The front right hand is in the abhaya hasta and left one is in kataka pose. His consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi are also seated on his either side . Sridevi is found to his right and Bhudevi into his left. The right hand of Sridevi and left hand of Bhudevi gesture the varadahastas. Sridevi on his left hand holds the lotus bud. Bhudevi on his right hand bears the lily flower. Vyuha Sundaraja Perumal is accompanied by his two consorts is the Utsava bhera of the Kudal Alagar temple. He is in standing position. His right and left hand shows abhaya hasta and Varada mudra respectively.

Yoga Narasimha Yoga Narasimha icon is found in the pillared mandapa of the Kudal Alagar temple. Narasimha icon was placed on the backside of Cakkaratalvar. He is in yoga attitude with his four hands holding chakra and the bent leg being crossed in front of Utkutikasana posture.

Rama, Sita, Lakshmanan and Hanuman The panel of Rama, Sita Lakshman and Hanuman are shown on the northern side of Garudalvar in the mahamandapa of Kudal Alagar temple and the same type of bronze panel is also found in the ardhamandapa of Kudal Alagar temple. In a group of sculptures, Rama is standing in the astatala measurement. He carries the arrow in the right hand, bow in the left hand. He wears kirita makuta. Sita is seen in the right of Rama. His right hand holds a lotus flower and the left hand is in the kataka pose. Lakshmana is seen on the left of Rama and he carries arrow and bow in the right hand and left hand respectively.Hanuman is standing on the right side of Sita, in the Anjali-hasta.

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Lord Krishna Lord Krishna is found to the North of mahamandapa. He is standing with two hands carrying ball like butter. His body is slightly bent. The dancing image of Krishna in bronze of the Nayak period is also found in the Kudal Alagar temple.

Lakshmi Narayanar The Lakshmi Narayanar shrine is found on the northern side of mahamandapa of Kudal Alagar 15 temple. The Visvakarma sastras describes this form of Lakshmi Narayanar . In the temple, Lakshmi Narayanar is seated in Lalitasana pose, with his right leg hanging down, holding the goddesses on his left lap. He has four arms, and the upper two hands carry the chakra and sankha. The lower right hand shows varada and the left hand embraces the goddesses.

Maduravalli Tayar 16 According to the tradition Tayar or goddess has to be on the right side of Vishnu . All the Vishnu temples have separate shrines for the mother Lakshmi or Sridevi popularly called in Tamil tradition as Tayar. In this temple Tayar isseated in Padmasana. She has four hands the upper two hands carry a lotus bud, the lower right and left in the Abhaya and varada mudra.

Sri Andal Here separate sannidhi for Andal on the left side of Grapagraha is seen. Andal was the daughter of 17 Perialvar, probally, the contemporary of Pandya king Sri Mara Srivallaba (815-865 A.D) . Sri Andal stands in a graceful tribhanga pose. Her left hand in lola hasta and her right hand holds a lotus bud. Andal specialty is her hair style and is clearly identified in this temple.

Garudalvar A stone sculpture of Garudalvar facing the main shrine found in the mahamandapa of Kudal Alagar temple. Garualavar is called Peria Tiruvadi. His agamic place is just opposite the presiding deity in all the 18 temples. Garuda as the vahana of Vishnu. Mahabharata describes Garuda, the bird vehicle of Vishnu . Garudalavar possess the face and body of human beings, but his nose raised like beak. The two hands are in the Anjali pose. Being the Lord’s mount, he is standing with outspread wings ever ready to carry him.

Viavaksena 19 Visvaksena or Senai mudaliyar is considered to be commander of the hordes of Vishnu . Visvaksena icon is seen to the North east of mahamandapa in the Kudal Alagar temple. According to Vaikhanasa agama, the shrine of Visvaksena is to be built among the Parivaradevatas. In a Vishnu temple is to be 20 found on the North eastern side of the main shrine facing south . This is faithfully followed in this temple. Visvaksena is in Padamasana pose. He is shown like Vishnu in all other repects, .i.e, with four arms, the upper two hands holding the chakara, and sankha. The lower right hand is shown in abhaya and lower left in the kataka poses respectively.

Chakkaratalvar 21 Chakkaratalvar is the personification of the discus, the primary weapon of Vishnu . Chakkaratalvar icon is in the north side of Tayar shrine in the Kudal Alagar temple. The Sudarsana chakra is praised as the destroyer of all enemies. The reverse side of Chakkaratalvar should have the figure of Yoga Narasimha. The metal bronze image was found in the temple.

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Chakkaratalvar with sixteen arms is shown on the wheel, holding different weapons. The uppermost is always shown with the chakra and sankha, parasu, asi, bana, sula, pasa, ankusa, agni, khadga, khetaka, hala, musala, gada, kunta vajna. The figure is shown in the samapada-Sthanaka posture, on a satkona with jvalakesa, flames behind the head. On the reverse side, the figure of Yoga Narasimha is found.

Hanuman Anjaneyar or Hanuman, the monkey God, is connected with the incarnation of Rama avatar. He was 22 the faithful servant of Lord Rama . Anjali Anjaneyar in Kudal Alagar temple is wearing karanda makuta and kundala.

Dwarapalakas The Dwarapalakas are door keepers of the temples. Dwarapalakas are seen at the entrance in almost 23 every Hindu shrine and are also called demi-gods . The Dwarapalakas are in standing posture in front of mahamandapa. According to Vaikhanasa agamic tradition, the name of the Dwarapalakas are Peline maha in southernside and Duhene maha in northern side of entrances. Peline maha placed straight on the pedestal and the left leg is in the alidha posture. The image has four arms carrying chakra and sankha in the two back hands. The front right hand shows Vismaya- hasta and left in danda-hasta. Duhene maha is on northern side of entrance; his left leg is placed straight on the pedestal and the right leg in the alidha posture. He has four hands. The front right hand shows tarjani mudra and left hand is put upon the gada and the upper two hands carry chakra and sankha. Both the figures have protruding canine teeth.

Navagrahas The Navagrahas, the nine planets are the astrological figures are found in the Kudal Alagar temple. A new trend has been developed during the Vijayanagar Nayak period to curtail the Navagraha cult by introducing the Sudarsana chakra which was installed in Vishnu temple.

Icons of Alvars and Acharyars The important feature of a Sri Vaishnava temple is the depiction of the Alvars and Acharyas. The images of Alvars are found on the southern side of the pillared mandapas of Sri Kudal Alagar temple. The first three alvars of Poygai, Pudam and Pey are standing with Anjali hasta. Tirumangai and Kulasekara Alvar are identified by their royal dress and Tondaradippodi as a humble devotee, Nammalvar and Madurakavi are in seated posture. Nammalavar is seen with chin mudra in the right hand and a book in his left hand. Madurakavi has a long beard. Perialvar and Triuppanalvar are in standing posture. The former is in Anjali hasta position with a small tuft on the top of the head, and the later with the accompaniment of the Vina or flute. Among the idol of Acharyas, Ramanuja, Kurattalvar, Vedada Desika, Nathamuni Manavala Mahamuni are found in the temple. Ramanuja otherwise is called as Udaialvar and Emberumanar. He is seated Paryankasana. His right hand shows Vyakhyana mudra.

Sri Manavala Mamunikal (1370-1443) In the Kudal Alvar temple, Manavala Mamunikal is decipated on the eastern side of Andal shrine. He 24 was one of the tengalai archaryas who lived during 1370-1443 A.D and he is also known as Varamuni. He is sitting on the coils of serpent Sesa in Sukhasana. His hands are in Anjali hasta.

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Conclusion A study of the lay out of the Vishnu temple gives an idea that the Vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa, kalyana mandapa, unjal mandapa besides amman shrines in the Vishnu temple that existed in Vijayanagar period. The Nayaks were great patron of art, architecture and sculptures. Their benign contributions are seen in the Kudal Alagar temple. The Astanga Vimana of Kudal Alagar temple belongs to one of the 98 types of vimana. Notable features are karnakudas, panjaras and salas and pierced granite windows which send light to the passage around the shrine. Ramayana stories are narrated in the kalapadas of the Kudal Alagar temple. Typical Vijayanagar style with lively architecture is followed in the temple.

References 1. K.M.Mathew (ed.,) ‘India and the states’, Manorama year book , 1997, malayala manorama press, kerala.p.661 2. P.M.Nambiar and K.C.Narayanan. kurup (ed.,). The Census of India , 1961, vol IX, Temples Madras state (VI) Madras and Ramanathapuram,p.134. 3. Arulmigu Kudal Alagar temple Talavaralaru, Temple Executives, Madurai, 1994. p.33. 4. V. Kandaswami, ‘Madurai Varalarum, Panpadum’, Madurai,1981.p.145. 5. Idem., 6. Ipid.,p. 20. 7. Arulmigu Kudal Alagar temple kalvettu Tarum varalaru, Madurai,1998.p.1. 8. ARE.No.557 of 1911 9. Ibid., 558 of 1911. 10. Ibid., 559 of 1911. 11. Ibid., p.13. 12. Ibid.,p.14. 13. K.V.soundararajan, The Art of South India and kerala, Delhi,1978.p.53. 14. K.r.Srinivasam, Temples of South India, New Delhi,1972,pp.86-87. 15. T,A.Gopinathu Rao., Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol-I, Part I , Delhi, 1971. p.259. 16. H.Krishnasastri, South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras 1995. p.47. 17. R.Champakalakshmi, Vaishnava Iconography in the Tamil country, Delhi, 1981., p.92. 18. T,A.Gopinathu Rao., opcit, p.283. 19. K.V.Raman, Sri Varadaraja Swami temple, Kanchi, New Delhi,1971.p.164. 20. R.Champakalakshmi, opcit.,p.236 21. K.V.Raman, opcit.,p.166. 22. H.Krishnasastri, opcit.,p.35. 23. H.Krishnasastri, opcit.,p.251. 24. N.Jagadeesan, History of Sri Vaishnavism in the Tamil Country (Post Ramaniya) Madurai,1977.p.180.

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CONTRIBUTION OF GANDHIJI’S KHADDAR MOVEMENT DURING THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT IN MADURAI – A STUDY

Dr.M.Bavani Assistant Professor, Department of History, Research Centre V.V.Vanniaperumal College for Women, Virudhunagar

The khaddar movement made significant progress in the country during the civil disobedience campaign between 1930 and 1934 and Madurai was the most active centre for this movement in Tamilnadu. By June 1930 the swadeshi spirit dominated the minds of a large number of people in Madurai. Men and women spun yarn by using takli and women passed through important streets in processions spinning with their taklis. The Bar Association of Madurai to resolved advocating the wearing of khaddar by the lawyers. The sourashtras in Madurai in a meeting held in may 1930 resolved not to make sungadi sarees out of Manchester cloth but to make it only from hand-woven (khaddar) cloth. Up to the middle of July 1930, there was enormous demand for khaddar in Madurai town and the local AISA department was absolutely unable to meet the demands. Taklis and spinning wheels increased in large numbers so that in each shop there were taklis and cotton available.

Contribution of Tamil Poets The swadeshi spirit that had gained ground in Madurai since 1920 touched its high watermark during the civil disobedience movement. Madurai is a great centre for Tamil learning produced certain Tamil poets who inspired the peoples to wear khaddar, through some beautiful songs composed by them during the civil disobedience campaign. The government proscribed the books written by the poets by suing the Press Emergency powers. Yet the patriotic spirit displayed them deserves much appreciation. Mathura Baskaradoss the national poet of Madurai exhorted the people to wear khaddar ever since it was advocated by Gandhiji. During 1921 he sang some songs praising Gandhiji and his swadeshi programme. Mathura Baskaradoss was the co-author of the book Mahatma Gandhi Dyanam. In one of the songs in this book the poet appealed to the people to give up the use of foreign cloth and take to khaddar. V.Nataraja Pillai, another great national poet wrote thoughtful songs appealing to the people to get rid of the worthless foreign cloth and manufacture khaddar. His booklets, Bhagat Singh Kirthanamrutam, Mahatma Gandhi Kirthanamrutam and Vedaranya Uppu Satyagraha Geetamenum Congress Pattu contain songs which throw light on the importance of khaddar. A song in sentamil Manjari written by K.Kutralam Pillai of Madurai exhorts the people to follow the teachings of Gandhiji and wear khaddar. R.M.P.R.Lakshmanadoss of Madurai in a song in his booklet Bahadur Bhagat Singh or Desabhimani Thilagam (part.1) requests the people to go in for khaddar and consign the useless foreign cloth to fire. S.S.Viswanatha Das, a drama actor and a great nationalist from Tirumangalam, Madurai district, sang some songs in the stages asking the people to keep away foreign cloth in the stages asking the people to keep away foreign cloth and wear indigenous khaddar dress. The Tamil songs thus gave a tremendous push towards the promotion of khaddar in Madurai.

Propagation of Khaddar Gandhiji held that women could play a significant role in the propagation of khaddar and the Sagotharigal Sangam in Madurai apart from taking part in the picketing operations worked

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 52 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X enthusiastically towards the promotion of khaddar. Another women’s called Bharata Sevika Samithi was started in Madurai in June 1931 to recruit more volunteers to promote khaddar among women. Mrs.Thayammal was its president. Both the sagotharigal sangam and the bharata sevika samithi held public meetings in different parts of Madurai town and encouraged women to spin and wear khaddar sarees. A spinners association was also started in Madurai in August 1931 with Dr.S.N.Konda as its President. The arts of spinning by using the charka and the khaddar weaving were taught by this association. On the occasion of the Deepavali festival for the year of 1931 the Madurai district congress issued hand-bills appealing to the people to buy khaddar. P.V.Somasundara Nadar a leading congressman of Madurai issued posters and hand-bills requesting the people to wear khaddar. The sourashtra sabha, Madurai on 30 October decided to buy only Swadeshi cloth for Deepavali and afterwards. Owing to the vigorous and strenuous efforts takne by the Madurai district congress committee under the presidentship of A.Vaidyanatha Iyer and due to the relentless picketing operation by the volunteers before the shops selling foreign cloth, people began to buy khaddar for Deepavali and the cloth shops of Ezhukadal Street which once sold foreign cloth were converted into shops selling swadeshi cloth. The sale proceeds at the All India Khaddar Vastralaya and other khaddar stores in Madurai during the deepavali week (November 1 to 8) showed a steep rise. The picketing of shops selling foreign cloth in Madurai during 1932-1933 was so active and successful that Madurai secured the first place in the sale of khaddar in the whole of Tamilnadu. The sale proceeds of the All India Khaddar Vastralaya in Madurai during the Deepavalli festival in November 1932 was Rs.26,746 and this was the highest amount among all the sales depots in Tamilnadu. During 1920s Madurai town secured only the third place in Tamilnadu regarding the sales in khaddar. But during 1930s Madurai got the second place, superseding Tirupur. As a token of appreciation for Madurai’s efforts in the sale of khaddar during 1930s, the All India Khaddar Vastralaya in Madurai was presented with a silver shield by N.Narayanan, Secretary, AISA, Tirupur. The shield bears the figure of India and the charka in the middle. The Lahore Congress of 1929 resolved that the aim of the Congress should be the attainment of Purna Swaraj and in order to achieve this goal the Congress Working Committee which met at Sabarmatin in February 1930 authorised Gandhiji to start civil disobedience at a time and place of his choice. Gandhiji decided to launch the civil disobedience campaign by defying the salt laws in the country. While directing the civil disobedience campaign in the country Gandhiji requested the people not only to defy the slat laws but also to picketing of foreign cloth shops.

Sagotharigal Sangam Gandhiji felt that women could play a significant role in the boycott of foreign cloth and this idea of Gandhiji was put into practice by the Sagotharigal sangam in Madurai. It is also known as sisters association. The members of this association including Subbulakshmi Amma, Thayammal, Padmasani 1 Ammal and Dr.Pitchaimuthu Ammal made intensive propaganda for the boycott of foreign cloth. The propaganda for the boycott of foreign cloth at first did not bear fruit. Madurai imported foreign cloth from Madras and as trading in foreign cloth was the work of Sourashtra community which supported the congress movement by offering regular monthly subscriptions, the congress in Madurai was not able to 2 undertake the picketing of shops selling foreign cloth. Leaflets regarding the propaganda of boycott of foreign cloth were distributed and foreign cloth dealers were asked not to import cloth. Many traders agreed in principle to stop the import of foreign cloth but they did not stop the import of goods for which orders were made in the past and hence the congress volunteers were not able to effect a complete stoppage of foreign cloth sale in Madurai district. But it has been reported that during the early phase of

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 53 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X the civil disobedience campaign in Tamilnadu picketing of liquor shops was generally more successful 3 than that of shops selling foreign cloth.

Striking of Picketing Foreign Cloth The movement of boycotting foreign cloth gained momentum in Madurai after the settlement of 5 March 1931. On e propaganda committee for picketing foreign cloth shops functioned in Madurai with its 4 office near Thirumalai Nayak Palace. Many public meetings were held at which the speakers appealed to the people to use khaddar and boycott forign cloth. Peaceful picketing of shops selling foreign cloth was held at East Chitrai Street, Amman Sannathi, Venkalakadai Street and South Masi Street. The most striking feature of these picketing was the large scale participation of women in them. By May 1931, picketing of foreign cloth shops was very active in Madurai town and K.Basham, a congress leader of Madras, he witnessed the peaceful picketing in Madurai greatly appreciated the work of Madurai 5 picketers. The picketing of foreign cloth shops remained suspended for some days owing to the holding the Tamilnadu Youth Conference in Madurai on 6 June 1931. This conference held under the presidency of Mrs.Rukmani Lakshmipathy of Madras. She expressed its profound faith in the boycott of foreign 6 goods especially British goods and called upon the youths to carry on the picketing of foreign cloths. The picketing activity was resumed from June 10 onwards. From the beginning of September, the picketing operations were very active. A.Vaidyanatha Iyer, Chinnasamy Naidu, Sivaramakrishna Iyer, Vedarama Iyer, Haji Mohammed Maulana Sahib, N.M.R.Subbaraman, Subramania Iyer, Sangiliah Pillai and 7 A.S.Lakshmana Iyer were among those who took part in these activities. The merchants of Ezhukadal Street cloth shop motivated by the peaceful picketing campaigns of the congress volunteers offered to stop the sales of the foreign cloth stocks with them and also agreed not to make fresh orders for the 8 purchase of foreign cloth. Boycotting of foreign cloth shops was so active that the Calcutta shop in Amman Sannathi declared its solvency and people did not even come forward to take part in the 9 auctioning of that shop. Picketing was the most common form of open activity in Tamilnadu and other parts of the country after the resumption of civil disobedience in January 1932 and it was concerned mostly with the foreign cloth shops in the towns, Madurai, Madras, Viruthunagar and Ramnad were the main centres for the 10 urban picketing of 1932 in Tamilnadu.

Contribution of Dictators As the Madurai District and Taluk Congress Committees were declared unlawful by the Government, the Congressmen appointed “dictators” to direct the picketing operations. There were 43 dictators took part in the picketing operations in Madurai from January 1932 to January 1933 and they were all arrested. The names of the arrested dictators included N.Balaier, P.K.Ramachari, P.Sundaram Pillai, Venkatarayalu Iyer, Kumarasamy Iyer, Ramanathan, Sowmiya Narayanan, Narayana Konar, Ayya Pillai, 11 Ponniah Ambalam and A.Palanisamy Konar. There were three women dictators namely as Thayammal, Kamalabhai and Padmasani Amma were arrested on 11, 15 and 22 January 1932 respectively. The dictators along with a group of volunteers marched through the principal streets of Madurai town holding national flags and raising boycott slogans. They picketed the foreign cloth shops of Haji Moosa Sait Shop and New Bombay Hall in East Chitrai Chitrai Street, Amman Sannathi, Ezhukadal Street and 12 South Masi Street. In the Thirumalai Nayak Palace are T.K.Rama was serving as the captain of the Congress 13 volunteers. A.S.Ramudu Iyer was another congressman who assisted in orfganising the picketing 14 15 operations in this area. One Lajpati Nilayam founded in 1930 served as a great centre for the congress

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16 volunteers who took part in 1931 and 1932 picketing operations in Madurai. Jatin Das Memorial Reading Room was also housed in this Nilayam and congress volunteers and leaders used to assemble at 17 this Nilayam daily and held discussions about the picketing programme. V.Irulappan Servai was stay near the Lajpati Nilayam took much effort in organizing the volunteers for picketing the cloth shops in 18 Madurai. On some occasions volunteers from other places visited Madurai and took part in the picketing operations. Vaikkom Rajavarma, Chittarji Solomon, Subramania Iyer. They were belonged from Tirunelveli District. Ratnasamy Nadar from Virudhunagar, Arumuga Pulavar from Mudukulattur, Rathnammal from Bodinayakkanur, Jeyaram Sundarraj from Rajapalayam and Kanniappa Mudaliar from 19 Tiruttangal were belonging to this category of volunteers. The picketing operations were done quite peacefully and there was no breach of peace by the picketers. However, as the Prevention of Molestation and Boycotting Ordinance of January 5, 1932 had made all forms of picketing illegal, the picketers were 20 lathicharged by the police in the alleged attempt of dispersing the crowd. Some dictators and a number of volunteers were badly wounded by the lathi-charges. Various Newspapers had reported about the 21 numerous lathi-charges made during 1932-33 picketing operations in Madurai. On some occasions the volunteers were dragged on the ground for a considerable distance. In a picketing operation in January 1932 volunteer Ayyasami was severely beaten and this question was raised in the Madras Legislative Council on 24 March 1932 by K.R.Venkatarama Iyer of Madurai. In his reply the Home Member admitted that picketer Ayyasamy might have been beaten in the course of the dispersal of the unlawful .22 assemblies

Contribution of People’s Hospital There was one congress hospital at 155, South Masi Street, Madurai for treating the volunteers injured by the police attacks. It was called people’s Hospital and L.Krishnasamy Bharati, M.A., B.L., was the supervisor of this hospital. People donated liberally to this hospital and many patriotic doctors 23 attended it for giving free treatment. The Madurai District Congress Office was located in the premises of the People’s Hospital at one time; but it was shifted to another house in the distant street in December 1931. Yet the District Magistrate, Madurai considered the Congress Hospital building as the de facto office of the unlawful association comprising the Madurai District Congress Committee. He felt that there was no real need for a people’s hospital as there was ample accommodation for all the injured persons in the Government hospital in the town. The district magistrate, therefore, notified the peoples hospital under the Sub-Section 3 of the Unlawful Association Ordinance, 1932 (Ordinance IV of 1932) and the 24 police took possession of the house and the movables found in the hospital on 3 February 1932. At the time of seizure of the hospital there was one volunteer undergoing treatment for some injury due to picketing and he was sent to the government hospital for further treatment. The seizure of the people’s 25 hospital was an instance of repression by the local authorities in Madurai. th L.Krishnasamy Bharati, the supervisor of the peoples Hospital was the 40 dictator. He along with a group of seven volunteers took part in the picketing of foreign cloth shops on 5 December 1932. Their 26 procession started from the Pillaiyarkoil at the junction of North and West Masi Streets. The dictator sang some inspiring songs and after reaching Amman Sannathi they picketed the shops selling foreign cloth. The police arrested Krishnasamy Bharati and took him in a van. It is said to onte that volunteers N.Ramarathinam and cycle shop Balasubramanian who accompanied Krishnasamy Bharathi for the picketing were brutally lathi-charged by the police. P.N.K.Subburam, a Sourashtra Congressman st succeeded L.Krishnasamy Bharathi as the 41 dictator and his band of volunteers too picketed the foreign cloth shops in December 1932. They held a procession and carried placards having the slogan

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“success, to the congress, we want nothing British”. They were arrested near the Bombay Hall Cloth Shop 27 and sentenced.

For of Individual Civil Disobedience Sequel to the arrest of all leading Congressmen, there had been a marked decline in the civil 28 disobedience activities in the country even before the beginning of the 1933. Moreover as Gandhiji showed great concern for the Harijan welfare, the congress suspended the civil disobedience campaign in july 1933. A satyagraha campaign in the form of individual civil disobedience was organised in August 1933 and during this month Madurai witnessed some picketing operations before the foreign cloth 29 shops. The arrested satyagrahis were, however, let off after some warning. In October 1933, picketing 30 by a batch of youths had become a daily affair in Madurai. The volunteers raised the boycott slogans and picketed the cloth shops in the Amman Sannathi Street. The police arrested 13 picketers – Bothiraju and 12 others and the city magistrate of Madurai convicted all of them. Apart from the 13 convictions in Madurai in October 1933 there was no other conviction in the whole of Tamilnadu on grounds of civil disobedience. By the end of October, 1933 the civil disobedience activity virtually ceased in Tamilnadu with the exception of one or two cases of spasmodic picketing in Madurai. Madurai, thus, played a leading role in Tamilnadu in the picketing of foreign cloth shops during 1932-33 and the success in the picketing operations was manifested in the appreciable sale of khaddar in the khaddar vastralaya and 31 other cloth shops in Madurai. It has been reported that the Madurai Congressmen apart from their active picketing operations in their home town, visited many outstations and did much propaganda for picketing and other civil disobedience activities. Srinivasa Varadhan, D.Konda and Thiyagaraja Sivam of Madurai made 32 propaganda for picketing campaigns in Tirunelveli. Some volunteers from Madurai took part in the .33 picketing campaigns in Madras and Cuddalore Lakshmana Perumal Pillai and his wife Sornathammal 34 visited many villages in Madurai and did much propaganda for boycotting foreign cloth. Krishna Kunthu made a propaganda tour in Tirupuvanam Taluk and Srinivasa Varathan and his wife Padmasani 35 Ammal did the same in Tirupasethi, Samayanallur, Sholavandan and Paravai villages. A.Vaidyanatha Iyer, President of the Madurai District Congress Committee, visited Tiruparankundram and spoke in the 36 meeting, as to how to conduct toddy shop and foreign cloth shop picketing peacefully. N.M.R.Subbaraman, N.Balaier and T.K.Rama visited Tirumangalam, Sattur, Virudhunagar and 37 Sivakasi in a Congress propaganda tour. N.Subramania Iyer visited Alagarkoil and made two days of 38 propaganda. During March 1933 a batch of 10 volunteers from Madurai visited on foot the villages of Paravai, Thodaneri, Pothumbu, Kumaram, Achchampatti and Alanganallur and made propaganda for civil disobedience. They also distributed congress pamphlets for a no-tax campaign. They were arrested near 39 Cholavandan and sentenced to 2 months RI. Subsequently five more batches of volunteers were sent from Madurai to perform this propaganda work. They were led by Lakshmana Raja, P.N.Rajagopal 40 Iyendar, P.S.Sanjeeva Raju and others. Most of them were arrested and sentenced. The foreign cloths formed the special features of the civil disobedience movement. The ordinary features of this movement consisted of holding processions and mass meetings, singing of national songs and hoisting of national flags in defiance of prohibitory orders. One significant feature of these activities in Madurai was that they were all held in a perfectly non-violent manner.

References 1. Swadesamitran, 27 April 1930. 2. Judith, M.Brown, Gandhi and Civil Disobedience, Cambridge, 1977, p.129. 3. Report of Madras Administration, 1930-31, p.13.

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4. India, 16 May 1931. 5. India, 21 May 1931. 6. History of Freedom Movement, File No.66, Extracts from Files relating to Civil Disobedience Movement, 1931-32, p.634. 7. India, 9 September 1931. 8. Ibid, 18 September 1931. 9. Ibid, 22 September 1931. 10. Judith, M.Brown, op.cit., p.30. 11. G.O. No.1236, Public Department, 24 September 1932. 12. Kandasamy.v., Madurai in Indian National Movement, Madurai, 1993, p.101. 13. History of Freedom Movement, File No.65, Civil Disobedience Movement , Extracts from Secret Reports, 1929-30, p.211. 14. India, 9 September 1931. 15. Swadesamitran, 15 March 1932. 16. Jatin Dass was one of the accused in the Lahore conspiracy case who died of Hunger-strike of 63 days. 17. Private records, Memorandum No.13639, 10 March 1944. 18. Swadesamitran, 19 February 1932. 19. The Hindu, 18 May 1932. 20. Swadesamitran, 13 January 1932. 21. G.O.No.1239, Public Department, 24 September 1932. 22. G.O.No.678, Public Department, 9 May 1932. 23. G.O. No.678, Public Department, 11 May 1932. 24. Gandhi, 11 December 1932. 25. Kandasamy.v., op.cit, p.107. 26. Fortnightly Reports, 18 May 1933. 27. Madras Administrative Report, 1932-33, p.7. 28. The Hindu, 8 August 1932. 29. Fortnightly Reports, 18 October 1933. 30. Swadesamitran, 6 October 1933. 31. Fortnightly Reports, 4 November 1933. 32. Civil disobedience Movement, 1930-31, op.cit., p.135. 33. India, 26 july 1931. 34. Ibid, 18 June 1931. 35. Ibid, 2 July 1931. 36. Ibid, 21 July 1931 37. Ibdi, 1 August 1931. 38. Fortnightly Reports, 3 April 1933. 39. Swadesamitran, 23 March 1933. 40. Sutandira Sangu, 1 April 1933.

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ROLE OF ANNIE BESANT IN THE THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

M.Kumaramurugan Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of History M.S.University, Tirunelveli

Introduction Theosophy is a collection of mystical and occultist philosophies concerning or seeking direct knowledge of the presumed mysteries of life and nature. The term theosophy comes from the Greek Theosophia which is composed of two words: theos( gods or divine) and Sophia (wisdom) therefore may rd be translated as the wisdom of the gods. The word theosophy was first used in writing during 3 century by the Alexandarian platonic philosophers. This paper deals with role of Annie Besant in the theosophical society.

Early Days st Annie Wood was born on 1 October, 1847, and educated privately in England, Germany and France. She was a devout Christian, and was married at the age of twenty to an English clergyman, Rev. Frank Besant, Vicar of Sibsey, Lincolnshire, by whom she had a son, Arthur Digby, and a daughter, Mabel. However, the awakening of her character made her challenge several of the Christian dogmas. ‘It was not the challenge of unfaith’, as Jinarajadasa was to say later, ‘but rather of a highly spiritual nature that desired intensely not only to believe but also to understand.’ Unable to make logic out of Christian traditions, she left the Church in 1872 and became a freethinker, thus ruining her social position through her passion for Truth; consequently she had to leave her husband and young son. In 1879 she matriculated at London University and went on with her studies in science but met obstacles there owing to the sexist prejudices of her time. She joined the National Secular Society in 1874 and worked in the free thought and radical movements led by Charles Bradlaugh, she co-edited the National Reformer with him and wrote many political and free-thought books and pamphlets from 1874–88. At this point her husband moved court to take their little daughter away from her, alleging that she was ‘unfit’ because of her ideas. This deprivation caused her profound grief. However, when the children were older they became devoted admirers of their mother. She was prominent in the Labour and Socialist movements, a member of the Fabian Society and Social Democratic Federation, and took an active part in Trade Union work among unskilled labourers; with Herbert Burrows she led the path-breaking 'match girls’ strike to a successful conclusion.

Theosophy Besant was a prolific writer and a powerful orator. In 1889, she was asked to write a review for the Pall Mall Gazette on The Secret Doctrine, a book by H. P. Blavatsky. After reading it, she sought an interview with its author, meeting Blavatsky in Paris. In this way she was converted to Theosophy. Besant's intellectual journey had always involved a spiritual dimension, a quest for transformation of the whole person. As her interest in theosophy deepened, she allowed her membership of the Fabian Society to lapse (1890) and broke her links with the Marxists. In her Autobiography, Besant follows her chapter on "Socialism" with "Through Storm to Peace", the peace of Theosophy.

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In 1888, she described herself as "marching toward the Theosophy" that would be the "glory" of her life. Besant had found the economic side of life lacking a spiritual dimension, so she searched for a belief based on "Love". She found this in Theosophy, so she joined the Theosophical Society, a move that distanced her from Brad laugh and other former activist co-workers. When Blavatsky died in 1891, Besant was left as one of the leading figures in theosophy and in 1893 she represented it at the Chicago World Fair. In 1893, soon after becoming a member of the Theosophical Society she went to India for the first time. After a dispute the American section split away into an independent organisation. The original society, then led by Henry Steel Olcott and Besant, is today based in Chennai, India, and is known as the Theosophical Society Adyar. Following the split Besant devoted much of her energy not only to the society, but also to India's freedom and progress. Besant Nagar, a neighborhood near the Theosophical Society in Chennai, is named in her honor.

Meeting with H. P. Blavatsky Feeling dissatisfied with the negative approach of free thought, Besant now made researches into spiritualism, hypnotism, and so forth. At this juncture W. T. Stead, the editor of The Review of Reviews, sent her Madame Blavatsky’s The Secret Doctrine to review. As she read the book, it was as if a long lost vision of truth flashed through her mind. She asked for an interview with the author, and from that first sight of HPB, her whole life changed. She abandoned her secularist ideas and also to some extent the socialist philosophy, but the new light which she received inspired her more firmly than ever to the service of the world. Her approach towards the various evils in the world changed and she began to deal with the root causes in the light of the laws which govern all existence.

The Theosophical Society st Annie Besant joined The Theosophical Society on 21 May 1889, and became a devoted pupil and helper of HPB, pledging her loyalty to the President-Founder, Col. H. S. Olcott, and the cause of Theosophy. She became the most brilliant exponent of Theosophy, both as orator and author. In 1893 she represented The Theosophical Society at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago.

Theosophical Society in India In 1893 she landed in India, made a tour of the country in the company of H. S. Olcott, and, by her splendid presentation of Indian philosophy and her undisguised personal preference for the Indian spiritual heritage, won the support of orthodox Brahmins to Theosophy. The transformation of the religious life in India, particularly among Hindus, is one of the wonders she performed. She was an untiring worker for the upliftment of women, and pleaded again and again for a radical change in social conditions, but never desired any modification of the Indian woman’s temperament which she held to be one of the most spiritual in the world. She soon gathered round her a band of Indians to work for the regeneration of the country and in 1898, after much planning, founded the Central Hindu School and College in Benares (now Varanasi). A few years later she started the Central Hindu School for Girls. Theosophists from overseas came to help her in the work of the college, which was established with the object of impressing India’s past glory on the minds and hearts of the students. Brilliant band of workers gathered round her, including Dr Bhagavan Das, his brother Govinda Das, Gyanendra Nath Chakravarti, Upendranath Basu, I. N. Gurtu, and P. K. Telang, all of whom worked in an honorary capacity. Later the college became the nucleus of the Hindu University, and in recognition of Besant’s services to Indian education the degree of Doctor of Letters was conferred upon her in 1921. Lord Baden-Powell deemed that Indians were unfit to be scouts; the Indian Scout Movement was founded by her in 1918, the boys wearing Indian turbans! When Baden-

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Powell came to India and saw how successful was the movement created by Annie Besant, it was amalgamated with the world movement, and she was made the Honorary Scout Commissioner for India. In 1932 Baden-Powell sent her from London the highest Scout distinction, the ‘Silver Wolf’ medal.

Second President of the Theosophical Society Besant met fellow theosophist Charles Webster Lead beater in London in April 1894. They became close co-workers in the theosophical movement and would remain so for the rest of their lives. Lead beater claimed clairvoyance and reputedly helped Besant become clairvoyant herself in the following th year. In a letter dated on 25 August, 1895 to Francisca Arundale, Lead beater narrates how Besant became clairvoyant. Together they clairvoyantly investigated the universe, matter, thought-forms, and the history of mankind, and co-authored a book called Occult Chemistry. In 1906 Lead beater became the centre of controversy when it emerged that he had advised the practice of masturbation to some boys under his care and spiritual instruction. Lead beater stated he had encouraged the practice to keep the boys celibate, which was considered a prerequisite for advancement on the spiritual path. Because of the controversy, he offered to resign from the Theosophical Society in 1906, which was accepted. The next year Besant became president of the society and in 1908, with her express support, lead beater was readmitted to the society. Lead beater went on to face accusations of improper relations with boys, but none of the accusations were ever proven and Besant never deserted him. Until Besant's presidency, the society had as one of its foci Theravada Buddhism and the island of Sri Lanka, where Henry Olcott did the majority of his useful work. Under Besant's leadership there was more stress on the teachings of "The Aryavarta", as she called central India, as well as on esoteric Christianity. In 1907, after the passing of Col. H. S. Olcott, Annie Besant became the second International President of the Theosophical Society, an office which she held until her death in 1933. Besant had always been a great traveler, having visited in the course of her Theosophical work nearly all the countries of Europe more than once, and making several visits to the United States and Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Her great organizing capacity was used to ‘make theosophy practical’, and action became her ‘slogan’. During her presidentship, the Society grew considerably, with the addition of more than thirty-six Sections or National Societies to the initial eleven. Besant continued to tour and lecture all over India, dealing extensively with education. Lodges of the Theosophical Society undertook to open schools wherever they could. She also tried to draw women into the movement wherever possible, for at that time women were not encouraged to take part in public life. Clear explanations of the many enigmas of life and the universe were presented in her outstanding books such as A Study in Consciousness, which is used in some universities as a textbook. Another of her major works, Esoteric Christianity has been considered a historical document; and has helped to revive true knowledge of Christianity. Her lectures at Theosophical conventions on the great religions of the world were put into a valuable book entitled Seven Great Religions, presenting the core teachings of each one of them. The first edition of her English translation of the Bhagavadgitâ was published in 1905. Besant was a practical mystic, exemplifying in her life and in all her actions a lofty idealism and a truly religious awareness a combination found in very few people. In 1908 she announced the formation of a Theosophical Order of Service, which aimed at banding members together in groups with the motto ‘Union of all who Love in the Service of all that Suffer. Besant set up a new school for boys, the Central Hindu College (CHC) at Banaras which was formed on underlying theosophical principles, and which counted many prominent theosophists in its staff and faculty. Its aim was to build a new leadership for India. The students spent 90 minutes a day in prayer and studied religious texts, but they also studied modern science. It took 3 years to raise the money for the CHC, most of which came from Indian princes. In April 1911, Besant met Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and they decided to unite their forces and work

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 60 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X for a common Hindu University at Banaras. Besant and fellow trustees of the Central Hindu College also agreed to Government of India's precondition that the college should become a part of the new University. The Banaras Hindu University started functioning from 1 October 1917 with the Central Hindu College as its first constituent college. In 1908 onwards Besant proceeded to enlarge the Headquarters estate at Adyar. In order to link Adyar more intimately with the rest of the Theosophical world, she started The Adyar Bulletin, which continued until 1929. Presently the Adyar Newsletter fulfils a similar function. A new phase of Dr Besant’s activity began when she came into contact with two remarkable Indian boys, and declared that the elder of them, J. Krishnamurti, was destined to be the vehicle of the ‘World Teacher’, the Bodhisattva Maitreya. In 1910 she assumed the guardianship of J. Krishnamurti and his brother and despite great difficulties launched him on his remarkable career. Besant saw her role in Krishnamurti’s life as that of a catalyst: ‘Amma never told me what to do’, Krishnamurti gratefully recalled in later life. She merely tried to prepare him for a worldwide regenerative mission. He was encouraged to meet people, to give talks and lead discussions. The Order of the Star in the East was organized to pave the way for the very special work he was to do. Annie Besant using many institutions for promoting the Theosophical Order. The Hindu Boys Association and The Arya Bala Bodhini, founded by Col Olcott in 1894, were the catalytic agents for Annie Besant to start such similar organizations for promoting the concept of Theosophy. With the motto of “A Union of all with love, in the Service of all who suffer” in 1908, she founded the Theosophical Order of Services. To promote national unity and to achieve the all round progress of men and society in 1931,

The Order of Brothers of Service was formed. In 1915, The Order of the Star in the East was established mainly to acknowledge the services of J.Krishnamoorthi. These associations were utilized to promote the Theological Movement in India. She was able to achieve a lot in India in collaboration with the foreign organizations and branches of Theosophical Society. The Theosophical Society was directed to function as a multidimensional organization. It stood for the uplift of women and improving the condition of the labour population. With the support of B.P.Wadia, Annie Besant was able to solve the labour problems. Rukmani Devi, the foster daughter of Annie Besant, founded the Kalakshetra at Chennai in November 1936. It promoted the women services of the Theosophical Society had an impact and influence on the dedicated services of Annie Besant. Through the Theosophical Society, Annie Besant stood for the equality of men and women. It is worth noting that there was nothing left untouched by Annie Besant with regard to the Indian society and India. The divergent activities of the Theosophical Society during the tenure of office of Annie Besant as its President turned out to be a tremendous task in promoting the welfare of all classes and communities of India. Further, through the Theosophical Society, she stood for unity, brotherhood, service and sacrifice. Annie Besant encouraged people, through the activities of the Theosophical Society, to engage themselves “in study, reflection, purity of life and loving service.” Through the activities based on Theosophy, Annie Besant led the members of Theosophical Society to lead an intelligible life with the hope that justice and love would guide mankind.

Last Days On 20 September 1933, Besant laid aside her physical body at Adyar. Her Presidentship spanned twenty-six years full of glorious devoted service to the Theosophical Society and to mankind at large, and she passed away as she had lived a warrior Soul. Sri Ram, who was then her Secretary, wrote the following tribute. Besant was nothing if she was not wholehearted and whole-souled in all that she undertook, in every aim and every inner impulse. Almost always, as I know from personal knowledge of how she affected various people, they were struck with the extraordinary magnetism that seemed to surround her, the brightest energy, which seemed to leave her at the end of the day almost as fresh as at the beginning.

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References 1. Annie Besant, Theosophy and Life, Deeper Society publications, Madras, 1916. 2. Annie Besant, An Autobiography, Theosophical Publishing House, Madras, 1939. 3. Annie Besant, Home Rule League, Theosophical Publishing House, Adayar, 1916. 4. H.P., Blavatsky., Is Theosophy A Religion? Theosophical Publishing House, Adayar, 1947. 5. A.O.Hume., Estoric Theosophy, Publishing House, Banaras, 1909. 6. J.C.Joharti., History of the Indian National Congress, Theosophical Publishing House New Delhi., 1988. 7. C.W.Leadbeater., An Outline of Theosophy., Theosophical Publishing House adayar.,1930. 8. Lovett Vernay., A History of Indian National Movement., New Delhi., 1972.

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ROMAN CATHOLIC PARISH IN KAMUTHI, RAMANATHAPURAM DISTRICT, TAMILNADU – AN OVERVIEW

Dr.P.Thangamuthu, M.A. M.Phil. Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of History PTMTM.College, Kamuthi, Ramnad District

Introduction Ramanathapuram District is unique in many respects. This is only District in the state which has its headquarters located outside the District limits. The headquarters of the District is Madurai. There were two big and famous Zamins – viz., Ramanathapuram and Sivaganga in this region. These Zamins and some portions of Madurai and Tirunelveli districts were grouped together and the new District was formed. Among many important places in the District Rameswaram is popularly known as Benares of the South. People from all over India visit Rameswaram . A noteworthy feature of the Rameswaram temple is its beautiful pillared corridor. Srivilliputhur is a well known pilgrim center associated with Sri Andal, a great Vaishnavite Saintees, whose “pasurams” are as popular in Tamil Nadu as Meerabai’s devotional songs in the North. The temple at Kalaiyarkoil is famous for its architectural grandeur. Kalaiyarkoil is also historical famous because this place is associated with the Marudhu brothers who fought against the th British during the latter half of the 18 century. Virudhunagar and Sattur are very important business centers. Sivakasi is well known all over India for its fireworks and litho printing. Another important town in the District is Rajapalayam, a growing industrial town. This town is famous for textile industries and for a special variety of hunting dogs. Karaikudi has developed in to a famous educational center. The well known Central Electro Chemical Research Institute is located here. Kilakarai is famous for chunk fishing and at Mantapam a Marine Fisheries Research Institute of the Government of India is located.

The Earliest Inhabitants of the District The earliest inhabitants of the Distrcit are Mukkulattar viz., the Kallars, the Maravars and the Agamudaiyars – the virile communities with martial traditions. Nadars also form an important community in the Ramanathapuram District. They have become popular due to their successful trade and commerce. The Nattukkottai Chettiars are another important community the trading castes in the South, travelling freely to Burma, Ceylon, Malaysia and other Asian and European countries. Most of them live in Chettinadu. The Raju Community at Rajapalayam stands as an exclusive social unit, having all its social relationship confined in and around Rajapalayam. The persons belonged to Scheduled Castes are found in considerable number in all the taluks of the District. They are mostly agricultural laboureres. The Paliyars a nomadic hill tribe, who for the most part move in small parties through the jungle – clad gorges that fringes the hilly regions of Srivilliputhur are ethnological an important tribes of the District. They speak Tamil with a peculiar intonation which renders it scarcely intelligible. The Muslims of the District are the descendents of the early colonists from Arabia. They first settled along the sea coast, chiefly in Kilakkarai, Devipatnam, Mantapam, Panban and other places which enabled them to trade freely with Ceylon and gradually extended their colonies in to the interior of the District. Numerical the Christian community forms the third major religious group in the Distrcit. The regions of Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli and Madurai had been fertile fields for the Christian Missionary activity from 1600 A.D.

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The Origin of the District This District created in 1910 by carving out portions from the Madurai and the Tirunelveli District was named as the Ramanathapuram District after the name of the important Zamindari town. Ramanathapuram , Lord Ramanathaswamy who has His temple at Rameswaram, it is said according to popular legend, had directed his faithful servant, Guha to build a town near the Sethu ( Adam’s Bridge). The town was called Mugavainagaram. Then the town appears to have been very near the sea and even now it is occasionally referred to as Mugavai. This town was later known as Ramanathapuram. Its associate on with the name Rama and its proximity to the Sethu would justify the town being considered a very ancient one. In the early days of Empire building by the British, this region was called by them, Ramnad, and this name continued to be current for sometime even after the dawn of independence for the country. This anglicized name, Ramnad was however, later changed into Ramanathapuram to be more in conformity with the Tamil name for the region. Kamuthi is spelled kamudi actually stands for Kavinmigu Mullai Thirunagar. Kamuthi is a Panchayat town in Ramanathapuram district in the Indian state of Tamilnadu. It is situated on the south bank of the river Gundar. It is 12 miles west of Muthukulathur, 50 miles west of Ramanathapuram and 24 miles south – east of Aruppukottai. It is about 90km from Madurai. From the sea it is only 21 miles north. This town is connected by road from all important places, regular buses are plying to this place from Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Aruppukottai, Muthukulathu, Sayalkudi, Paramakudi, Rameswaram, Tuticorin, Virudhunagar, and Trichy. It belongs to the Muthukulathur legislative constituency. Agriculture and animal breeding are the main business of the people of this region. Trade between Tamilnadu and Srilanka took place via this town. Recently archaeologists have th th found some jain idols of 12 century. The fort at Kottaimedu belongs to 17 century was built on the banks of the Gundaru river. It is about 300 years old. It was built by Thiru Udaya Thevar alias Ragunatha Sethupathi who ruled overRamanathapuram kingdom between 1711 – 1725 with the assistance of the French Engineers. This th is a small fort but had two lines of fortifications and contained buildings on 25 August 1801, the forces of the East India Company controlled this strong fort of Kamuthi belonging to Ramanathapuram. The forces of Sivaganga under Marudhu captured this fort. But the fort was soon recaptured by the company’s forces and was dismantled thereafter. Legend says that Kattabomman stayed for many days th in this fort on his way to Ramanathapuram to meet the then collector Jackson on 9 September 1798. Kamuthi is the headquarters of a vast pangu on the borders of the Marava and of Tirunelveli. Fifty miles long from East to West and nearly twenty miles from North to South. The catholic population is 2066 souls. It was more numerous in 1879. But many converts became again pagans or Protestants, for lack of missionaries or catechists to take care of them. The earliest inhabitants of Ramanathapuram Distrcit are Mukkulattar viz., the Kallars, the Maravars and the Agamudaiyars – the virile communities with martial traditions. Nadars also form an important community in the Ramanathapuram District. They have become popular due to their successful trade and commerce. The Nattukkottai Chettiars are another important community the trading castes in the South, travelling freely to Burma, Ceylon, Malaysia and other Asian and European countries. Most of them live in Chettinadu. The Raju Community at Rajapalayam stands as an exclusive social unit, having all its social relationship confined in and around Rajapalayam. The persons belonged to Scheduled Castes are found in considerable number in all the taluks of the District. They are mostly agricultural laboureres. The Paliyars a nomadic hill tribe, who for the most part move in small parties through the jungle – clad gorges that fringes the hilly regions of Srivilliputhur are ethnological an important tribes of the District. They speak Tamil with a peculiar intonation which renders it scarcely intelligible.

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The Muslims of the District are the descendents of the early colonists from Arabia. They first settled along the sea coast, chiefly in Kilakkarai, Devipatnam, Mantapam, Panban and other places which enabled them to trade freely with Ceylon and gradually extended their colonies in to the interior of the District. Numerical the Christian community forms the third major religious group in the Distrcit. The regions of Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli and Madurai had been fertile fields for the Christian Missionary activity from 1600 A.D.

Origin of the Christian Community The Christian community of Kamuthi town is of the inland Paravars claiming a Xaverian origin in so far as they are descendants of the families who came from the coastal village of Vaipar,Vembar,Mookkaiyur,and Thangachimadam to settle here for trade purposes. We learn that already in 1912 the church was a hundred years old. At the same time historically Kottaimedu is a place of freedom struggle spot in kamuthi, which was famous for hiding place of Umaidhurai. Most of the other Christians in substations seem to be converts baptized by the Fathers of the New Society like Frs.Trincal and Laporte, during the great famine of 1876 – 1878.

Establishment of the Kamuthi Parish After the suppression of the Old Society, Kamuthi was one of the centers ministered to by a Padroado priest as Tuticorin, Manapad, and Madurai were praise is due to them for having submitted gladly to the jurisdiction of the Propaganda priest of Pondicherry, while other centers resisted them. The France Foreign Mission Fathers used to visit Kamuthi and administer the sacraments between 1832 – 1838. Of the early Jesuits of the new Madurai Mission, Frs.Canoz, Puccinelli, and Sartorio ministered to the Christians of Kamuthi. It continued to be a substation first of Rajakambiram and then of Madurai under Fr.Trincal, then of Ramnad and lastly of Irudayakovil. Fr.Laporte took care of Kamuthi from 1874. It looks as if Kamuthi became a residential parish only in 1908 under Fr.Daniel.also it became a separate parish in 1968 by the efforts of Fr.Daniel.

The Holy Man of Karthanathar Swamy Fr.Sartorio was called Karthanathar Swamy by the kamuthi chrsitans. After 1838, arrival of the Jesuits fathers from Madurai diocese were took care of Kamuthi church and preaching the gospel and also serve the unification of the People. Particularly Fr.Sartorio was a man of humanism among the Christian people. Later he was died in kamuthi in 1852 by cholera. His tomb in Indian style stands a few feet to the south – east corner of the church and even now is an object of veneration by the faithful. The people called him Karthanathar Swamy and have mass said for him very often.

Miracles of the St.Karthanathar Swamy Once a year they have a Mass said for him and feed about 300 poor people on that day. They pray to him for protection chiefly during the night when the men folk go out to the seaside to buy fish. They say they get the necessary protection from him and even claim to see him occasionally as a white figure walking on the street holding a rosary in hand and praying.

St. Antony and the Church Fr. Trincal ministered to Kamuthi from Madurai, visiting it once a year on the occasion of the village feast of St.Antony of Padua from 1863 to 1873. Under his supervision a fine alter screen was put up nicely painted and gilt edged. Now it has been replaced. In 1873 division among the local faith arose and the church key was entrusted to Fr.Trincal by the catechist. Under such a troublesome circumstance

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Kamuthi was entrusted to Fr.Laporte being then in charge of Ramnad. After the closure of the church for one year Fr.Laporte celebrate the feast in June 1874. In reparation for the past carelessness, the chief merchants of the community bound themselves to have a beautiful silver crown made for the big statue of the B.V.M.Fr.Laporte converted around Kamuthi some 1000 souls to the faith. This church might be constructed more than 300 years ago by the efforts of Portuguese priests. In 1954, it was modified and painted by Fr.Viyak’s and Fr.Raimond Joseph.Fr.Laporte constructed several churches among which those of Kilamudimannarkottai, Thummuchinampatti, and Kadaladi could be mentioned.

The Gothic Style of Church The present church, high walled and having three naves, is of the gothic style, a la mode the one of Sattur. It was built likely at the beginig of the century. It has a ‘goodly appearance’ in the words of Msgr. Leonard, especially when looked at from the elevated fort area. The sacristy portion is a remnant of the old church of the Paroado times. It has now been renovated. In the place of the old presbytery a new one has been built recently.

Educational Services The convent of the Serviettes of Mary was started by Fr.Dillingar in 1912. They have been conducting a girls school ever since. They have a large orphanage with more than 200 children. They run it out of sheer necessity. Because no Muslim or Hindu nadir family is allowed to send its children to our school under pain of penalty. In 1974, an orphanage for the poor children of the parish was newly opened with the recognition by the Tamilnadu government. About 160 are benefited by this orphanage.

Sisters of Viagulamadha Convent There will be better days for Kamuthi itself when the sisters of ViagulaMadha will have a convent there. A gift of 3000 Franca from the same anonymous benefactress has allowed the purchase of a house th and to pay the first expenses of upkeep. 4 nuns went there on the 29 February 1912, to put their works under the protection of the Sacred Heart and of St.Joseph, the following day being first march and first Friday of the month. In 1963, it was promoted as middle school with one orphanage also there. The total number of students are 324.there are 8 teachers are working here including one head master and vocational teacher.a village council and the parents – teachers association are involving very perfectly. In 1939, a St. Xavier primary school was established at keelaramanathi by Fr.Sautler.then it was promoted as St.Xavier Middle school by the efforts of St.Vincent and Fr.Rymond Joseph who was parish priest of kamuthi in 1988. Socially they have organized Siruvar sirumiyar eluchchi iyakkam, ilam pengal iyakkam, puthuvalvu payanakkulu,and viyagula madha sabai.through the St.Joseph Orphanaga, the very poor children were benefited from surrounding villages.

Development of the Substations of the Kamuthi Parish Thirusiluvaipuram is the most important of the substations consisting of a large Pallar community. The village site of 13 acres was acquired by Fr.Arnault through the good help of the then collector. The church was built from funds generously provided by Madamme Vidor, a French Countess, and later embellished by Fr.Sattlar. In 1978 Fr.M.J.Antonisamy S.J., started here a new elementary school. The two teachers of the school take care of the Catholics scattered in different villages around Thirusiluvaipuram. Mandalamanickam, Paralatchi, and Pullanayakkan Patti are some of the important substations. Pallar, Paraiyars, and Sakkiliars make up the Christian community of these villages. It is reported that there are numerous irregular marriages in these substations, and that a spiritual reclamation is the dire need descendants of the famine years’ converts.

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In Paralatchi and Mandalamanickam two new churches were built by Fr.M.J.Antonisamy S.J., in 1970 and 1975respectively. He built chapels in Keelaramanathi in 1972, Pullapatti in 1974, and Sullankudi in 1976. In kamuthi, arrangements have been made to have mass said regularly for the Catholics in the 1 Reserve Police, in the Armed Reserve Police Quarters Reading Room. Fr.M.J.Antonisamy S.J was succeeded as Parish Priest by Fr.Antony Ettikal, who in 1982 was succeeded by Frs., Arul.

Pangu – Swamis: (Parish Priests) The successors of Fr.Laporte were: Frs. Ernest Mazeran, Maria Jeganather, and Paul Decoly, from 1899 to 22nd December 1906.Frs.Victor Jeyasilarayer, Raja Adisayam (nov.1901-1905). Frs.Sandapper in 1905 have also often passed through Kamuthi.Frs.Joseph Pages succeeded Fr.Decoly, without leaving out his Madurai Procuratirship. He had the pangu ministered by Fr.Mahe 1906 (one month) and by th Fr.Vincent Jeganathar, (1907 – 8the July 1910) Fr.Blaise Dillinger was appointed on 18 January 1908. Rev. Dillingar – 1910 – 1914, Fr.Prince – 1914 – 1919, Fr.Binthiore – 1919 – 1922, Fr.Vedanayagam – 1922 – 1924, Fr.SundharaRaj (Assistant Father) – 1922 – 1924, Fr.Irudhaya Swamy – 1924 – 1927, Fr.Arino – 1927 – 1932, Fr.Periya Montho – 1932 – 1935, Fr.Sinna Montho – 1935 – 1936,Fr.Sautler – 1936 – 1943, Fr.Viyaks – 1943 – 1957, Fr.Soosai Manickam – 1957 – 1968, Fr.Antony Swamy – 1968 – 1980, Fr.Arulanantham – January 1980 – August 1980, Fr.Antony Ettikkal – august 1980 – 1982, Fr.Arul – 1982 – 1986, Fr.Vincent – 1986 – 1987,

Villages of Kamuthi Parish Village name people Total Schools Kamuthi Paravars 137 School with 27 pupils Church dedicated to St.Antony of Kadaladi Paravars 133 Padua,Fr.Laporte contributed Rs.100 School with 21 pupils this village had Perunali Pallars 62 become again , and was brought to the fold party by Fr.Maria Jeganathar. Sengapadai Paraiyars 8 Nattakadu Paraiyars 31 School with 19 pupils One neophytes and some Perumal Kudumbanpatti Pallars 1 catechumens Sixteen Christians and some Mela Ramanathi Pallars 16 catechuments Paralatchi Paraiyars 70 School with 28 puplis School with 45 pupils church Keela Mudimannarkottai Paraiyars 458 dedicated to St.John the Evengelist Rajagopalapuram Paraiyars 5 Nanni Gopalapuram Paraiyars 9

Contribution of Fr.Trincal in Kamuthi Parish Fr.Trincal was very busy with his neophytes of the western region in 1863 – 1873. He was seldom came to Kamuthiexcept once a year to celebrate the feast of St.Antony of Padua, the patron saint of the church. on this occasion he set all affairs in order, dispensing the sacrements, celebrating marriages, checking up the church account – books, etc. in this time the reeds of the church was made,painted and gilded.thanks to his care also and to her intervention with the collector, the park compound increased on the north side by four or five feet and the sewage of the town took another direction. (It was coming from the Muslim ward and flowing into our compound). Fr.Trincal, whose work among pagans was

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 67 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X becoming day by day more extensive took that opportunity to have me put in charge of Kamuthi by Mgr.Canoz on 2 november 1873. nd In 1873 – 1874 Kamuthi is therefore attached to the pangu of Ramnad from 2 November 1873. Fr. Trincal sent me the keys, stamped and other documents concerning the church of Kamuthi. I take up the th th administration and I celebrated the feast of St.Antony from 27 may to 14 june 1874. The church had remaind closed for a year or so, and church dues had not been levied, for it is by means of a tax that the expenses of the feast and the missionary’s stipends are paid.on my advice and as atonement for their past negligence, the chief traders pledged themselves to have a fine silver crown made for the great statue of the holy virgin.

Contribution of Fr.Laporte in Kamuthi Parish Stolen with other jewels approximate value between Rs 800 and 1000 –during the suit brought by Fr.Laporte against the Christians who had collected and spent without his permission the maghamai (income) of the church in 1896. Besides, each of the others pays according to his conscience the arrears of the ‘magamaipanam’. Everything must henceforth function regularly’ the ‘ambalacaran’ (caste headman, an office since abolished) was to represent me during my absence, but I do not think it necessary to hand to hand over to him an adigaram pattiram (credentials).

Famine relief of Fr.Laporte From 1876 to 1878 a terrible famine played havoc throughout south India. It was a means used by god to make numerous conversions of pagans. Fr.Laporte baptized more than 1000 catchments. Fr. Laporte regularly visited Kamuthi up to 1879. It was the time for conquests. He was still there in 1886, at the end of December. In 1889 he had made over Ramnad and Pamban to Fr.Fabre and had settled down at Irudayakoil, whilst keeping Kamuthi. In relating the famine of 1876 – 77 Fr.Laporte tells us that through Mr.Philipps he had obtained from the government for the starving people of his district Rs.1850 from October 1877 to February 1878. This big sum added to the alms received from his superior, Fr.Darrieutort and from his friends in France, allowed him to receive numberless indigents.

Conversion activities of Fr.Laporte In the years following the conversions, from 1880 to 1886, Fr.Laporte built several churches, among th them those of keela Mudimannarkottai, Thirusiluvaipuram, Kadaladi and Irudayakoil.on 6 april 1890, Fr.Laporte writing again from Kamuthi tells us that the neophytes babtized by Fr.Trincal in sevelpatti and vadugarpatti have fallen to his share. Then he speaks feelingly of his Christians community of mudimannarkottai. Nevertheless grouped together, we can tuen them good account. Paralatchi, Poolancal, Iluppur and Tonegal would soon be all that one could wish for, if I had the required helpless to supply for my deficiency. The conversion movement inaugurated by Fr.Laporte does not seem to have stopped. Total s. Male Female Total Villages Panchayats Male Female Popula- No Children Children families tion 1 Kamuthi(town) Kamuthi 140 114 73 63 390 72 Kamuthi 2 Kamuthi 16 15 10 11 52 10 Pananthoppu Mandalamanickam 3 Mandalamanickam 122 104 63 66 355 70 Melur 4 Melaramanathi Melaramanathi 24 47 7 9 57 14 5 Keelaramanathi Keelaramanathi 14 13 9 4 40 10

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6 Nedungulam Nedungulam 18 15 18 13 64 16 Thirusiluvai 7 Mushtakuritchi 100 96 60 68 324 70 Puram Perumal 8 Mushta kuritchi 69 55 28 36 188 39 Kudumban Patti Catholic people – 1470 Catholic families – 301.

Churches in Kamuthi Parish 1. St.Antony Church – Kamuthi 2. St.Therasal Church – Mandalamanickam Melur 3. Uyirtha Jesus Church – ThirusiluvaiPuram 4. St.Xavier Church – Keelaramanathi 5. Perumal Kudumban Patti – Jeba veedu 6. Kamuthi Pananthoppu – Jeba veedu 7. Nedunkulam – Jeba Veedu 8. Melaramanathi – Jeba Veedu

Villages of Kamuthi Parish 1. Mandalamanickam 2. Thirusiluvai Puram 3. Melaramanathi 4. Keelaramanathi 5. Perumal Kudumban Patti 6. Nedunkulam 7. Kamuthi 8. Kamuthi – Pananthoppu.

Conclusion In 1911 the catechumen’s of Kamuthi are 495.a number of them went back because we had no one to take care of them. The field is so vast that one father finds it hard to stand his ground and to make genuine Christians of his small flock of neophytes. The position becomes still more difficult because of the unceasing activity of Protestants ministers, Americans and Lutherans, who on account of the subsidies which they get, build churches add set up schools and boarding houses for their adherents and set up schools and boarding houses for their adherents. Thus the Christian Missionaries from the west and the British government in India played an extremely significant role in promoting social progress in India. The western education broke down the traditional caste basis of occupation and made possible individual upward status and occupational mobility in this region.

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Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 73 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

TIRUVALAJULI TEMPLE COMPLEX AND SOCIETY

M.Mathivanan Ph.D. Scholar, R & D Centre, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore

Society’s Service to the Temple The society had a close link with this temple. Whenever there were social and natural calamities, people propitiated the God and had taken steps to please Him. We have already seen how royal family and officials had provided endowments to this temple. Some other wealthy people had also done some rd meritorious service to this temple. In the 43 year of Kulottunga Choladeva, Adamangalamudaiyan Orriyuran Karunakaran built a tirupparikala mandapam. In one unidentifiable inscription it is said that the community had purchased a Niraipanittoppu and handover it to the people of Manappadaividu to have an orchard there. The income form that orchard was to be utilized for niraipani abhishem and th neyvedanam. In the 24 year of Kadava Kopperunjingadeva, somadevan of Gomadam gifted lands and th houses sites to Tiruvalanjuli Udaiyar (God). In the 5 year of Tribhuvana Chakravartin Rajendradeva, Nambi-Amalan alias Rajendra of Adamangalam Villikkurram gifted lands in Tirunaraiyur nadu, a sub division of Kulottunga Cola Valanadu. Aravamudittan built a manadapa called Tiravinaitittan – tirumandapa, for the victory of Viramarasar Ayyan. th In the 11 year of Tribhuvana Chakravartin Rajarajadeva, Govindan of Orutalaippalli, a horse-dealer of Malaimandalam gifted land by purchase, for providing daily offerings to Tiruvalanjuli Udayar (God) and Vanduvalkulali Nacciyar (Goddess). One Devaraya Udayar, son of Mahapradhana Tipperasar built the ease wall of the mandapa in front of the Central shrine. Selvappillai alias seydiyarayar, the headman of Arkadu built the wall of third prakara in the left of the entrance which had fallen down due to a fire accident. Rajakambiravelan, the headman of Tiruvalakudi in Pandikulasani Valanadu gifted a land by purchase for the maintenance of three andars to th supply garlands to God. In the 18 year of Tribhuvana Chakravartin Rajarajadeva, Adidevan Sankaranarayana Bhattan of Tiruvellarai in Perayurnadu, gifted land to God Vellai Pillaiyar. The Uravar of several hamlets of Rajendra Cola Caturvedimanglam exempted from taxes, the land granted by the bhattas to the God Vellai Pillaiyar for the merit of Ulagudaiya Nayanar (King Rajarajadeva) and welfare of the residents of the village. The assembly of Rajendra Cola Caturvedimanglam in Nallarrur nadu tax free th some lands belonging, for the welfare of the village and victory to Ulagudai Perumal (King). In the 14 year of Tribhuvana Chakravartin Rajarajadeva, the village Tiruvalanjuli was depopulated. So, for the welfare of the kind and the village, the assembly of Pirantaka- Caturvedimanglam in Vikramacola- valanadu gifted lands for providing workship and offerings to the God Vellai Pillaiyar. The Perunguri Mahasabai of Agaram Vellai Vinayaka Caturvedimanglam had endowed some lands to the temple, for providing salary to srikaryam, srimahesvarakankani, devakami, Koyilkanakku and mandavanakudigal.

The Temple of Tiruvalanjuli and Banking Tiruvalanjuli temple had lands. It owned property always tax-free. It bought and also lands and kept strict account of its assets and liabilities and had its own treasury (sripandaram) and record office. With its assets, it was able to do banking business at least for the people in its vicinity and neighbourhood. I th advanced loans to individuals, villages and merchant guilds for interest. In the 24 year of Kadava Kopperunjimgadeva, when one family failed to pay the taxes and left the village, the assembly of Akilanayakacceri, on whom the dutyof paying the taxes devolved, sold the lands and house of that family

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th to the family to the temple of Tiruvalanjuli Udayar. In the 4 year of Vikramancola, twenty Kasus were given from the Sripandaram to an individual to supply daily tumbaippumalai of pillaiyar.

The Temple – A Landlord It has been shown above, how the royal patronage was extended to this temple during the period of Colas. Even the officials and wealthy people had provided lands to this temple. So it was undoubtedly a greatest landlord in the medieval period. It was in such a sound position that it could purchase lands. Mundasarabosan SriVasudevabhattan of Akilanayakkacceri sold his lands to the God Vellai Pillaiyar for 1200 Kasus. The people of Durgaiyar Agaram in Nallarrur nadu sold house sites to the God Vellai Pillaiyar.

Tiruvalanjuli Temple – A Primary Employer This temple employed a large bureaucracy of servants. It was a centre of economic activities involving stone masonry, carpentry, jewellery, gold smithy etc. The temple had a number of icons and sculptures. Icon making in stone and metal, garland making, special textiles and numerous other ancillary industrial activities centred round the temple, providing employment to a variety of people in the village. This city, turned a small village, has a temple with an area of 890’ length and 355’ breadth and 3 enclosures (Prakaras) and a number of mandapas. It had festivals almost in every month. So this temple was industrialist who gave employment to the people and the guardian of fine arts, drama, dance and music. It employed a number of devaradiyars and agricultural peasants also.

Charities to the Tiruvalanjuli Temple Two charities were founded by two philanthropic minded individuals of the society. The Charities also: 1. Vaidyalingam Pillai Charity th Vaidyalingam Pillai, son of Tavasiya pillai of Tiruvalanjuli founded a trust on 9 September 1891, with nearly 200 acres of wet and dry lands. He appointed his adopted son Palamalai Pillai, son of Panjanathan Pillai of Sattampadi Village, Udayarpalaiym Taluk as the trustee. The trustee was vested with the right only to lease out and not to oultivate the lands. The Trust has to provide articles to Ardhajama and Sayaraksai pujas, to feed Sivanadiyars and poor, furthering the cause of education and meeting to some extent the expenses of this temple. On some festival days it is meeting the expenses fully or partially. Once it was providing lunch and supper for two and eight persons respectively, and one marakkal of rice to the temple. Now it is stopped due to paucity of funds. On some days , the charity is doing santanakappu and cankabhiseham. On the day of Dipavali it provides all deities with oil and dress. On the day of Muttupallakku it provides meals to 300 persons. It gives stipends to 10 students of Kumbakonam Government Arts College (men) every year. 2. Nallanayagam Pillai Charity Nallanayagam Pillai, son of Arunachalam Pillai of Tiruvalanjuli, founded a charity on 5, January 1877 (registered on 17, February 1877) with wet lands of 26 acres and 88.5 cents and dry lands of 15 acres and 40 cents. A Board of Trustees of three members was given the administrative responsibility. The primary aim of this charity was to serve the Tiruvalanjuli temple. As per the will, the Brahmins and Sivanadiyars shall be given free food and the expenses of some of the pujas and festivals of this temple shall be met. Now it is performing the following functions: 1. Lighting the Sveta Vinayaka shrine daily. 2. Offering rice to lord Nataraja in Sayarksal and then feeding 4 Sivanadiyars daily.

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3. Meeting the expenses of Aadhajama puja of Sveta Vinayaka shrine. 4. Meeting the expenses of Saptasthanam when Lord Kumbesvara comes to Tiruvalanjuli. 5. Supplying raw camphor worth Rs. 5/- to Sveta Vinayaka shrine on Vinayaka Chaturthi day. 6. Meeting fully or partially the expenses o some festivals. 7. Feeding nearly 400 persons on Founder’s day. Other than these two charities, some individuals on the neighbourhood of Tiruvalanjuli, are also meeting the expenses of some festivals partially or fully.

Conclusion So this temple, as all other temples had and has a close link with the society. The society looked after it well. The society had provided and problems, the society had gone to its rescue. It had repaired and renovated the temple. It had taken steps for the proper conduction pujas and festivals. When the village was depopulated and the king was in dire straits, the people appealed to the God of this temple. Like that the temple also had interests in the welfare of the society. Whenever the people faced financial problem, the Sri Pandaram of this temple came to their rescue. It had given them employment and taught them and made them artisans. So there was mutuality of interests between the two. Toynbee says that the Society is the field of action and Individual is the source of action. But here society was the filed of action and Temple was the source of action.

References 1. N. Subramanian, History of Tamil Nadu (to 1336 AD), Koodal Publishers, Madurai, 1976, P. 428. (*In this chapter also the Tiruvalanjuli Temple Complex will be mentioned as the temple.) 2. Supra., PP 72-74 3. S.I.I., Vol. VIII., No. 219 4. Ibid., No. 238. 5. A.R.E., 1927-28, No. 192 6. Ibid., No. 193 7. Ibid., No. 195 8. Ibid., No. 196 9. Ibid., No. 197 10. Ibid., No. 198 11. Ibid., No. 199 12. Ibid., No. 203 13. Ibid., No. 205 14. Ibid., No. 211 15. S.I.I., Vol. VIII, No. 231 16. A.R.E. 1927-28, No. 194 17. Ibid., No. 221 18. Ibid., No. 202 19. Vide Supra., PP. 56-57 20. Information on this charity was given by N. Rajasekaran, Advocate and Member, Board of Trustees of this charity, to the dissertationist, during the interview on 31.5.14. 21. Vide Supra, PP. 138-141 22. K.Rm.S.Svaminatan Chettiyar, one of the managing trusteed, gave the permission to the scholar to go through the charity records. The information on the charity was gathered on the perusal of the records and from the charity centenary souvenir released on 18.12.77. 23. Vide Supra., PP. 138-141 24. Idem.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 76 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

Y^கy கணபபபதிபதி Yரv இைணzபிy பிரதிக€

Yைனவ} இரா.ெவqகேடசy இைணzேபராசிாிய} , இxதிய ெமாழிக€ ம~`{ ஒzபிலpகியz ப€ளி

தமிz பகைலpகழக{ , தtசாl}

தமிr சZகwதிy அைடயாள{ Y^கy. வடநாuLr சZகwதிy அைடயாள{ கணபதி. இxத இ^ கடkள}களிy இைணzW சாwதியமாகி இ^ கடkள}கf{ ெபாP நிைலயி ெபாிய கடk€களாக மா~றz ெப~` உ€ளன}. Aறிzபிuட Ahவின}கfpகான இ^ கடkள}கf{ ெபாPp கடkள}களாக / ெப^{பாyைமயானவ}கfpகான கடkள}களாக மா~ற{ ெப~றP{ இைணzWz ெப~றP{ சZக{சா} ைமயzபLwதzபuட ெபாPzபvபாuைட உ^வாpA{ Yய~சியாகேவ காணYJகிறP. கணபதி Y^கy இ^வ^ேம அழிkpகான கடkள}களாக இ^xP Yத வணpகwதி~Aாிய கடkள}களாக மாறிய காலpகuடwதி அரF, ெபா^ளாதார, சZகz பிyனணிக€ மா~ற{ ெப~றைத\{ வரலா~`z பிyWலwதி உணர YJகிறP. இஃP எ‚வா` நிகxதP எyற ைமயwைத இpகuLைர அைமpக YயகிறP.

ெதாகாzபிய} Y^கைனp Aறிtசி நிலwதி~Aாிய கடkளாகேவ காuLகிறா}. இதy ெதாட}rசிைய / ெதாyைமையr சqக இலpகியqக€ வாயிலாக அறிய YJகிறP. எyறாd{ “ஆதிrசநe} அகழா|kகளி கிைடwத திாிGல{, காவJயாLேவா} வா| Zடz பயyபLwP{ தqகwதிலான வா|ZJக€, ேகாழி உ^வqக€ எyபனவ~ைற அJzபைடயாகp ெகாvL இqAw ெதாடpகp காலwதி Y^க வணpக{ நிைல ெப~றP என K.K. பி€ைள AறிzபிLவா} (வானமாமைல 1933 :11). இ{ைமயwதிb^xP பா}wதா Y^கy ேபா}pகடkளாகேவ இ^xதP ெதாிய வ^{. “இP Y^க வழிபாuJy ெதாyைமையr சாியாக நிைலநி`wத YJயாத சாyறாக இ^xதேபாP{ ேவuைடpAாிய அலP ேபா^pAாிய ஆ\தேமxதிய ெத|வqகைளz பvைடய மpக€ ஆராதிwதன} எyபைத விளpAகிyறP. ேவuைடpAாிய ெத|வேம ேபா^pAாிய ெத|வமாக மா`{. அP ேபாலேவ ேவைலேயxதிய ெத|வY{ ேவuைடw ெத|வமாகk{ ேபா}w ெத|வமாகk{

இ^xதி^pக ேவvL{.” மேக„வரy, 2016. Aறிtசி நிலwதி~Aாிய Y^கy ேவuைடw ெத|வமாகk{ ேபா}w ெத|வமாகk{ இ^xதி^pக ேவvL{. அதனாதாy Y^கTpA ெவறியாடவழிz பb ெகாLwதி^pகிyறன}.

ேவலy ெவறியாuL எyT{ சடqA தமிழாிy பvைடpகால வழிபாuL Yைறைய உண}wதி நி~கிறP. கyனிz ெபvகைளw தvJwP வ^wP{ அணqகி~A Y^கேன காரண{ எனp க^தzபuடP. Y^கனா வ^{ அணqA ேவலy எT{ Xசாாி ெத|வேமறி ஆJ இxேநா|pA Y^கேன காரண{ எனp Bற ெவறியாuL நிகh{ காலwதிேலேய ஆL Yதலானவ~ைறz பb - ெகாLwP Y^கைன வணqகி இxேநா| தீ}pகzபLகிறP. A`xெதாைக 111, 263, பாிபாட 5:13 15, ஐqA`S` 243, 245, 248, ந~றிைண 273, 282, அகநாU` 28, 98 ஆகிய பாடகைள\{ ேச}wP ெவறியாuLz ப~றிய 40 பாடக€ சqக இலpகியwதி உ€ளன.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 77 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

“இxத ெவறியாuL YhவP{ Aறிtசிw திைணயி நிகவதாகேவ உ€ளP. இ‚வழிபாL இனpAhr சYதாயwதிy எrசqகைளw தாqகிய வழிபாடாக உ€ளP. கானவ} வழிபட, AJயின^டy க€fvண, ஆL பb ெகாLwத, திைன Qவி வழிபட, Aரைவp Bwதாட, YPெபvJ^{ ேவலT{ Aறிெசாdத எT{ பலk{ இP Aறிtசி நில மpகளிy வழிபாuL

Yைறயா மuLேம இ^xதைதp காuLகிறP.”

இxத அணqAைடw ெத|வ வழிபாL Aறிtசி நிலwதிேலேய நிைலெப~றP எyபைத “அணqAைடr சில{W” (அக{.198 :14)

“அணqAைட வைரzபக{” (அக{.266 :19)

“அணqAைட ெநLவைர” (அக{.266 :19)

“அணqAைட உய}நிைலz ெபா^zW” (அக{.336 :6)

“அணqAைட வைரzW” (அக{.372 :3)

ஆகிய சாy`களா அறியலா{. (மேக„வரy 2016 :21)

Y^கy Aறிtசி நிலw ெத|வ{ எyபதி மா~`p க^wP இைல. ஐxP நிலqகfpAமான ெபாPpகடkளாக மா`கிற ெபாhதி Y^கைனz ப~றிய மரW மா`கிறP. Y^A (அக{.118 :5, ந~.225 :1, Wற{.56 :14, ஐq.247 :3), Y^கy (Wற{.23 :4, அக{.1:3, தி^Y.269, Wற{.299 :6), அ`Yகy (தி^Y.8, பாி.14 :21 ), ஆ`Yகy (தி^Y.6), ஆலம} ெசவy அணிசா ெப^விற (கb.81 :9), ஆலம} ெசவy அணிசா மகy (கb.83 :14, தி^Y.256), கடk€ (தி^Y.274), இைறவy (பாி.17 :49), ஈசy மகy (தி^Y .ெவvபா .7), ஏhலகாளி (பாி .8:64), ஒ^ ைக Yகy த{பி (தி^ .7),

கடzபxதாேராy (பாி .5:8 1), கட{ப} ெசவy (பாி .8:126), கட{பy (தி^Y .8), Wற{ .335:7), கxதy

(Wற{ .380 : 12), Aமரy (பாி .9:82), Aறிtசிp கிழவy (தி^Y .267), ெகா~றைவ சி`வy (தி^Y .258),

ெச|ேயாy (Wற{ .56:8), ெச‚ேவ€ (தி^Y .269, பu .154, பாி .5:13), ேச| (தி^Y .27, 61, பாி .5:13,

ெப^{ .458, Aறிtசி .57), ேசவலq ெகாJயy (தி^Y .210, 211, A`x . கடk€ வாwP ெநJயாy

(பாி .19:28), ெநLேவ€ (ந~ .173:10, 288:10, பாி .21:50, அக{ .98:27, ெப^{ .75), Sலறி Wலவy

(தி^Y .261), பைழேயா€ Aழவி (தி^Y .259), Wலவ} ஏ` (தி^Y .268), மqைகய} கணவy

(தி^Y .264), மதவb (தி^Y .275), மைழகிழேவாy (தி^Y .317), மைலமக€ மகy (தி^Y .257), மா

ம^கy (பாி .19:57), ேவலy (தி^Y .222), ேவலா~` ெமா|{பy (பாி .22:26, ேவலாy (பாி .9:68),

ேவேயாy (பாி .18:4, 19:36), ேவ வலாy (கb .104:14, 105:17), ேவ€ (பதி~ .11:6) எனp

AறிpகzபuL€ளன.

ெதாடpகp காலr சqகz பாடகளி Y^கy Aறிtசி நிலwதி~கானவனாகேவ காuடzபuL€ளாy. பாிபாட , தி^Y^கா~`zபைட கbwெதாைக பாடzபuட காலwதி Y^கy,

ெகா~றைவ , தி^மா , சிவெப^மாேனாL கலxPவிLகிறாy. இxத இரvJ~Aமான இைடzபuட

காலpகuட{ YpகியமானதாA{ .

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“Y^கy Aறிtசியிy திைணw ெத|வமாக இ^xP ம^த நிலr சZக வள}rசியா எhxத அரF^வாpகr Gழb ெவ~றிw ெத|வமான

ெகா~றைவ\டy இைணwPz ேபசzபLகிறாy.”

(மாைதயy 2001 :71)

தி^Y^கா~`zபைட 258 (ெவேபா} ெகா~றைவ) ெப^{.45 :59 ேபாyற பாடலJகளி ெகா~றைவேயாL Y^கy தா| ேச| உறk நிைலயி இைணpகz பLகிறாy. வ€ளி Y^கy இைணzW எyபP{ அரF உ^வாpகr Gழb YpகியமானP ஆA{. ேவuைட /ேபா}p கடkளாக இ^xத Y^கைன Yதyைமp கடkள}கேளாL இைணwத Gநிைலயி சZக ாீதியாகz Wதிய நீதி அதிகார சZக{ உ^வாகிp ெகாvJ^xதP. அrசZக பvபாuLwதளwதி இனpAhpக€ அழிpகzபuL அரF^வாpக{ ெமல ெமல உ^வாகிp ெகாvL இ^xதைத விளqகிp ெகா€ள YJகிறP. Y^கைனz ெபாPpகடkள}கேளாL இைணwத அேத காலwதி ெபாPzபvபாuைட உ^வாpகி இனpAhpகைள உ€வாqA{ ேவைல நைடெப~`p ெகாvL இ^xதP. கணபதி எyறா ெவ~றிையw த^{ கடk€ எy` மpக€ இy` ந{Wகிyறன}. ஆனா கணபதி அழிைவw தரpBJய கடkளாக ஒ^ கால{ வைர இ^xதா}. அxதpகால{ கணwதி~கான கடkளாகேவ காணzபuடா}. “மT அவரP கால உண}kகைளz பகி}xP ெகாvL€ளா}. அவரா எhதzபuட ஒ^ ஈரJz பாட கணபதிையw தாwதzபuட மpகளிy Gwதிர}களிy கடkளாகp B`கிறP. இத~A மாறாகr ச{Wைவz பிராமண}களிy கடkளாகk{ மாதவைன @wதிாிய}களிy கடkளாகk{

B`கிறP.”

(ேதவிபிரசாw சuேடாபாwயாய 2010 :168)

கி^கய Gwதிரqகளிy காலwதி கணபதிக€ அலP விநாய}க€ அrசwைத\{ ெவ`zைப\{ ெகாLwதன}. மானவ கி^கய Gwதிர{ பிyவ^மா` B`கிறP. “இவ}களா VJpகzபuJ^pA{ேபாP ஒ^வy மvைண ெவuJw ேதாvLகிறாy. Wல`pகிறாy. தy உடமீP எhதிp ெகா€கிறாy. தvணீ}, ெமாuைடwதைல மனித}க€, ஒuடகqக€, பyறிக€, கhைதக€ ஆகியவ~ைறp கனவி காvகிறாy. கா~றி மிதzபP ேபாலk{

நடpA{ேபாP யாேரா பிyனா ெதாட}வP ேபாலk{ உண}கிறாy.” (BANDARKAR 1913 :147)

இxS ேமd{ B`{ேபாP ‘அரசாf{ Aணநலyக€ வா|pகz ெப~றி^xதாd{ அரச}கfpA அP பறிேபாகிறP. எலாp Aணqகf{ இ^xதாd{ ெபvகfpAw தி^மணமாவதிைல. தAதிக€ இ^xதாd{ ெபvகfpAp Aழxைதக€ பிறzபதிைல. பிற தா|மா}கfpAp Aழxைதக€ இறxPவிLகிyறன. நல க~றறிxத ஆசிாிய}கfpA ஏ~ற மாணவ}க€ கிைடzபதிைல. நல மாணவy பJzபி~A இைட]`க€, தைடக€ ேதாy`கிyறன. ெச|ெதாழி, விவசாய{, வாணிப{ ஆகியவ~றி ெவ~றி கிuLவதிைல’ எy` AறிzபிLகிyறP. எனேவ கணபதி எyறா இட}zபாL எyபP ெபா^€.

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ெதாடpகp காலpகuடwதி கணwதி~கான கடkளாக இ^xதேபாP கணபதிைய நி}வாணp ேகாலwதிd{ ஆபரணqக€ எPkமிலாத ேகாலwதிd{ சிறzபாக வJwதன}. இP அJமuடwதிb^xத கணபதியிy Gழைலp AறிwP நி~கிறP. இpகால{ வைர கணபதி A^வி~கான கடkளாக இ^xதா}. கணwதி~கானவனாக இ^xwதா ெபாPநிைலயி கணபதி நிைலpகவிைல.

சில திெபwதிய ெவvகலr சி~பqகளி மகாகாலரா கணபதி மிதிpகz பLவைதp காvகிேறா{. இxத மகாகால} எyபவ} சuட{, ஒhqA ஆகியவ~றி~கான ெத|வ{. (Getty 1936 :38)

நி}வாணp ேகாலwதிd{ ஆபரணqக€ எPkமிலாP ெவ`pகzபL{ நிைலயிd{ மகாகால} காகளி மிதிபL{ அளவி~A இ^xத கணபதிைய ஒ^ காலwதி இxPpகf{ ெபௗwத}கf{ ெவ`wதன}. ெவ`pகzபuட காலwதி அவ} கடkளாக மாறw ெதாடqகவிைல. இxதp க^wைதேய மானவ கி^கய Gwதிர{, யpஞவகிய „மி^தி ேபாyற Sக€ ெம|zபிpகிyறன. பழqAJw தைலவனான கணபதிையz பிற சமயwதவ} ெவ`wதன}. இP இயபானேத.

கணபதி ெவ`wP ஒPpகzபuட காலr Gழb பி^{ம ைவவ}wத Wராண{, „கxத Wராண{, கணபதி தwPவ{, உபWராண{, உபநிடத{, கேணச „ேதாwதிர{ ேபாyற Sக€ கணபதிைய உய}நிைலpAp ெகாvL ெசyறன. ம~றவ}க€ காகளி மிதிபuட கணபதிpA விைல\ய}xத ஆபரணqக€, ஆைடக€ அணிவிpகz பuடன. கணபதி கவி, அறிவி~A அதிபதியாக மா~றzபuடா}. அவ} உட அைமzபி~A{ ேபrசி~A{ தwPவz பிyனணி ெகாLpகzபuடP. அவ} உ^வwதி~A வ}ணைனக€ ெகாLpகzபuடன. கணபதிைய ஞானpகடk€ எy` அைழwதா}க€. இpகடkளிy அறிைவp Aறிpகேவ யாைனw தைல அவ^pAp ெகாLpகzபuடP எy` Bறின}. “கணபதி கடkளாக மாறிய ெசய நமpAp கிைடwP€ள ஆதாரqகளிyபJ,

Wwத}க€ காலwதி~Ar ச~` Yxதியதாக உ€ளP.” (ேதவிபிரசாw சuேடாபாwயாய 2010 :181)

கேணச} கணqகளிy ெதாடpகp காலw தனிzெப^q கடkளாக இ^xததா ஆாிய} உய} கடk€ பuJயb இட{ ெகாLwதன}. பிyன}z பFபதிேயாL{ XதபதிேயாL{ இைணpகzபuL அவ^pA உய}மuட ஆாியp கடk€ Ahவி இட{ கிைடwதP. கேணச Wராணqக€ பாடzபuடன. இைவ பல S~றாvLக€ நடxத வரலா~றிy ெதாAzபாA{. Aறிtசி நிலwதி~A உாிய Y^கy Aறிzபிuட இனwதி~Ap கடkளாக இ^xP ம^தw திைண அரF^வாpகr Gழb jரwெத|வமாகk{ ெகா~றைவேயாL{ இைணpகzபuடா}. இேத காலpகuடwதி G} ெதாyமwPடy இைணxP தமி நிலwதி~Aw ெத|வமாக மா~ற{ ெப`கிறாy. கணபதி\{ அ‚வாேற Ahவி~கான ெத|வமாக இ^xP ஒuLெமாwதr சZகwதி~Aமான கடkளாக மா~ற{ ெப`கிறாy. இ‚விடwதி வடநாuL „கxத வழிபாuLp B`க€ பல தமிழகwP€ கலxதேபாP தமிநாuL Y^கy பல மா~றqகfpA உ€ளானாy. இxத இைணzபிy ெவளிzபாuைடwதாy பாிபாடd{ தி^Y^கா~`zபைட\{ கbwெதாைக\{ B`கிyறன. இxதp காலpகuடwதிதாy Y^கy அைனவ^pAமான ெபாPpகடkளாக மா~ற{ ெப`கிyறாy. „கxத வழிபாuேடாL Y^கy கலxத பிறA அவy அைடயாள{ சிவy, பா}வதி (சpதி), கணபதி (விநாயக}), பரFராமy, நாரதy ஆகிேயாேராL ேச}pகzபuLz Wதிய அைடயாள ெவளிrச{ அைடகிறாy.

இxதz Wதிய இைணzW, கைத உ^வாpகqக€ இரvL நிகkகைள நிகwதின. ஒy` அரFக€ ெதாபழqAJ இன அைமzWகளிy சிைதkளிb^xPதாy ேதாyற YJ\{. அதனா சிைதk~ற

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பழqAJ அைமzW சpதி வா|xத தனி அைமzபாக மா~ற{ ெப`{ ெபாhP ஏ~பuட மா~ற{, அரF சா}xத நலைனp கuடைமzபத~A இxதp BuLpக€ உ^வாpகzபuடன. இரvL ெவ‚ேவ` பிyWலqகைளp ெகாvட கடkள}கைள இைணzபதyவழி சZக{ சா}xத உய} மதிzVLகைள உ^வாpகிp ெகாvடன}. Y^கைன\{ கணபதிைய\{ எளிைமயிy அைடயாளqகளாpகிp கீ நிைலயி உ€ள இனpAhpகைளw தyவயzபLwதின}. வ€ளி தி^மண{ எyபைத Y^கy நிகwதினாy எyபதிb^xP எளிய மpக€ தqகfpகான ெத|வமாக Y^கைன மதிwதன}. எலா இடqகளிd{ கணபதி இ^zபாy எyபதிb^xP எளிைமைய விைதwPr சாதாரண மpகைள அரF நி`வனwதிyகீ இைணwத இwெத|வqகைள ேமநிைலw ெத|வqகேளாL இைணxததyவழி எதி}zபிyறி அரசிைன இனpAhpக€ ஏ~`pெகா€ள ைவwதன}.

தமி மரேபாL இையxத களkpகான ெத|வமாக இ^xத Y^கைன\{ அழிவிy கடkளாக இரwதp கைற பJxத வடWலp கணபதிைய\{ இைணwPz Wதிய ெநறியி பpதிையw தமிழகwதி பரவr ெச|P€ளன}. இxத இைணzW அரF உ^வாpகwதி மிக Ypகியz பqகிைன ஆ~றி\€ளP. இனpAhr சZகqகைளw தqகேளாL இைணwPp ெகா€வதy Zலேம அரைச நிைனwதவழி நடwத YJ\{ எyபதா பpதி எyகிற ெபயாி இ‚விைணzW சாwதியமாகி\€ளP. எ‚வாறாயிT{ இ‚விைணzW பpதி ாீதியாகr சாwதியமானாd{ எதா}wத ாீதியாக Y^கைன\{ கணபதிைய\{ அைடயாளமிழpகr ெச|த நிகவாகேவ இதைனz பா}pக YJகிறP.

சாyெறv விளpக{ 1. வ.மேக„வரy, ெபாியP{, சிறியP{, Aமரy Wwதக இல{, Aமரy Wwதக இல{, ெகாh{W. 2. ேமலP, ப.21 3. ெப.மாைதயy (2001) வரலா~` ேநாpகி சqக இலpகியz பழமரWp கைதகf{ ெதாyமqகf{, தமிz பகைலpகழக{, தtசாl} 4. ேதவிபிரசாw சuேடாபாwயாய, தமிழி எ„.ேதாதாwாி (2010), உலகாயத{, NCBH, ெசyைன. 5. BHANDARKAR, R.U. (1913) Vaisnavism, Saivism and minor Religious Systems, Strassburg, 6. Getty (1936), Genesa, Oxford.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 81 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

வ€fவ^{ ப}P^ஹாியா^{ ேபா~`{ ெபாைற\ைடைம

... Yைனவ} சசச கவிதா

ேபராசிாிேபராசிாியயயய}}}} ம~`{ Pைறwதைலவ} , இxதிய ெமாழிக€ ம~`{ ஒzபிலpகியz ப€ளி

தமிz பகைலpகழக{ , தtசாl}

“பிறzெபாpA{ எலா உயி}pA{ ” எனz பிறzபியபினா எலா உயி^{ ஒyேற என அைனwPயி}pA{

ஒேர நீதி நA{ உலகz ெபாPமைறயா{ தி^pAற€ ஒ^ சிறxத அறSலாA{ . மனித சZகwதி~Aw ேதைவயான

அைனwP அறெநறிp க^wPpகைள\{ எLwPpB`{ Sலாகw தி^pAற€ திககிyறP . இPவைர எxத ஒ^ Sைல\{ க~காத ஒ^வy தy வாைவ ெநறிzபLwPவத~கான ஒேர ஒ^ Sைலp க~க வி^{பினா அவTpA வழqகzபL{ Sலாகw தி^pAற€ இ^pA{ . இதி Bறzபடாத க^wPpகேள இைல எனலா{ .

அவரவ} நிைலpேக~ப ேவதSலாகk{ , தwPவSலாகk{ , இலpகியமாகk{ திகh{ சிறzபிைன உைடயP .

உலகி மிக அதிகமான ெமாழிகளி ெமாழிெபய}pகzபuL€ள அறஇலpகியSலாகw தி^pAற€ திககிyறP . இwதைகய சிறzWவா|xத தி^pAறேளாL ஒzWேநாpகwதpக அறpக^wPpகைள உைடயைவ ப}P^ஹாியாாிy சதக SகளாA{ .

ப}P^ஹாியா} கி .பி .7- ஆ{ S~றாvJ வாxத ஒ^ சிறxத வடெமாழிp கவிஞ} . விpகிரமாதிwதனிy

சேகாதர} , உsஜயினி நகரwதி மyனனாக இ^xதவ} . வடெமாழியி நல Wலைம உைடயவராகw திகxதா} . ந~Aணqக€ எy`{ த{ைம விuL விலகாம நலேதா} ஆuசிWாிxP AJமpகைளw தy மpகளாகேவ காwதா} . நீதி தவறாP , தy வாநாளி அறrெசயகfpA Yதyைம வழqகி வாxதா} . அxதண} ஒ^வ}

அTதினY{ வழிபL{ அ{பிைகயிy அ^ளா ZzW , பிணி , இறzபிைனz ேபாpA{ பழ{ ஒyைறz ெப~றா} .

அதைன மpகளிy நலைன உயிராகz ேபா~`{ மyனனிட{ வழqகw தீ}மானிwதா} . பழwைதz ெப~ற

ப}P^ஹாியா} , அதைனw தy ஆைசநாயகியாகிய அநqகேசைனயிட{ ெகாLwதா} . அவேளா , தy

மன{வி^{பிய ஒ^ Aதிைரpகாரனிட{ ெகாLwதா€ . இzபJயாக அzபழ{ , பலாிy ைகpAமாறி இ`தியி

பணிzெபvணிy ைகpA வxதP . அதைனp கvL அதி}rசி\~` , இzபழ{ எzபJ கிைடwதP எy` வினவிய

ப}P^ஹாியாாிட{ , பழ{ கிைடwத விவரwைதr ெசாbவிuLz பழwைத\{ மyனy ப}P^ஹாி ைககளி

தxP தyவழிேய ேபா|விuடா€ பணிzெபv. விரpதி அைடxத ப}P^ஹாியா} தy சேகாதரy

விpகிரமாதிwதனிட{ அதைனp ெகாLwதா} . அரைசw PறxP , இலற வாைவ ெவ`wP தவ{

ேம~ெகாvடா} . இqஙன{ தy வாநாளிy இ`தி நாuகைளw Pறவிd{ , அறS பைடzபாpகwதிd{ கழிwத

ப}P^ஹாியா} நீதி சதக{ , ைவராpகிய சதக{ , சி^qகார சதக{ ஆகிய Zy` சதக Sகைள\{ , பதtசb

மகாபாசித{ எT{ இலpகண Sைல\{ , வாpகிய பிரதீப{ எyT{ Sைல\{ , 22 பாடகைளp ெகாvட ராக

காவிய{ எyT{ Sைல\{ பைடwP€ளா} . ெத|வzWலவ} தி^வ€fவரP பிறzW , வாk Aறிwத கைதக€ ,

க^wPpக€ ஏராளமாக இ^zபைதz ேபால , மyன} , கவிஞ} ப}P^ஹாியாாிy வாpைக வரலா` Aறிwத

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கைதக€ ஏராளமாக உ€ளன. காலwதாd{ , க^wதியலாd{ ஒwPzபா}pகw தpகனவாக இ^wதலா S` , S`

பாடகைளp ெகாvட ப}P^ஹாியாாிy Zy` சதக Sகf{ , வாyமைற வ€fவரP தி^pAறேளாL

ஒzபிuL ஆராயwதpகனவாக உ€ளன. தமிழி ேசரமாy ெப^மா€ நாயனா} , அதிjரராம பாvJயy ேபாyற

மyன}க€ Wலவ}களாகw திகxP , தமி ெமாழிpA இலpகியவள{ ேச}wதP ேபால வடெமாழியி

ப}P^ஹாியா} அறஇலpகியqகைளz பைடwP€ளா} .

“பvெபனz பLவP பாடறிxP ஒhக ” ( கb .). ெப^ைம Yதbய சிறxத Aணqகளிb^xP ஒ^வy மாறாP

நிy` , தா{ சா}xதி^pA{ , தyைனr சா}xதி^pA{ எேலாரP இயWகைள\{ அறிxP அவ}கேளாL ஒwP

ஒhA{ தyைமேய பvபாA{ . பிறரP Aணqகைள\{ , A~றqகைள\{ அறிxP , சகிwP , அவ}கfடy

இையxP பvWைடயவனாக வாவத~Az ெபா`ைம - ெபாைற\ைடைம இyறியைமயாததாA{ .

ெபாைற\டy வாh{ தyைமகைள\{ , ெபாைற\ைடைமயிy சிறzWpகைள\{ , வாவி ெபா`ைமையp

கைடzபிJzேபா} அைட\{ நyைமகைள\{ , ெபா`ைமயிலாேதா} அைட\{ இழிநிைலகைள\{

தி^வ€fவ} ‘ெபாைற\ைடைம ’ எyT{ அதிகாரwதி எLwPpBறி\€ளா} . ப}P^ஹாியா} நீதிசதகwதி

பைடwP€ள 100 பாடகளி ெபாைற\ைடைம சா}xத க^wPpகைளr சில பாடகளி Bறிrெசகிyறா} .

இ‚வி^ க^wPpகைள\{ ஒzபிuL , எLwPpB`{ விதமாக இ‚ ஆ|kைர அைமகிyறP .

வ€fவ} AறிzபிL{ ெபா`ைம ஒ^வ} தyைனr சா}xP, தyனாேலேய உ^வாpகிp ெகா€ளzெப~ற Pyபwதி~Ap காரண{ அவேர ஆவா} . ேநா| , வ`ைம , அறியாைம ேபாyறைவ இதT€ அடqA{ . இதைன அவ} தாேம தாqகிp

ெகா€வைதw தவிர ேவ` வழியிைல . இxத இடqகளி ெபா`ைம இய~ைக . இrGழகைளw தாேன Yயy`

ஒ^வ} சாிெச|ய இயd{ . ஆனா பிற} தyைன இழிவாகz ேபFகிyறேபாP{ , பிற} தமpAp ெகாJய

Pyபqகைளr ெச|கிyறேபாP{ , உடdpA ஊ` விைளவிpகிyறேபாP{ ெபா`ைமைய ேம~ெகா€ள

அாிP . நிகkகfpAw தாy ெபா`zேப~க இயலாத Gழகளி YJkக€ தyைனz பாதிpகிyற ேபாP{ ,

ெபா`wதா~`தைலேய வ€fவ} ெபாைற\ைடைம எனp AறிzபிLகிyறா} . இzெபா`ைம மனதி~A உ`தி

ேச}pA{ , மனwதிuபwதி~A வழிவApA{ . இxநிைலேய ஆfைமைய ேம{பLwP{ எyபதா தி^வ€fவ}

இwதைகய ெபா`ைமையேய வb\`wPகிyறா} . " ெபாைற எனzபLவP ேபா~றாைரz ெபா`wத " எyற

கbwெதாைக வாி\{ , “ நாடவ} பழிwPைரையz Xணாக ஏ~`p ெகாvடாேல உ|தி ெபறலா{ ” எyற

தி^வாசகp க^wP{ வ€fவாிy சிxதைனpA அணிேச}zபனவாக உ€ளன. பvWகளி சிறxதP

ெபாைற\ைடைம .

மனவbைமைய வள}pA{ ந{ வாpைகயி வ^கிyற இyபPyபqகைள மன அைமதி\டy எதி h;ெகா€f{ திறy ெபா`ைம எனzபL{. அ‚வைகயி, நமpAw Pyபமாக அைமகிyற சினwைதw QvL{ வைகயிலான Fழகளிd{ ெபா`ைம காwத இyறியைமயாததாA{. அwதைகய ெபா`ைமயானP மனவbைமைய, மனஉ`திzபாuைட வளா pA{.; இxத மனஉ`திேய நா{ ெச|ய நிைனwதைத நிைனwதவாேற ெச|P YJzபத~A வழிவApA{. இதைனேய வ€fவ}, --- ‘விைனwதிuப{ எyபெதா^வy மனwதிuப{மனwதிuப{’’’’ (((Aற€(Aற€ 661661)))) எனk{,

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 83 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

h; ‘‘‘எvணிய‘எvணிய எvணியாqA எ|Pப எvணியா --- திvணிய ராகz ெபறிy’’’ (((Aற€(Aற€ 666666)))) எனk{ AறிzபிLகிyறா h;. ேமd{ ெபா`ைம எyபP மனவbைமயிy விைளk எyகிறா h; வ€fவா ;. இைதw தி^pAறளி, “இyைம\€ இyைம வி^xPஒரா வyைம\€ --- வyைம மடவா h;zzz ெபாைறெபாைற”””” (((Aற€(Aற€ 153153)))) வbைமயி வbைமயாவP, அறிவிbக€ ெச|த தீqைகz ெபா`wPp ெகா€fதலாA{ எyகிறா h;. எனேவ ெபா`ைமையp கைடzபிJzபத~A மனதி வbைம ேவvL{ எyபP வ€fவா ; க^wதாA{. ெபா`ைமையp கைடzபிJzபP எyபP பலjனwதிy ெவளிzபாL அல. அP மேனாபலwதிy ெவளிzபாL எy` வ€fவ} (Aற€ -153) B`வP ேபால பா P^ஹா; pயா h; தy நீதிசதகwதி, ெபா`ைம எyபP பயwதிy ெவளிzபாL அல எyபைத ெதளிkபLwPகிறா}, --- “““க“கககhxwயா V^V^V^…V^ ………....”””” (((நீதிசதக{(நீதிசதக{ 474747)47 ))) ெபா`ைம\€ளவy பயxதவy அல எyகிறா h; பா P^ஹா; pயா h;. எனேவ ெபா`ைமையp கைடzபிJpக மனபல{ அதிகw ேதைவ. “ஒ^வy மேனாவbைம உைடயவனாக இ^xதா அவy எலாr சிpககைள\{ ெபா`ைம\டy சகிwPpெகா€வP நலP. ஒ^வy வலைம உைடயவனாயிT{ அவy ெபா`ைமைய ஒhpகwதிy அ{சமாகp க^தி கைடzபிJpக ேவvL{’’ (விPரநீதி -அw.7-59) ெபா`ைம எyபP அறிவிy ெவளிzபாடாA{, எனேவ அP மேனாபலwைத வழqA{ எyபேத இ^வா py க^wதாA{.

நuபிைனz ேபா~`{ இயபாகேவ வாவி ெபா`ைமையp கைடபிJzேபா h; எzெபாhP{ நல நvபா க€; #ழ இ^zபா ;. ெபாைற\ைடைம பைகவா ;கைள\{ நvபா களாக; மா~`{. அறியாP பிறா ; ெச|\{ தீைமைய\{ ெபா`pA{ மனzபpAவwைதz ெபா`ைம ெகாLpA{. வ€fவா், ஒ^ ெசயைலr ெச|P YJwதபிறA{, பலைன எதி h;பா h;pA{ ெபாhP{, ந{ ெசயைல ம~றவா க€; Q~`{ ெபாhP{ ெபா`ைம ேதைவ, அகவாைரw தாqA{ நில{ ேபாலw த{ைம --- இகவாைரz ெபா`wத தைலதைல.... (((Aற€(Aற€ 151151)))) தyைனw ேதாvLபவைர விழாம தாqகிp ெகாvJ^pA{ நில{ ேபால, த{ைம இகபவா ;கைளz ெபா`wPp ெகா€fத தைலசிறxத அற{ எyகிறா h;. இைத பா P^ஹா; p தy நீதிசதகwதி --- ppp‘p‘‘‘மாமாமாமா zரபவிPzரபவிP………….... (((நீதிசதக{(நீதிசதக{ 808080)80 ))) ெவ~றிகரமான வாpைகpA அழA - ெபா`ைம எyகிறா h;. ேபதமிyறிz பழகிவ^{ இ^நvபா களிைடேய; ஒ^வா pட{ ெபா pேயா h; ெவ`pA{ தவறான நடwைத காணzபLமானா ம~றவா ; அதைனz ெபா`pகேவvL{. ெபா`ைமயிy அளைவவிட தவறிy தyைம அதிகா ppAமானா அவரP தவைற உணா wதி; நவழிzபLwPவேத நல நuபி~A அைடயாளமாA{. நvபா py ெபா`ைமைய உணா xP,; அறிkைரையp ேகuL அவா ; நவழிzபடவிைலெயனி, அவரP A~றwைதz பழிwPைரpகாம அவைரவிuL விலAவேத சிறxததாA{. இpக^wைதேய நாலJயா^{ உணா wPகிyறP.; ேவ~`ைம யிyறிp கலxதி^வா ; நuடpகா ேத~றா ஒhpக{ ஒ^வyகv உvடாயிy ஆ~`x Pைண\{ ெபா`pக ெபாறானாயிy Q~றாேத Qர விடவிட.. (. (நாலJ( நாலJநாலJ.. 757575)75 )))

உ`திzபாuைட நA{ பதறாத காாிய{ சிதறாP, ெபா`ைம கடbT{ ெபா pP, ெபா`wதா h; Wமியாவா h; எyற வழpAக€ யாைவ\{ ெபாைற\ைடைமயிy இyறியைமயாைமைய\{ ெபா`ைமைய வளா wPpெகா€வதy; அவசியwைத\{ நமpA உணா wPவனவாA{.; Fhyேறா h;க€ பல^{ ெபா`ைமயிy வbைமைய வbxP எLwPpB`வதy ேதைவயாெதனி, அP தனிமனிதTpA மuLமyறி, சYதாயwதி~A{ நyைம பயpA{

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 84 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

எyபதனாேலேய தாy. இpகuடான Gழகளி உvடாA{ ெந^pகJகைளz ெபா`ைம\டy காwPp கடxேதாமானா, அzெபா`ைமேய அPேபாyற Gழகைள எதி h;ெகா€f{ உ`திzபாuைட நA{. இwதகைய ெபா`ைமயிyறி ெச|\{ கா hpயqக€ Pyபwைத வழqA{. இதைனேய பா P^ஹா; pயா},

அதிரபஸp^தானா{ காகாகா மணா{; ஆவிபwேத : பவதி

^w அதாஹி சயPேயா விபாகவிபாக.. (((நீதிசதக{(நீதிசதக{நீதிசதக{::::95959595)))) மிAxத அவசரwPடy ெபா`ைமயிலாம ெச|யzபL{ காாியqக€, இ`திவைரயி மனதி Pyபwைதேய ெகாLpA{ எyகிறா h;. இைதேய வ€fவ}

ெபா`wதெபா`wத,, இறzபிைன எy`{ அதைன --- மறwத அதனிT{ நy`நy`.... (((Aற€(Aற€ 152152)))) ம~றவா ; நமpAr ெச|த தீைமையz ெபா`wPpெகா€வத~A, அwதீைமைய உடேன மறxPவிLத ெபா`wPp ெகா€வதிT{ நலதாA{ எyகிறா h;. இைத பா ;P^ஹா pயா h; தy நீதிசதகwதி, --- ஆபwnச மஹாைசல சிலா ஸqகாத காகாகா கச{; (((நீதிசதக{(நீதிசதக{ 555555)55 ))) ஆபwPp காலwதி மகாyக€ மன{ பாைறேபால எைத\{ தாqகp BJயதாக இ^pA{ எyகிறா h;. ெபா`ைம இwதைகய உ`திைய நA{.

Pyபwைத ெவd{ ெச|யwதகாத ெகாLtெசயகைளw தனpAz பிறா ; ெச|தாd{, அதனா அவா கfpA; வ^{ Pyபwதி~காக வ^xதி, அற{ அலாத ெசய கைளw;; தாT{ ெச|யாம இ^zபP நலP. இதைன வ€fவ} “திறy அல தyபிறா ; ெச|யிT{ > ேநாெநாxP --- அறyஅல ெச|யாைம நy`நy`”””” (((Aற€(Aற€ 157157)))) “மிAதியாy மிpகைவ ெச|தாைரw தா{ த{த{த{ --- தAதியாy ெவy` விடவிட”””” (((Aற€(Aற€ 158158)))) ெச^pகினா தீயவ~ைறr ெச|தவைர, தா{ த{Yைடய ெபா`ைமயினா ெவdத ேவvL{ எyகிறா h;. பா w^ஹா; p தy நீதிசதகwதி, “யதா கxPககxPக:: பாேதன உwபததி ஆh;யயய:ய: பதy அபிஅபி:::: --- ததாP அநா h;யயய:ய: பததி {^wபிvட பதன{யதாபதன{யதா::::”””” (((நீதிசதக{(நீதிசதக{ 838383)83 ))) பpAவமைடxதவy (ெபா`ைம\ைடயவy) கீேழ எறிxத பxP ேமெலhவP ேபால, Pyப நிைலயி விhxதாd{ தி^{பk{ ேமேல எhகிறாy. பpAவமைடயாதவy (ெபா`ைம இலாதவy) மvகuJையz ேபால கீேழ விhxதா ேமெலhவP இைல எyகிறா h;. இwதைகய பpAவYைடயவா கேள; அறிவிd{ Yதி h;நதவா களாp; காணzபLவா ;. Pyபகாலwதி இwதைகய பpAவY{ அறிவா~றd{ உைடயவா க€; அைதz ேபாpA{ வழிைய ஆமனதி அைமதியாகz ெபா`ைம\டy சிxதிwதாேல அத~A விைடகிைடpA{. இதைனேய வ€fவ}, “ெவௗ ளwP; அைனய இL{ைப அறிkைடயாy --- உ€ளwதிy உ€ள ெகL{ெகL{”””” (((Aற€(Aற€ 622622)))) எனp AறிzபிLகிyறா h;. அறிkைடயவா py ெபா`ைம\{, மனYதி h;rசி\{ இwதைகய ஆ~றைல அவா கfpA; நA{. எனேவ Pyப{ வ^{ேபாP ெபா`ைமயாக ஏ~`p ெகா€வP ஆமன உ`திையw த^{ எT{ க^wதி வ€fவா ; ம~`{ பா P^ஹா; pயா h; ஒwத க^wPைடயவா களாகw; திககிyறனா ;.

பயைன நA{ ெபா`ைமேய ஒ^வைனp கவசwைதz ேபால பல Pyபqகளிb^xP{ காpA{. இைத பா P^ஹாி; --- “கககhxதி ேசw கவேசனகி{கவேசனகி{…”…”…”…” (((நீதிசதக{(நீதிசதக{ 171717)17 )))

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 85 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

ெபா`ைம உ€ளவTpAp கவச{ எத~A எyகிறா h;. ெபா`ைம ஒyேற ஏைனய ந~Aணqகைள வளா pA{; எyபைத வ€fவ} “நிைறஉைடைம நீqகாைம ேவvJy, ெபாைறஉைடைம --- ேபா~றி ஒhகz பL{பL{”””” (((Aற€(Aற€ 154154)))) ந~Aணqக€ நிைறxத தyைம தyனிட{ நீqகாம இ^pக ேவvLமானா, ஒ^வy ெபா`ைமையz ேபா~றிp காpக ேவvL{ எyகிறா h;. ெபா`ைம Wகைழz ெப~`wத^{ ; எyபைத வ€fவ},

“ஒ`wதாைர ஒyறாக ைவயாேரைவயாேர:: ைவzப}ைவzப},, --- ெபா`wதாைரz ெபாyேபா ெபாதிxPெபாதிxP”””” (((Aற€(Aற€ 155155)))) தமpAw தீqA ெச|தவைர, அவரP தீைமையz ெபா`wPpெகாvடவைர உலகமானP ெபாyேபால மதிwPz ேபா~`{ எy`{ >

ஒ`wதா h;pApApA ஒ^நாைள இyப{ ெபா`wதா h;pAz --- ‘ெபாy`{ Pைண\{ WகWக’’’’ (((Aற€(Aற€ 156156)))). தமpAw தீqA ெச|தவைரw தvJwதவா கfpA; அxத நா€ மuLேம இyப{ உvடாA{. அwதீqைகz ெபா`wPp ெகாvடவா கA; உலக{ அழி\{வைர Wக உvடாA{ எyகிறா h;. எனேவ வ€fவ^{, பா ;P^ஹா p\{ ெபா`ைம எyற ந~பvபானP ஏைனய நல பvWகைள வளா ;pA{ எy`{, வாpைகயி ெவ~றி ேம ெவ~றி வxP ேச^{ எy`{, Wக வxதைட\{ எy`{, ெபா`ைமையp கைடzபிJzபதா மனவbைம\{, ெசய உ`தி\{, நி{மதியான வாpைக\{, Pறவிய^pAr சமமான வாpைக\{ கிைடpA{ எy`{ B`கிறா h;க€. எxத Gநிைலயி எzபJ அறிkப h;வமாகr ெசயபLவதா ந{மிடwதி ெபா`ைம வ^{ எyபைத\{ FuJpகாuJ, ெபா`ைமையp கைடzபிJzபத~கான வழிYைறகைள\{ Bறி\€ளனா ;. அைனவ^{ ெபா`ைமையp கைடzபிJwதா சYதாயwதி, நாuJ, உலகி, அைமதி நிலk{ எyபP திvண{.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 86 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

….. … வ ரமானவ வா வழி பைடக

. இரா ெஜயரா , ,
ைனவ பட ஆவாள ?ய வளனா க QZ திKசி

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னவ தி
 . . .1706 Gன+வ திKGT0 ெபற ேகாவ* இN இ ைல கி ப* ஆ ஆ: ெசடப திகள+ . ப*ெர4பைடெய:ப* ேபா> அ> அழிகப:வ*ட> ஆனா Gன+வர> திKGT0 பதிேவ: இN . . 1860 பதிரமாக பா>காகப: வKகிற> கி ப* ஆ ஆ: நவப மாத பதிHறா நா திKGT0 ெபற ‘ / ’( Constanzo Gioseffo Susebio Beschi) Gன+வK0 ெகா$தாேஸா ேஜாேஸ ேபா எVேசப*ேயா ெப$கி எN . . | ெபயZபட> ெப$கி எப> 0:ப ெபயரா0 ஐIெசேப எப> ேஜாச எப> இதாலிய வ8வ எ றாP ‘ / ’ . திKGT0 பதிேவ8 ேஜாேஸ ேபா எC வ8வேம காணப:கிற> எVேசப*ேயா எC ெபய . . திKGT0 பதிேவ8 :ேம காணப:கிற> அெபயைர Gன+வ 1ட பயப:தவ* ைல Gன+வ . இதாலிய ெமாழிய*P இலதி ெமாழிய*P மற இK ெபயகைளேய த ைகெயாபமாக இ:வா எN 1Nவ

னவ  ப “ . ”(Gaudioso Beschi) தைதயாZ ெபயைர Gைனவ டாட ெகௗதிேயாேசா ெப$கி எN தாய* ெபயைர “ ” . ‘ ( ) / ’ எலிசெபதா எN பதிேவ: 0றிகிற> தைதய* ெபய கV ப*ரE கேடா ேபா ெப$கி எN தா

Gன+வZ வரலாைற உZய ஆதாரகRட ஆரா> எTதிய ெப$ அ8களா 0றி> ளா Gன+வZ தைதயா . , உய08ைய சாதவராக இKதிKக ேவ: ஏெனன+ அவ Gைனவ பட ெபறவ எப> ம:ம ல ‘ ’ அவர> ெபயK0 Gனா சிறE மாE மிக எC அைடெமாழிI பதிேவ8 0றிகப: ள>. . ‘ ( ) அேதா: 0திைரபைடதைலவ எற 0றிE பதிேவ8 காணப:கிற> இதைன சில கV ப*ரE என . . . 1981 தவறாக ப8> ளன ’ ெப$கி 0:ப இN கா$தி ேயாேன ஊZ மிகV ெபKகிI ள 0:ப கி ப* ஆ 69 ‘ ’ . ஆ:0Zய ெதாைலேபசி அடவைணய* ேப ெப$கி எC 0:ப ெபயைர தாகிேயாரா உ ளா . எனேவ Gன+வZ 0:பைத சாதவக இனா என 4:த இN எள+த ல Gன+வ ப*றத வ /: . இ>ெவன 4:த இயலா> . Gன+வர> இளைமபKவ பறிேயா க வ* பறிேயா 0றிப*டதக வரலாN 0றிEக ஏ> இ ைல 18- (1668 21- ) தன> வ> வயதி ஆ ஆ: அேடாப  நா ெநாெவ லராவ* உ ள இேய4 சைபய*னZ E>Gக . . 1700- >றV இ லதி அவ ேசதா அத ப*E Gதலி இலகியG ப*ன த>வG ப8தா ஆ ஆ: 1701- . ெசடப மாத Gத ஆ ஆ: வைரய*P ரெவனா நகZ ெதாடக நிைல ஆசிZயராக பண*யாறினா 1706 1710 1709- Gத வைரய*P இைறய*ய க வ*ைய ெதாடத அவ ஆ ஆ: 0Kவாக . திKநிைலப:தபடா

இதிய மண
னவ

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 87 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

. 0Kவாக திKநிைலப:தபட ெப$கி0 இதியாவ* சமயபண* ஆற ேவ: எற ேபராவ எTத> 31-12-1706 ெபாேலாஞாவ*லிK> அN அேதான+யா ெசாெரதிேனா எபவK0 எTதிய மடலி தா இதியாV0 , அCபபட ேவ: எN ேக: ெகாட> ம>ைர பண*தள>0 அCபபட ப*றா0 உேராைமய*லி ள “ இேய4 சைப தைலவராகிய மிேக ஆசேலா தE[னா அ8களாK0 வ*:த மடலி நா வ*Kப*

எதிபாதிKத மைறபண*தள>0 வ> ேச>வ*ட நிைலய* தகR0 அளபZய நறி 1Nத எ … கடைம என உணகிேற இநா:0 வ> ளைத பறி நா அைடI மகி!சிைய கடV ஒKவேர ” . 1704- அறிவா எN 0றிப*:வ>ேம அத0 சாN ஆ ஆ: ம>ைர பண*தளதிலிK> ப*ராசி$

லென$ அ8களாK கநாடக ப0திய*லிK> ெவனா$ Eேஷ அ8களாK ஐேராப*ய நா:கள+P ள இேய4

சைப 0K மடகR0 ெசN இேய4 சைப >றவ*கைள இதியாV0 பண*யாற வKப8 அள+த உ>தேல

0Kவாக திKநிைலப:தபட உடேன ெப$கி இதியாV0 வKவதகான காரணமாக அைமதிKகலா எN . 1710- நபப:கிற> 0Kவாக திKநிைலப:தபட அவ ஆ ஆ: ேபா>க நா: ெசN அ0 ள ( ஸி$ப >ைறGகதி இK> Eறப: அேத ஆ: ெசடப அ ல> அேடாப மாத நவப மாத ) . எேபாK உள ேகாவாைவ வதைடதா ப*E சில நாக அ0 தகி ஓெவ:தப* ெதகி ேம0 . கடகைரய* அைமத அபலகா: 0Kமடைத அைடதா அத ப*E மணபா8 அைமதிKத மலபா . ( மைறமாநிலதி தைலைமயக ெசN அத தைலவைர சதிதா GE ெகாசிய* அைமதிKத மலபா , மைறமாநிலதி தைலைமயக ேபா> கீசியK0 ஆல> நாடவK0 நடத அதிகார ேபா8ய*

ேபா>கீசிய வPவ*ழ> ேபானத வ*ைளவாக இேய4 சைப 0KகR0 பா>காபற நிைல ஏபடேவ . 1750- ெததிKவ*தா1 கடகைர ப0திய*P ள ப* ைள ேதாE0 தைலைமயக மாறபட> ஆ ஆ: ) அ> த/கிைரயாகபட ப* ெதபா8 நா: கடகைரய* உ ள மணபா:0 மாறபட> , , , அகாலகள+ தமிழகதி பண*EZய வத இேய4 சைப 0Kக அபலகா: ?>08 மணபா: . Eைனகாய ஆகிய ஊகள+ தகி தமிைழ பய*றன அ"வாேற ெப$கிI G>0ள+>ைற , 08- எறைழகபட ?>08 மணபா: ேபாற கடகைர ப0திகள+ சிறி>கால தகி தமிைழ பய*றப* 05-1711 . அN ம>ைர பண*தளைத ேசத காமநாயகப80 ெசறா G> 0ள+>ைற ப0திய* மற “ ” 0Kகைள ேபாலேவ கNE உைட அண*திKத ெப$கி காவ* உைடயண*த ைதZயநாத 4வாமி யாக மாறி ( ) காமநாரக ப8ய* Qய*4 ேநாய ேத F$ அ8களா0 ப*ராைச சாதவ உதவ*யாளராக தம> சமய , “ ” . பண*ைய ெதாடகினா இெபயேர ப*E வ /ரமாGன+வராக மாறிய>

… சமய பணய
னவ 12 வ /ரமாGன+வ ம>ைர பண*தளதி இைணத ெபாT> அவைரI ேச> ெமாத 0Kக . . பண*யாறின அைறய நாகள+ ம>ைர பண*தளமான> திKெந ேவலி Gத ேவQ வைர பரவ*ய*Kத> , எனேவ அவக ெவ0ெதாைலவ* இKேத மகைள ககாண*கV ந/ட காலதி0 நிைலயாக ஒK இடதி . தக G8யாத நிைலய* ஓயாத பயணகைள ேமெகா ள ேவ8I இKத> அவக ப*ராமண மN உய “ ” 0லதினK0 கிறி$தவ மைறைய ேபாதிபதகாக ப*யாமண சன+யாசிக எN ப*ராமணைர தவ*ர ப*ற “ ” சாதியாK0 தா!தபட 0லதாK0 ேபாதிபதகாக ராஜZஷி அ ல> படாரசாமிக எனV . . , இKவைகய*னராக ெசய படாக வ /ரமாGன+வ தைன ராஜZஷியாக மாறி ெகாடா அைசயாத வ*4வாச , ஓயாத உைழE எள+ய வா!ைக இைவகேள ஒK >றவ* எற நிைலய* அவZட நா காகிற 0ணநலக . . ஆ0 அைனமZயா ம-> அளV கடத பதி ெகாடவ Gன+வ வளனாைர தைலமகனாக ெகா:

ேதபாவண* காப*யைத அவ இயறிய*KதாP அவ உKகி பா8ய பாட க எ லா அைன மZயாைள . . “ பறியைவேய அைன ம-> அவ ெதா:த கவ*மாைலகR அவR0 அவ எTப*ய ஆலயகR பல ”, “ ”, “ ” திKகாவQ கலபக அைடகல மாைல அைன அTக அதாதி ேபாற A கR ஏலா0றிசிய*

அைம> ள அைடகல மாதா ஆலயG ேகானா0பதி அைம> ள ெபZய நாயகி ஆலயG அைவகR0 . சாNக , , Gன+வ பண*EZத காலகடகள+ ம>ைர பண*தளமான> பச ெகா ைளேநா ேபா மN உ நா: . , கலககளா மிகV பாதிகப8Kத> இப0திய*லிKத கேதாலிக வ*4வாசிகR0 “ ” . மைறபரபாளகR0 ெபZய சிகலாக இKத> தரகபா8யா அள+த இைடJNகேள ெடமா நாைட . சாதவக தரகபா8ைய ைமயமாக ெகா: வாண*க EZதேதா: PேதZன+யைதI பரப*ன அவக

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 88 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

. கேதாலிககைள >ENதிI கேதாலிக ஆலயகைள சிைத> வதன வ /ரமாGன+வZ ககாண*ப* . இKத ANகணகான கேதாலிகைர த பக அவக திKப*ன அவகள+டமிK> கேதாலிக மகைள , . காகV கேதாலிக வ*4வாசைத நிைலநாடV அவ எ:> ெகாட Gயசிக எணறைவ , தரகபா8 திKசைபயாZ கK>கைள த கேதாலிக மக ஏN ெகா: வ*டாம இKகV “ ” . கேதாலிக ேகாபா:கைள அவகள+ட பரபV ேவதவ*ளக எற Aைல Gன+வ இயறினா உடேன “ ” . “ அவக திKசைப ேபதக எற மNE Aைல ெவள+ய*டன தளரா Gயசி ெகாட வ /ரமாGன+வ ேபதக ” 78 . மNத எற Aைல எTதி Pதர சைபயாZ கK>கைள மNதா ேமP அவ Pதர சைபயாZ “ ” 40 . கK> ப*ைழகைள 48காட PேதZனதா இய E எC பக அளவ*லான AைலI எTதினா

இத0 ப* Pதர சைபய*ன அவK0 எதிரா ெசய படவ* ைல எபைத அவர> மட கள+லிK> அறிய . G8கிற>

இகாலகடகள+ மZயைனய* அK ேவ8 அவள> >ைணயா இைடJNகைள ெவறிெகா ள . G8I என Gன+வ உNதியாக நப*னா >பதி அைடகல தK அ"வைனைய அைடகல அைன

எC ெபயZ அைழ> ேபாறிட வ*Kப*ய அவ ஏலா0றிசிைய அ:> ள திKகாவQZ

எTதKள+ய*K0 மZயைனைய அ"வாN அைழதிட இைசV தKமாN மய*ைல ஆயZ ஒEதைல ேவ8 . ெபறா அத ப*E ஆயK0 ம-: ஒK மட எTதி ஆ:ேதாN மிக அைனய* வ*ழாவான> . ஆ:ேதாN மிக சிறபாக ெகாடாடபட> கேதாலிக மக ெபK திரளாக திKவ*ழா0 மகைள

தக சமய ெநறிய* உNதிப:த அதV எபைத Gன+வ ஆழமாக நப*னா எபைதேய இ> உண>வதாக . ெகா ளலா “ கேதாலிக வ*4வாசதி மகைள உNதிப:த அவ ேமெகாட இெனாK Gயசி கிேதZ அமா ” . அமாைன எற Aலா0 Eன+த கிேதZ Qசிதான+ய நா8 ப*ராக நகZ கிறி$தவ மத எதிZயான காய எற . மனC0 மகளாக ப*ற> கிறி$தவ வ*4வாசதி வள> >றவறைத ேத> ெகாடவ மனனா

பலவ*தமான இன கR0 ஆளாகிI கிறி$தவ வ*4வாசைத ைகவ*:மாN ெநKக8க அள+கப: த . .130- 21- வ*4வாசதி உNதியாக நிற கிேதZ த ேதாழியேரா: கி ப* ஆ ஆ: ேம ஆ நா மனன+ பைட . வ /ரகளா தைல ெவ:: ேவதசாசி மரண>0 ளானா பேத வயதி கிறி$தவ வ*4வாசதி உய*ைரI

வ*ட>ண*த கிேதZ அமாைள தா ககாண*> வத மக வ*4வாசதி உNதிப:வத0 GமாதிZயாக . ைவதா Gன+வ இத வ*ைளவாக கிேதZ அமா வணக திKகாவQZலிK> ெதாடகி ப*ற ஊகR0 . , , பரவ*ய> இைறவன+ இய E ெசய ெகாைடக ஆகியவைற எ:> இய ப* மக அவைர வழிபட ேவ8யத “ ” . அவசியைத வலிIN> கKணாபர பதிக எப> Gன+வZ இனெனாK சமய இலகிய பைடபா0

கிறிதவ மகைள ம:மிறி அவகைள வழி நட>வதி 0Kகேளா: பண*EZத உபேதசிமாக அ ல> “ ேவதியக மைற அறிவ* சிற> வ*ளகV அவக சிறபாக பண*யாறV வழிகா: Gகமாக ஞான ” . உணத எற தியான AைலI “ேவத ஒTக ” எற AைலI Gன+வ எTதினா அவகR0 கிறி$தவ . >றவ*கR தியானகைள நடதியேதா: தமி! கN ெகா:0 ஆசிZயராகV அவ பண*யாறினா கிறி$தவ

மகR0 ேவதியK0 இைடயறா> பண*யாறிய> ேபாலேவ மைறபண*கள+ ேதா ேச> நிற . ெபKதைகயாள அவ அவKைடய சைப தைலவகள+ ேவ:ேகாR0 இணகேவ தரக பா8யாK0 . 1963- 4- எதிரான Eதககைள அவ எTதினா ஆ ஆ: ப*ரவZ ஆ நா ஓZJZ ேவதசாசியாக ெகாைல . ெசயபட அKளானதZ Eன+தபட நடவ8ைகள+ ெபKபகாறினா Gன+வ மய*ைல ஆயZ

கடைளப8 அவேரா: இைண> அKளானத நிக!திய E>ைமகைள அ> நிகழ ெபறவகள+ட வ*சாZ> 1726 . ேராைம0 அறிைக அCE பண*ைய அவ ஆ ஆ: சிறபாக ேமெகாடா ஒK இேய4 சைப >றவ* , , எற அ8பைடய* ம>ைர பண*தளதி ப ேவN இடகள+ 0றிபாக காநாயகப8 0Kக ப8 , , , , வரதராச ேபைட ஆW ம>ைர மறவநா: வ:கப8 ஆகிய இடகள+ பண*யாறி இKதாP ெதாட> . ப லா:க அவ பண*EZத இட திKகாவQ ஆ0 எ லா இடகள+P எ லா ேநரகள+P ஒK

கேதாலிக >றவ* எற அ8பைடய* அவ சமயபண*ைய GTைமயாக ஆறிய*KதாP அைதவ*ட வ*சிய – நிைலய* அவர> இலகிய பண*ேய தமி! பண*ேய காலதா அழியாத ெபKைம ெபN வ*ளகிN எபைத ! . ெவ ள+ைட மைலயா எனேவதா தமி! வளத ைதZய நாத எற சிறE ெபய தமி! மகளா வழகலாய*N

…
னவ தமி  பண

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 89 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

. . ‘ வ /ரமாGன+வZ தமி!பண*ைய பறி ெசா ல வத ெசா லி ெச வ ரா ப* ேச>ப* ைள வ /ரமாGன+வ . ஆகிய A களா தமி!தா அழ0 ெபறா ேதபாவண* எC அண* தமிழைனய* கTதி வாடாத . . மாைலயாக திக!கிற> திKகாவQ கலபக கதப மாைலயாக காசியள+கிற> ெதாD . . ெபாDலாக வ*ல0கிற> ச>ரகாதி Gதாரமாக மிள+கிற> வ /ரமாGன+வ ந தமி! Gன+வராக ’ . திக!கிறா எN ேபாNகிறா 1726 . ேதபாவண* எC த/தமி! காப*யைத வ /ரமாGன+வ இ இயறினா இதைன ம>ைரய* உ ள . , Eலவக Gன+ைலய* அரேகறி பாரா: ெபறா வ*KதG சதG ஒKேக கல> தமி! மண வ /4 , . , அKகாப*ய ேதபாவண* ேமைலநா: கைல ஆN கீைழநா: கைல ஆN கல0 கடலாக திக!பவ . வ /ரமாGனவ எபைத ேதபாவண* நிKப*கிற> ேதபாவண*0 இ$பான+ய ெமாழிய* ஆகிதமZ எTதிய . 3615 கடVள+ நகர எற Aேல அ8பைடயா0 இேய4வ* தைத வளன+ வரலாைற இகாப*ய பாட கள+ . 1Nகிற> . வ /ரமாGன+வ ஏலா0சிய* அைடகல மாதா ம-> பல ப*ரபதகைள பா8னா இதி திKகாவQ . , , , . கலபக 0றிப*டதக> நய ெசா4ைவ ெபாK4ைவ இைச இப அைன> இதி உ ள> இேதேபா , . அைடகல நாயகி ெவகலிபா அைடகல மாைல அைன அTக அதாZ ஆகிய சிறிலகியகைளI . வ /ரமாGன+வ பைட> ளா , வ /ரமாGன+வ பைடத பரமாத 0Kகைத எப> உைரநைட இலகியமாகV நைக4ைவ பைடபாகV . , , , , , வ*ள0கிற> இவ ேவதிய ஒTக ேவத வ*ளக ேபதகமNத ஞானGணத வாமகைத Pேத . இனதிய E ஆகிய உைரநைட A கைளI பைடதா இலகண Aலாக ெதாD வ*ளக எற Aைல . . 370 . வ /ரமாGன+வ பைடதா இ> ஐதமி! இலகண உைடய> இதி Aபாக அைம> ள> வ /ரமாGன+வ . , , , பைட> ள ச ரகராதிேய தமிழி ெவளயான
த அகராதியா ெபய ெபா' ெதாைக ெதாைட எ+ . நா ப-கள இ.ச ரகராதி அைம 'ள , , , . வ /ரமாGன+வ 0ணபாட நவகாட நசகாட சிதாமண* எற நா0 மK>வ A கைள பைடதா , , 1730 , திK0றள+ அற ெபாK இரைடI இலத/ள+ வ /ரமாGன+வ ஆ ஆ8 ெமாழிெபய> உைரI . . ததா இவத ெமாழிெபயE பண* அைனவராP ேபாறி பாராடபட> , , , , இ"வாN வ /ரமாGன+வ காப*ய அமாைன கலபக பதிக ஆகியவைறI ெதாD வ*ளக , . ச>ரகராதி திK0ற ெமாழிெபயப*ைனI அKபண*யாக ஆறிI ளா

… தட/க0 தட/க1 ” ” வ /ரமாGன+வZ இK ககளான அவர> சமயபண*I தமி!பண* அவைர வ /ர மாமன+த னாக ந கG . நிN>கிறன இ"வ*K பண*கைளI Gன+வ பல இைடJNகR0 இைடேய க8ன உைழப* வழியாகேவ ெச> . G8தா மி0த அரசிய 0ழபகR வGைற ெசய கR மலிதிKத 5ழலி தா Gன+வ ம>ைர . “ ” பண*தளதி Eக ேநத> தைச ந/ேரா எN அைழகபட மரா8ய மன ஷாஜி உபட மனக சில . கேதாலிக மக ம-> 0Kக ம-> வGைறைய ைகயா: அவகைள சிைறய* அைடதன இத . 5ழலி பண*EZய அCபபட Gன+வ பல >பகR0 ஆளாக ேநத> மனன+ எதிE மி0தியாக . இKததா அவ ெபKபாP இரவ*ேலேய பயண ெசதா , . அைலச களாP தப ெவபநிைல ஒ"வாைமயாP உடலி ஏபட க8களாP அவ அவதிபடா

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Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 90 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

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Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 91 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

ARCHITECTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THRIKKODITHANAM MAHAVISHNU TEMPLE, CHANGANASSERY

Dr.K.Anila Assistant Professor of History, FDP Substitute, St.Cyril’s College, Adoor

Thrikkodithanam Mahavishnu temple is one of the thirteen divyadesams or patalpetta tiruppaties in Malainadu, an epithet used for denoting Kerala. It is situated in the Changanassery taluk of Kottayam district, seven kilometers north of Thiruvalla. Nammalvar, who lived during the 9th century, had given graphic accounts on the prosperity of the temple in his book entitled Thiruvaimozhi. This temple is also considered as one among the Panchapandava temples in Kerala. Kerala has made substantial contribution to the science of architecture. The authoritative treatises on the subject are the Manushyalaya Chandrika, Silparatna, Vastuvidya, Tantra-Samucchaya etc. ‘The traditional system as related to architechture’ is known as Vastusastra. The word Vastu is of unknown antiquity and occurs in Rig-Veda in the sense of building site or building itself. Vastusastra means the science which deals with the rules of construction of all kinds of architectural and sculptural objects. The availability of material, geographical factors, climatic conditions and the strict adherence to ancient architectural texts resulted in having a typical style for the Hindu temples. A temple was compared to the human body and different aspects of its construction related to the various parts of the physical framework of man 2. In this manner, the sanctum sanctorum is variously compared to the head, the circumambulatory passage around the main shrine where some major divinities are installed is the face, the platform where Vedas and prayers chanted is the throat, the inner walls enclosing these areas are the arms and the breast, the outer corridors with subsidiary deities is the stomach, the outer walls are the knee and anklets and also indicate the external limit of the physical form. The tower or gopura with the 3 main entrance is the feet of the Lord . The temple architecture of Kerala has been divided into three phases-early (800-1000), middle (1001-1300) and late (1301-1800) 4. Each phase encloses certain architectural features.

Early Phase The temple architecture of the early phase is represented by temples built variously on square, circular and apsidal ground plans. Oblong or rectangular plan was also in vogue to enshrine the images of Saptamatrukkas. A stone was represented as Bhagavathy and was placed under tree. Apart from Mother Goddess, the worship of Siva, Vishnu, Krishna and Sastha were prevalent. Both nirandhara (without ambulatory) and sandhara (with ambulatory) temples were in vogue. For wall decorations, the Pandya method of providing recesses and projections with false niches has been followed. The idea of namaskaramandapa never attained popularity and the typical layout of this phase consists of sanctum and nalambalam. In this phase emphasis was given to sanctum not to pillared hall. In square temples, a narrow mukhamandapa projects out of the sanctum but as far as the apsidal and circular temples are concerned the space in front of the sreekovil serves as mukhamandapa. The temple building during this 6 period was popularized by the Ays, the Cheras and the Mushakas .

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The Middle Phase The major characteristic features of this phase are the emergence of sandhara shrine, presence of four functional doors at cardinal directions and pierced windows to provide light in the passage. Sometimes these functional doors are replaced by ghanadwaras. The concept of two storied structures was also developed during this phase. The practice of enshrining the consort of the main God at the back of garbhagriha have received great fillip during this period. Two other features of this phase are the practice of placing bhuta figure near the pranala and carvings on the hasti-hasta banisters depicting 7 dance scenes .

The late phase The temple architecture reached its final stage of evolution. All the modern alignments were developed during this phase. The vilakkumadam, balikkalmandapa, dwajasthambha, the massive compound wall with gopuras are the contributions of this period. Another important peculiarity of this phase was the presence of koothambalam, meant for dance, musical performance and religious recitals. It is a large pillared hall with high roof. The stages as well as the pillars are decorated. It has been pointed 8 out that the last phase witnessed the revival of bhakti cult .

Iconography The proliferation of structural temples gave a fresh impetus to medieval Kerala artists. The iconic representation of Vishnu and Vaishnava themes came out in large numbers after the spread of bhakti movement. Various Vaishnava legends provided thematic substance to the sculptural artists and mural painters. The characteristic features of major images in Thrikkodithanam temple are the following.

Vishnu The preserving principle of the universe is the most popular of the trinity and the most human in characters, attributes and sympathies. Vishnu images of the Chera period have certain common features. Often these Vishnu idols are in standing pose and have four arms, the right upper hand carrying a chakra (wheel), the left upper hand holding a sankh (conch), right lower hand holding padma (lotus) and left lower hand resting over a gada (club). The other features of the idol are sacred thread across the chest, 9 necklace, flat armlets, wristlets, girdle and anklet .The Tiruvattar and Thiruvananthapuram temples have sayanamurthi (reclining posture) images of Vishnu idols in the garbhagriha. The deity of Thiruvananthapuram is reclaining on serpent Anantha. Another important feature of the iconography of the Chera period was the images of incarnatory forms of Vishnu. The iconographic representation of Vaishnava themes in wood also served as an indispensible element of decoration. These wood carvings are mainly found on the ceiling of namaskaramandapa, balikkalpura, and on the outer walls of garbhagriha.The themes for these carvings were adopted from Ramayana and Bhagavatha stories. Two commonly found themes in the wooden iconographic representations in Kerala are Dasavathara, ten incarnations of God and Ananthasayanam. Apart from these other avatara forms are found in the wooden panels of medieval Kerala. Matsya and Kurma images are rare but Varaha form of Vishnu attained more popularity. Wooden sculptures of Varaha are found both in animal and semi-anthropomorphical forms. Varaha images in animal forms are found in Thrikkodithanam, Kaviyur and Chathankulangara temples. Kalki images are also sculptured in wood and the most prominent among the Kalki images are found in Thrikkodithanam, Kaviyur and Chathankulangara and Vettikulangara temples.

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Dakshinamoorthy 10 As a teacher of yoga, music and other sciences he is known by the name of Dakshinamoorthy . Otherwise, he is viewed in four different aspects namely, as a teacher of yoga, of veena, of Jnana and as also an expounder of other sastras. Of these the last form is the one which is most frequently met with in temples. It has already been mentioned elsewhere that in all Hindu temples both Saiva and Vasishnava, the niche of the south wall of the central shrine should have the figure of Dakshinamoorthy enshrined in 11 it .

Sastha This deity is called Sastha because he is able to control and rule over the whole world, etymologically, therefore, the word means a ruler of a country and is sometimes applied to teachers and 12 13 fathers . The Amarakosa applies the name to Buddha also . The worship of Sastha is still a living cult in Kerala and practically every important temple complex, 14 its south west corner is earmarked for him . It is a two armed image seated in the Yogasana, its right hand is in the abhaya posture and the left hand rests on the knee. It has a calm and serene face with drooping eyelids. The right ear has patra kundala and left one having a ratnakundala. According to the prescription of various Silpa texts, kundalas worn by Sastha are not identical for both the ears. He wears 15 a silk vastra and the folds of which are clearly seen .

Genesa or Vighneswara He is the most popular God worshipped by the Saivites. Vighneswara means remover of obstacles and his blessings are success in the performances of religious acts and in fact beginning any undertaking. He may be portrayed standing, dancing heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family 16 as a boy sitting down or on an elevated seat or engaging in a range of contemporary situations . Genesa has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of 17 Ganesa. Thus he is known as Gajanana or Ekadanta . He holds his own broken tusk in his lower right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower left hand. Ganesa typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a noose in the other upper arm. The number of Ganesa’s arms 18 varies; his best known forms have between two and sixteen arms . Many depictions of Ganesa have four arms. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesa iconography and appears in many forms. According to the Ganesa purana, Ganesa wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles or a throne. Upon Ganesa’s forehead there may be a third eye. The Ganesa purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. In most of the depictions, comes mouse as his vahana. 19 Different varieties of Vighneswara images are present .The important among them are Bala-Ganapathi, 20 Taruna Ganapathi, Bhakthi Vighneswara, Vira Vighneswara, Sakthi Ganesa etc . Sakthi Ganesa represents a group of images consisting of Lakshmiganapathi, Mahaganapathi, Uchchishta Ganapathi, 21 Pingala Ganapathi etc.Each form has its own characteristic features .

Bas -Reliefs Relief sculptures are confined to the banisters in the form of hasti-hasta and sometimes to the ceiling of the square namaskaramandapa. These carvings include various deities and dancing scenes.

Features of Adisthana The temple possessed all the qualities of a Mahakshetra, great temple having five prakaras like antharmandala (akathe balivattam), antahara (chuttambalam), madhyahara (vilakkumadam), bahyahara

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(sevelippura) and madhyahara (puram mathil). Built in the typical style of Malabar temple with the central circular shrine, this temple is another example of the structural pattern. The temple falls under the Panchaprasada scheme of architecture. Panchaprasadas – according to Kerala tradition are Sreekovil, 22 Namsakaramandapa, Thidappalli, Balikkalpura and Koothambalam .

Sreekovil It is the most sacred structure. It represents the house and body of God. Sreekovil has to be analyzed on the basis of two aspects viz. ground plan and elevation.

A) Ground Plan As per the ground plan the sreekovils distinctly fall under five types based on the shape viz. square, oblong, circular, elliptical, and apsidal. Of which, the first three types are commonly seen. All sreekovils belong either to nirandhara or sandhara type.

B) Elevation The elevation of the temple is called vimana or prasada. In elevation aspects the sreekovils are classified as ekathala (single storied), dwithala (double storied) and thrihala (three storied). The greeva (upper wall parts) of dwithala and thrithala may also have ghanadwaras, panjaras, brackets etc, besides carvings of deities or paintings based on episodes taken from puranas. Rarely functional doors are also seen at the front greeva of dwithala or thrithala sreekovil. Sthoopika or Thazhikakkudam is optional and in case it exists it has four parts ie, Mahapadmam (eight petalled lotuses), Kumbham (pot), Nalam (lotus stalk) and Kudamala (lotus bud). Mostly they are made of copper, bronze or rarely gold plated. The sreekovil of Thrikkodithanam Mahavishnu temple is an impressive edifice in vesara shape and it 23 has two storeys (dwithala) . The inner portion of the sreekovil is called – garbhagriha, where the deity 24 is installed . The garbhagriha with ardhamandapa is situated inside the sreekovil with a pradakshina passage, the inside of which is reserved for the santhikkars and not generally opens to the public. That is because of the presence of this pradakshina passage, Thrikkodithanam Maha Vishnu temple belongs to sandhara type. There is only one sreekovil and one garbhagriha for the central deity, when there is another deity or Devi in the same garbhagriha; they are placed back of the sreekovil. There is a wall on the inner part of the sreekovil for separating these two deities. There are rectangular shaped pillars in 25 the inner circumambulatory space of the sreekovil . Another important part of the sreekovil is adisthana. The adisthana is the basement and it has vertical moulded tiers, each tier from bottom to top arranged in a specified order and shape. Each tier has a distinct name viz Padmapaduka, Paduka or Pada, Jagathi, Kumuda, Kumuda Pada, Kantha, Kampa, 26 Galapati, Uttara, Valabhi, Pattika, Prathi, Kapotha and Vajana . It is not necessary that the basement of the sreekovils should have all these mouldings. But this has mouldings like Paduka, Jagathi, Vritta 27 Kumuda, Kumuda Pati, Gala, Galapati, Kantha, Kapotha and Prathi . It may be also noted that this tier system is followed in the construction of namaskaramandapa, nalambalam, Vilakkumadam, valiyabalikkal, dwaja, koothambalam etc. The upapeetha is the structure beneath the adisthana. The upapeetha and adisthana are made up of granite stones. Upapeetha has mouldings (tiers) in the reverse order as those of adisthana. The height of 28 upapeetha depends on the height of the adisthana or twice the height of the basement . The wall is constructed above the adisthana. This is made of laterite stone and its ornamentations are divided into various categories: doors and ghanadwaras, devakoshtas, niches, kudya – sthambhas, tornanas, panjaras, 29 jalakas, nasikas and so on . The wall of the temple is decorated with beautiful murals. The roof structure of this temple is very impressive. It is a two storied one with a top roof and a slopping lower roof with

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 95 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X copper sheeted covering and these sheets are fixed over the wooden ceiling. There is a gap existed 30 between these two stories and was decorated with ten incarnations of Vishnu . The constituent parts of 31 the roof are uttara, thattu, thuravu and sthoopika . The sthoopika or thazhikakkutam is the top most part of the Vimana. Another important part of the sreekovil is the sopana. The approach from the antharmandala to the 32 sreekovil is through sopana . It is built at the front of the sreekovil from the ground level to the front door step of the mukhamandapa of the sreekovil. The length of the sopana from lower sill of front door up to ground level is 1½ dand (six koles) or 2 dand (eight koles) and must have been even number of 33 flight steps . The sopana of this temple is made up of granite and having direct flight of steps with 34 balustrades on either side . The two sides of the sopana are decorated with two distinct type of ancient 35 36 37 dances , Kudaikuttu (umbrella dance) and Kudamkuttu (Pot dance). The most important component of sopana is the Mukhamandapa. A small platform above the steps forms the mukhamandapa. This small niche is used by the priest to distribute prasadam to the devotees. Musical instruments like edakka and chenda are also hung in this niche, when they are not in use. One of the most important features of this temple is the absence of dwarapalakas on either side of the front entrance of the sreekovil or by the sides of mukhamandapa. Pranala or water chute also known as ‘ovu’ or gomukha is the most important part of the sreekovil, and is used for draining out lustral (abhisheka) water particularly from the sanctum. Apart from the ritualistic need, it is an excellent architectural piece. The most important peculiarity of the 38 pranala of this temple is the presence of bhuta figure . Bhuta figures have become complents to the gomukha in some temples since 1300 A.D. Another important part of the sreekovil is the antharmandala. It is a square, having half of a dand 39 40 41 (two koles) from the adisthana of the sreekovil . The ashtadikpalakas , and saptamatrukkals are placed at cardinal points of this square. All these balikkals are made up of granite stones. During oblations for sreebhootabali, the main priest spilled water, rice and flowers over it. The size and shape of these balipeethas are important. It varies from very small one to a miniature. Generally, the base of the 42 balipeetha is square. Above the base, its shape is in the form of an eight petalled lotus and top is round .

Namaskaramandapa Another important structure is the namaskaramandapa, which is a detached pillared hall in front of the sreekovil. The namasakaramandapa is smaller in size than the sreekovil, built at a distance of one 43 kole from adisthana . The adisthana of this mandapa also has the components like paduka, jagathi, kumuda etc. It is square in shape, open on all sides and supported on pillars at the four corners. There are four decorated and twelve plain pillars in the mandapa. It has a pyramidal roof with a stoopi above. The ceiling of the namaskaramandapa is noted for fine wood carvings. The nine heavenly bodies with Brahma as the centre are carved on the ceiling of the mandapa. A huge aluvilakku is placed on the midst of the mandapa. It is a unique structure. Besides this, a kedavilakku is also placed on the namaskaramandapa. The vahana of the main deity is also installed on the mandapa which face towards the deity. The adisthana of the mandapa bears an inscription in Malayalam language gives information about the person who constructed the mandapa, but it is a fragmentary inscription. Above the adisthana and below the platform of the mandapa is decorated with vyali and elephant figures. The namaskaramandapa as its name indicates is generally intended for japams, kalasams and prostrations by the temple priests. The roof of the namaskaramandapa is covered with copper sheets.

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Thidapalli 44 Thidapalli is constructed at the south east corner of the sreekovil. It is rectangular in shape. It has only one door and other sides are closed with wooden railings. The food for the deity is cooked here. Entry should be given to concerned priests only. In addition to this, the articles like rice, oil, ghee etc were stored here safely.

Balikkalpura 45 It is otherwise known as agramandapa. In this temple, valiya balikkal is installed here, and in such cases it is known as valiyabalikkalpura or valiyabalikkal mandapa. It is a rectangular projected cell. The ceiling of the balikkalpura is carved with delicate figures of riding elephants. The central portion is dominated by a Devi flanked by two big lotuses. An eternal oil lamp of recent origin hangs at the centre of this chamber.

Koothambalam The position of koothambalam is in front and at the right side of the principal deity. The koothambalam is used to stage the performing arts like Chakyar koothu, Koodiyattam, Ottanthullal, Patakam etc. It is believed that a well constructed koothambalam existed here on the south –eastern side of the temple. Its remains are still alive and gives-information about this.

Other Important Features of the Temple Without mentioning these features the architecture of the temple is incomplete. These features are unavoidable to a temple. The important among them are the following.

Chuttambalam Chuttambalam is a separate structure and contains nalambalam, valiambalam, thidappalli etc. a) Nalambalam and Valiambalam 46 The sreekovil is surrounded by a pillared hall called nalambalam . It is used to make flower garlands for the deity. The main entrance to the nalambalam is on the eastern side. Small doors mark exit points in the other three cardinal directions. The front portion of the nalambalam is a raised pillared hall called valiambalam, which is the resting place of devotees before they enter the temple. It is also used for conducting homas, reciting of Bhagavata and also for staging performing arts. The ceiling and the pillars of the valiambalam are decorated with beautiful carvings.

Dwaja Sthamba (Flag Staff) The dwajastamba is installed infront of the sreekovil. Usually teak wood is used for the construction of dwajasthamba but due to the scarcity and exorbitant price of teak, concrete poles are used. The structrual details of dwajasthamba are also important. It comprises of naala, adisthana, padma, and idols of ashtadikpalakas, paras, valaya, maalasthana, lasoona, mandipalaka, yashti, veerakantha, 47 vahana and other decorations . The dwaja is fixed on the naala after the purification rites. Either granite slabs or laterite stones are used for making the naala. All the other members of the dwaja are above the ground level that is from vedika at the bottom up to vahana on the top. Over the naala is the vedika, which is above the ground level. It is square in shape. Over the adisthana is the padma. Over the padma is the position of idols of ashtadikpalakas. The drums (paras) and bracelets are carefully lowered down from the top of the dwaja and firmly fixed. The space between the log and the drum is filled with paddy. After fixing all the drums,

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 97 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X of same shape one or two inverted paras in the shape of kalas or lasoona each of one dand height are fixed. Above it, a flat thick square sheet is kept equal to the length of the diagonal at the top of the flagstaff. On all sides of this sheet garlands are fixed by hooks. The yashti (flag stick) is fixed diagonally to the flagstaff. Over the lasoona are a kumbha and again a padma each having a height of one dand .Over the padma a square platform is built and it is known as mandipalaka. Over it, there is a square peetha of smaller size known as veerakantha. Above all is the vahana of the principal deity placed. One of the most important peculiarities of this temple is the presence of two dwajas – one at the eastern side and the other at the western side of the temple. The dwaja at the eastern side is gold plated and rests on a square granite base. An engraving on the base stone indicates that the first mast was the offering of a devotee named Kannaku Keralan Krishnan in the year 1849AD. The vahana of Vishnu is placed at the top of the eastern dwaja. The dwaja on the western side is copper plated and the vahana of Narasimhamoorthy is placed at its top.

Anakkottil In this temple anakkottil is constructed to a later period. It is a rectangular pillared structure constructed with a high roof in front of the flagstaff to accommodate and shelter from sun and rain to the 48 elephants used in religious processions .

Ottupura In all the old and important temples, there are oottupuras or dining halls with attached kitchens. It is also assumed that this temple enjoyed the presence of a well constructed oottupura for feeding Brahmins.

Well A well is must in a temple for the exclusive purpose of drawing water for temple rites. In this temple, two wells are seen. One is in the north east corner of the sreekovil (within the akathe balivattom) and the other is outside the nalambalam. The well at north east is considered as sacred and its water has to be 49 exclusively used for abhisheka or inside garbhagriha or for the preparation of nivedya .

Outer Balipeethas and Kshetrapala Besides the principal balipeetha, there are seven minor balipeethas at cardinal points. At the outside of these balipeethas is the pradakshina vazhi or circumambulatory path. In this temple this path is paved with granite slabs. The balipeetha of kshetrapala is positioned outside the northeastern corner of the circumambulatory path and this Devatha protects the sanctum. At the time of sreebhootabali, the main priest spilled flowers to it.

Gopura According to Silparatna gopuras can be constructed in antharmandala, anthahaara, madhyahaara, bahyahaara and maryada. The width of each gopura in each prakara is related to the width of the sreekovil. But in common practice gopura in temples means the gopura at the maryada. Most of the gopuras have two or three floors. Likewise, this temple has two large gopurams built with laterite and wood. These are double storied structures and its roofs are covered with tiles.

Compound Wall or Puram mathil It is not a necessary feature. There are many temples with or without compound wall. But the compound wall of this temple is a fairly extensive and solid one. It is believed to have been constructed

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 98 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X during the 7th century, is awesomely high and magnificent. It is a real showpiece of the mastery of ancient people in architecture and construction technology. This is as high as twenty feet and as wide as ten feet at the base. Though lime or cement had not been used and not plastered, it still attracts the attention of the architects.

Shrines of Minor Deities Outside the nalambalam shrines for subsidiary deities are constructed. The important among them are given below. a) Ayyappa 50 Sastha shrine is erected in the south western side of the nalambalam . It is square in shape and has a pyrmidal roof. Sastha is also known as Arya or Hariharaputra. The worship of Sastha is still a living cult in Kerala and particularly every important temple complex, south west corner has earmarked for him. b) Serpentine powers Serpentine powers are placed at the north western part of the Sastha shrine. These structures are placed in an open air. c) Devi On the North West part of the nalambalam a shrine for Devi is constructed recently with separate compound wall. The shrine is square in shape and has a pyramidal roof. In spite of all these features, the sreekovil of Thrikkodithanam temple was decorated with beautiful mural paintings. Vaishnava themes provided inspiration and thematic substance to the mural paintings in Kerala.

Murals One of the most important decorative elements of Kerala’s temple architecture is the painting. The mural paintings are visual counter part of the myths, legends, Gods, deities and demons of the theatrical world. They are closely related to and influenced by the theatrical activity. In other words, a sense of drama is the essence of these paintings. The walls of Kerala temples witnessed the creative exuberance of the mural painters. The Kerala murals are distinct for their lyricism and strength of line. They also 51 distinguish themselves for their colour symbolicism and richness of ornamentation . The pigments were extracted from leaves, dugout earth, made by burning coconut shells and mixed with natural liquids like 52 coconut water and lime juice . The preparation of the wall surface for a mural painting is an elaborate process. It has to achieve the required adhesion. The techniques involve skillful application of jaggery, milk and a number of resigns in prescribed fine proportions. The brushes are prepared from bamboo and certain varieties of grass and 53 roots . The paintings begin with the outlines, which acquire prescribed colours as the painting progress. The bhakti movement in the 15th and 16th centuries too gave a fillip to the practice of adorning the 54 temple walls with murals . The period from 15th to 18th centuries is considered as the golden period of Kerala mural paintings. The figures in these paintings are mostly that of the Hindu Gods like Vishnu and his incarnations, Siva, Ganesa, Ayyappa, Durga and celestial nymphs. The favorite themes are the Ramayana and Sreekrishna’s story. The wall of the sreekovil was decorated with beautiful and very ancient murals. The surface of the wall is almost plain above the adisthana level, except for three false entries and one functional door. 55 Birds, animals, mythical creatures and foliage are alive in Thrikkodithanam murals . Pigments used in the Thrikkodithanam temple were extracted from green leaves, fruits, laterite stone, charcol etc. Colour 56 is a more liquid medium than wood or stone .Specially prepared gum was used for fixing these colours and mortar. Murals in this temple belong to the 18th century. The important paintings are: dwaraplakas,

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Vishnu, Sreekara Vishnu, Tandava Siva, Dakshinamoorthy, Balabhadra and Krishna, Ganapathi Pooja, hunting Sastha, Annapoorneswari, Kiraterjuniyam, Gopika Vastrapaharana, Dasavatara, Scenes from forest, Subramanya, Kaliyamardana, Sree Rama Pattabhisheka, Durga, Anantha Sayana, Gopalakrishna etc. The style of the mural paintings is more subtle than at Vaikom, but perhaps less dramatic because of the lack of solid color areas and saturated hues. Rama in the forest, Sastha hunting on the horseback ,the court of Indra whose body is marked with thousand eyes,displays of purna kalasa fertility symbols and 57 battle scenes enlivened by the static power of criss-crossed arrows and spears .Siva and Vishnu subjects occur together in the all over wall patterns. Above all, the door guardians are painted not sculptured. According to the nature of paintings, Thrikkodithanam murals falls under two categories- manifestating and narrating. Annapoorneswari in the sitting posture is a rare picture. The influence of Travancore style for narration has been seen in the hunting Sastha painting. The presence of an umbrella above the head of the Sastha is best example for this. Likewise in the Arpookara and Thazhathangadi temple, the colour of horse is green. Ananthasyananm was also due to the influence of Travancore style and it was embroidered. Kiratarjuniyam and Ramayana are the themes for narrating paintings. When 58 drawing the pictures of Devi and Deva, the remaining blank portion was filled with peacocks . It was an important feature of Thrikkodithanam murals. Besides this, the upper portion of the painting was 59 beautified with sukamala and lower portion with mrigamala . Use of five colour, spirituality and prettiness are the most important speciality of Thrikkodithanam murals. Lower and upper lips of male and female Gods are faty. Another important feature is hanging leaves from trees. Same picture was also seen in Thazhathangadi Tali temple and Arpookkara Subrahmanya temple. Similarities are also seen in depicting war scenes. Thus it can be concluded that the artist’s facility of brushwork is very impressive, with the finished work lighter and finer than almost any comparable wall painting. As praised in the Alvar songs, the monument deserves fame for its physical as well as its religious associations. In short, it is very clear that the 9th century proved to be the golden age in architecture. The spread of bhakti movement also gave a fillip to this development. The architectural style of South India was greatly influenced by the Chola tradition.

References 1. J. J. Bhabha, Splendours of Kerala, p.14. 2. Aswathy Thirunal Gouri Lakshmi Bayi, Sree PadmanabhaswamyTemple, p.47. 3. Ibid., p. 48. 4. H. Sarkar, Architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala, p. 97. 5. Ibid., p.48. 6. Ibid., p.97. 7. Ibid., p.99. 8. Ibid. 9. S. Jayashankar, op.cit., p. 153. 10. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. II, Part I, P. 273. 11. Ibid., P.99. 12. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, op.cit., Vol II, Part II, P. 487. 13. Ibid., p. 488. 14. H. Sarkar, op. cit., p. 108. 15. Ibid., p. 109. 16. T.A.Gopinatha Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography,p.49. 17. Ibid., p.39.

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18. Ibid., p.50. 19. Ibid., p.52. 20. Bala Ganapathi is a form of Vighneswara, sculptured like a child, it has four arms and the head of an elephant.Mango, plantain, jack fruit and sugarcane are to be held in the four arms.The colour of this God should be red.Taruna Ganapathi represents a form which carries sesamum and bamboo stick and has to be sculptured as youth.The colour of this God should be red. Bhakti Ganesa is an image with four hands in which a coconut, mango, a lump of sugar and a cup of payasa (a sweet preparation of milk and rice) and the colour of this image is white. Vira Vighneswara is another type of Vighneswara should have sixteen hands. 21. Lakshmi Ganapathi have three eyes and eight hands.The colour of the image is white.Uchchishta Ganapathi is worshipped to achieve desired objects.The image of MahaGanapathi is one with ten arms and the colour is red.Pingala Ganapathi is a figure with six hands carry mango, bunch of flowers from kalpaka tree, a sugarcane, sesamum and modaka.It should have the figure of Lakshmi by its side. 22. S .Jayashankar, op. cit.,p.44. 23. According to Silpa sastras, there are three main styles of temple architecture. They are: a) Nagara - in which the vimana is quadrangular. b) Vesara - in which the vimana is crowned by a circular sikhara above the neck. c) Dravida - in which the vimana is crowned by an octagonal or hexagonal sikhara above the neck. 24. Stella Kramrish, op.cit., p. 42. 25. Interview with melsanthi dated on 25-6-2010. 26. S. Jayashankar, op. cit., p.59. 27. K.V.Soundara Rajan, Temple Architecture in Kerala, p.9. 28. S. Jayashankar, op.cit., p.61. 29. Ibid., p.72. 30. Interview with tantri on 14-7-2010. 31. S. Jayashankar,op.cit.,p.77. 32. Ibid., p. 67. 33. Ibid. 34. Archaeological monuments of Kerala, p.19. 35. The Kudaikuttu panel is a good piece of workmanship and represents a dancer exhibiting his skill on the dais of a covered mandapa (assembly hall) with an attendant provide musical accompaniment of mridangam (drum) and cymbals. Five hamsas (swans) are engraved on the roof of the mandapa. 36. In the Kudamkoothu panel, the pose of the dancer is more vivacious and the attendants are portrayed with more realism as seen from the agile blend of the drummer’s body and the watchful pose of his head. The head of the dancer is dressed in the “Karanda Makuda” “(bowl shaped crown) style. Two pots are seen in equilibrium on the extended left hand and bent right arm with four other pots coming down to be caught and thrown up in succession. 37. In the architectural tradition of the imperial Cholas, the pranala was transformed into an artistic component of the temple. Of course, its beginning can be noticed in the latter Pallava temple at Takkolam. But the middle Chola tradition introduced a bhuta figure below the pranala, the image remaining detached from the water chute. This very trend travelled to Kerala, where it became more widespread than in the land of its origin. Bhuta figures in various poses and moods have been placed below the nala which in Kerala, ends more often into a go-mukha, padma or simha mukha. 38. S.Jayashakar, op.cit., p.82.

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39. According to Hindu mythology, the eight quarters of the universe are governed by the eight- guardian deities beginning with Indra and hence these eight deities are known by the name of dikpalakas. They are: 1. Indra, the Lord of the east. 2. Agni, the Lord of the south east. 3. Yama, the Lord of the south. 4. Nirruti, the Lord of the south west. 5. Varuna, the Lord of the west. 6. Vayu, the Lord of the North West. 7. Kubera, the Lord of the north. 8. Isana, the Lord of the North east The ashtadikpalakas at the eastern side and southern side (except Yama) are fixed, along the imaginary border line. During oblations for sreebali and sreebhootabali, preferance and importance is given to Soma instead of Kubera. Therefore, for all purposes of temple rites, Soma is considerated as Lokapala, and Dikpala. Kubera has secondary importance. All other balipeethas are fixed with slight variations from the imaginary border line of antharmandala. 40. Brahmi, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani and Chamundi are considered as Sapthamatrukkals. 41. S. Jayashanar, op. cit., p. 86. 42. Ibid. 43. This is the position of Agni – devatha. 44. Valiya Balikkal is considered as the waist of Deva. It represents Harasena. 45. Doraiswami Aiyengar, Architecture of Travancore Temples, p.11. 46. See appendix –XII. 47. Stella Kramrich, op.cit., p.33. 48. S. jayashankar, op. cit., p.92. 49. The idol of Lord Ayyappa has been installed outside the nalambalam. i. It is believed that an idol has been installed outside the nalambalam to facilitate darshana for the lower castes. 50. K.Jayakumar, Kerala -A Poem in Green and Gold, p.47. 51. Ibid. 52. M.G.Sasibhooshan, Keralathile Chuvarchitrangal, p.9. 53. Ibid. 54. J.J.Bhabha, op.cit., p.67. 55. Ibid. 56. Ronald. M .Bernier, Temple Arts of Kerala, p.89. 57. Ibid.

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THE CHALLENGES AND DEGRADATION OF SCHOOL EDUCATION IN KERALA -A CRITICAL APPROACH

Dr.O.C Promod, MA(Hist.).,MA(Socio.).,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of History, St.Cyril’s College, Adoor, Pathanamthitta (Dist), Kerala

During the initial time of British period, the authorities adopted downward filtering policy in education towards the Indians. Majority of the Indians were denied to get proper education at that time. But the high demand of man-power compelled the British to a slight change in later years. The gradual changes in Kerala school education had started from British period onwards. In the early independence period, primary education was up to 5th standard. After getting promotion from 5th class, a student should study ‘First Form’ class and promoted up to ‘6th Form’ class. The total school education was 11 years of education. There is a public board examination at the end of Form 6th. ‘6th Form’ student should study the portions of 4th, 5th and 6th Form, because, the portions of three years were asked for the 6th Form examination. If a student neglect the portions of previous classes may fail in the examination. An average student can’t cop up with the vast areas of their studies. Naturally most of the students failed in the final examination. The victorious minority community were absorbed to the British service. Most of the failed candidates compelled to abandon their dreams and sought other opportunities. The free India appointed an education commission in 1948 to study the problems of Indian education. The commission studied different aspects and recommended 10+2+3 pattern of education in India. The state governments implemented most of the recommendations of education commission in the near future. On the basis, the present pattern had come in Kerala. According to the system, ten years of school education has implemented at here. There is a public examination at the end of 10 years of school education and it is widely known as Secondary School Leaving Certificate Examination (SSLC). In th SSLC examination, only the 10 class portions were asked and it was a boon to the students. But the student should achieve minimum marks in all the papers of SSLC examination; otherwise he is declared a failed candidate. In an another reform, the total subjects were divided into two- the language papers and the subject papers. According to the three-language formula of Mudaliar Commission (1953), English, Hindi and a regional language (here, it is Malayalam) is under the language papers. There were 5 papers in languages out of marks of (5x50)=250. The subject papers were 7 and it is out of 350 marks and total of subject and language papers were out of 600. It is determined by the authorities that minimum 90 marks to be secure in language and 120 for subject papers. 480 and more marks out of 600 was considered as distinction and in between 360 and 480 was first class and 300 to 359 was in the second class. The marks 210 and above are considered as passed candidate and those person in between 210 and 300 were considered as third class. The negative criteria on this reform was a minimum 10 marks in each paper and achieve 90 marks in language is considered as pass mark in language section of the SSLC Examination and minimum 10 marks in each paper and aggregate marks of 120 is considered as the pass marks in subject part in the examination. It was attributed that most of the students were passed on the basis of moderation-marks provided by the government during those days. It was widely criticised by the educationalists also. Most of the students passed the examination on the consideration of Moderation Committee constituted by the government.

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Meanwhile, the central government of India introduced DPEP (District Primary Education programme) and insisted all states to implement the programme in schools as the part of national education. Later the programme was replaced by SSA (Sarva Siksha Abhiyn). During the period, the abilities of students were measured by various methods and are called Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE). Mental abilities were replaced by physical abilities. Students presented seminars, debates, group discussion, report of field visit etc. Assignments, collection of pictures, albums, class tests became a part and parcel of student life in Kerala. The thing is that the above average students achieved much in the programme. There is no drastic changes in average students and there is no proper attention received from the teachers to the below average students. As the student strength is nearly 50, the teachers can’t concentrate in every body’s matters. In new system, the work load is more to every teacher and they couldn’t give attention towards the average and below average students properly. Those students either skipped from everything or copied the assignments of the above average students without understanding what they had written in it. It was just like drawing lines in a picture by and another one. Whatever it is, most of the students achieve 100% in CCE marks without evaluating his real abilities. In this system, if a student achieve 30% mark in each subject (including that of CEE), he can go for higher studies. For example, if a student get 10/10 in CCE marks, he need only 5 mark out of 40. (5/40 and 10/10 = 15/50). Through the method, the percentage of success in SSLC examination is above 95% in state level for the last many years. The thing is that the standard of students are degrading day by day. The SSA is recently replaced by an another term RMSA (Rashtreey Madyamic Sikshak Abhiyan) but no drastic steps brought to develop the academic levels among the students. By utilizing and channelizing the excess energy of the teenager students, the government introduced different clubs and voluntary organizations in the school campus. NCC, SPC, NSS, Scouts & Guides are some among them. To handle the problematic teenagers is really a difficult task to every school teacher. To overcome the situation, the authorities decided to engage them to other extra-curricular activities. The thing is that, most of the students are either in one voluntary organization or other groups. These organizations have good motto and values. But the thing is that, most of the students engaged in these activities to get sufficient grace marks in their examinations. Today most of the students are engaged in extra-curricular activities than in the class-room studies. By getting grace marks, most of the students can easily pass in the examination without giving any strain to their academic studies, but their academic calibre is really pathetic in every manner. In the year 2014, the victory of final examination of SSLC was above 95% in state level and the authorities invited criticism even from the commons in society. Eventhough the students were happy to the easy victory, but the educationalists from all spheres strongly opposed the policies of government to degrade the examination system. It is pity that the system still continues even today. The English medium CBSE and ICSE pattern of education was considered for the rich class in society and the commons neglected such style of education till 2000. But the day by day degradation of general education stimulated the growth and development of CBSE and ICSE schools in Kerala. Now a days, CBSE and ICSE schools are a great threat to each and every Government and Aided schools in Kerala. Even though these CBSE and ICSE schools are stood for profit motive, the commons neglect those matters, because they need better education for their children. The interference of political parties and student-politics is very high in every Government and Aided schools in Kerala. Student strike is a common phenomenon at these schools. Even though the government insisted to provide minimum of 200 actual working days in a year, the authorities of these schools can’t obey the orders practically. Prolonged strikes, assaults, riots and even political murder are not unfamiliar to these schools. But these types of strikes are not commonly affected to the CBSE and

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ICSE schools in Kerala. If any strikes affected to these schools in any case, a compensatory working day may be arranged on Saturdays. The funny thing is that, most of the children/grand children of political leaders, high level government officials and even the government and aided teachers are studying in CBSE and ICSE schools in Kerala. They are not ready to play with the life of their children. Another recent trend is that most of the appointments of teaching and non-teaching staff in Government schools and aided schools are in pending and thousands of aided school teachers waiting for their approval of appointment for the long years. So many vacancies in government schools are not filling in time. It prove that, neither the government nor the officials are not ready to protect the general education in Kerala. The new minister for education of LDF ministry(2016) is a retired professor and he has good ideas to enrich the quality of education in schools. He is providing infrastructure development and trying to upgrade the status of schools to the international standards. For the first step, every class rooms are converting to be smart class rooms. Computers (desktops & laptops), Projectors and other electronic peripherals are providing at the free of cost to each and every classes in schools. If such steps continued for ever, the schools can regain their lost glories and prestige in near future. Otherwise we can see the silent death of general education within a short span. The following steps to be taken for the betterment of general school education. • The interference of political parties in academic level should be abolish for ever • The children of Government employees, political leaders and teachers of Government and Aided schools should admit to the schools of state syllabus. Otherwise curtail their public life or government job forever. • Fill up the vacancies in Government schools and give approval to the appointment of teachers in aided schools as early as possible. Without human resources, no system will run properly. • Provide sufficient non-teaching staff to the Government and Aided schools on war-time basis • Provide local support from local self government to each and every government and aided schools. • Provide annual grant-in aid to every general schools in advance for the timely maintenance. • Abolish grace marks for club activities in schools and provide weightage for higher education, if necessary • Separate Minimum marks for written examination should bring effectively. Avoid clubbing of CEE marks to the written examination to determine to get the minimum marks for pass. • Provide infrastructure facilities to all schools. • Provide job oriented vocational education to the students to meet their the daily expenses • Allot more English medium divisions in every schools st th • Include Spoken English and Computer education as a compulsory subject from 1 to the 12 standard. • Convert every school to the centre for Adult Education, Life centred education and continuous education.

References 1. The Report of University Education Commission(1948-49).Vol.1, Ministry of Education, Government of India, Pub.No.606.1962 2. The Report of Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar commission Report), Ministry of Education, Government of India. 1953 3. The Report of Education Commission(1964-66)Education and National Development, Ministry of Education, Government of India.1966

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4. Personal Interview with K.R Omana, Retired Head Mistress, SNV Higher secondary school, NR City, Idukki district, Kerala on 10-05-2017 5. Dr.O.C Promod, Problems and challenges of higher secondary section in the schools in kerala-A study, Proceedings of Kerala History conference-2016 6. Dr. K.V Eapen, Teacher and Education in Indian society, Kollett Publications, Kottayam.1997 7. Personal Interview with Mrs.Bindumol D, Principal, SNV Higher Secondary School, Idukki District, Kerala on 10.9.2016 8. Personal Interview with Mr.Prakash, Principal, SNV Higher Secondary & Vocational higher secondary School, Pathanamthitta District, Kerala on 1.5.2016 9. Prof. S Madhavan Nair, Education: Its Philosophy, Psychology and Technology, Breeze Publications, Palghat.1996

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DESIGN OF PILLARS OF MEENAKSHI AMMAN TEMPLE-A STUDY

Prof.Mrs.R.Praiya Assistant Professor, Department of History Mannar Thirumalai Naicker College, Madurai

Temples, according to the Hindu conception are the abode of wisdom and the worthiest place of worship. It is an admitted fact that temple-building was a customary religious act amongst the ancient Hindu Kings. The temples stand as important landmarks of villages and towns since they have grown around them. It is to be said that in the formation of villages and towns even now, separate sites are set apart for the temple and even for its subsequent expansion. Pillars or column is one of various types of standing upright, load-bearing architectural members. In history, when man has sought to enclose area, supports have been a major part in buildings, from huts to eminent monuments. Already before historic times it was known that such supports were less likely to fall in bad weather if they were inserted into flat stones and that, if the gaps were left at the top, they would give more stability for the roof. That’s why, the pillar base was presented and the improvement of the capital prefigured .Pillar is an equipment or a thing in civil, architectural and structural engineering which is used to transmit load from one part of the structure to another part of the structure. It is a compression member used for this purpose and keep the building straight. In architecture, "pillar" is a part of structure which also have a decorative and structural properties. A pillar may also be an element for decoration not support and structural purposes; many pillars are "engaged", i.e. they make a part of the structure wall. Other definition of pillar is a tall perpendicular structure made of stone, wood, or metal which is used as a backing for a building, or as an ornament.

Meenakshi Amman Temple Meenakshi Temple is one of most famous and largest temple of India which attracts a veryhuge amount of tourists to it. The design, architecture and arts included in this temple are really impressive. It is a Hindu temple. It is also known as MeenakshiSundareshwarar Temple and it is in Tamil Nadu's city named Madurai. It is situated on southern bank of Vaigai River. The temple is devoted to Hindu Goddess Parvathi who is also known as Meenakshi by Hindu and His Husband, Shiva and his name is also Sundareswarar. The temple is one of the very old and historic temple. The pillars used in this temple are the reason who are supporting it from ancient times. The strength and architecture of pillar is really appreciable. The carving and ornaments on pillars are great and an example of Indian ancient art. The temple contains around 33000 sculptures in it which is a very large amount in itself for a temple and it shows the capacity of art and aesthetics approach. The temple earns an annual income of around 60 million Rupees per year. This vast and huge temple is in an area of 45 acres.

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Fig. Pillars of Meenakshi Amman Temple Pillar is one of the most important elements in Architecture and interior design that we can seethrough the history till now in different ways of expression, navigating between structural, functional, esthetics and symbolic need. Design of any product require research and study of the things related to particular product. I did research on most types of pillar existed in history of Indian or Western culture and architecture. I studied types of order present in western architecture and Parts and nomenclature of pillars. Famous and rich architecture pillars of Indian temple were studied in this project and categorization is done. Parameters from them are used in the designing of pillars. I did study on the pillars of temples of Rourkela City in Odessa state of Country India. This research analyzed the columns or pillars as a vital part or element in architecture, aesthetic design and interior design of building, monuments and structures. The researches include the evolution, development and alteration done on pillars time to time by various groups. The illustration of its development from prehistoric time to present time has been done focusing on the aesthetical, ornamental, artistic, functional and structural elements. The results have been found that in present time also pillars are an integrated part of our design, art and architecture in people life. The research has been done on type of Western and Indian pillars and their elements. Through the study of various examples, the study found that the pillars, through the historical development used as a main purpose to support roof, but over time and found pillars bearing roof symbolically, Here comes the psychological factor and expertise in the sense of the role of pillar supporting, in other words, it is not necessary to have a roof for pillar existing. The study found, through the evolution of pillar from of its inception through classic period and modernity to this day that the pillar went through different issues: - Different forms. - Different materials. - Supporting pillars and non-supporting pillars. - Roof existing and non-roof existing. The ancient people worshipped natural forces like Thunder, Fire, Rain, Lightening, Sky and Land as God. At that period there were no temples. In the early period temples were built as a human house in the cave of the hills.Design ofpillars has been generated after categorisation on broad categories and design has been generated according to them.

References 1. R. Nagasamy, Gangaikondasolapuram (Madras : Tamilnadu State 2. Department of Archaeology, 1970), p.15 3. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala 4. Sons and Co., Private Limited, 1983) ,p.84. 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meenakshi_Amman_Temple#Architecture as seen on June 9, 2014.

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18taJ epuk;gpa Mz;fspd; vz;zpf;if ml;ltiz I tUlk; vz;zpf;if kJghd msT Nfhb ypl;lhpy; 2001 1>96>83>234 18.38 2011 2>48>01>030 61.75

2001k; Mz;il 2011 f;F xg;gpLk; NghJ thp tpfpjk; mjpfkhf cahe;;jpUf;fpwJ. kf;fs; Fbg;gij Cf;Ftpf;ff; $lhJ vd;gjw;fhf kJghdq;fs; kPJ mjpf thp tpjpf;fg;gLtjhf muR $WfpwJ vd;whYk; mjid mUe;JNthhpd; vz;zpf;ifAk; ehSf;Fehs; cah;e;J nfhz;Nljhd; tUfpwJ. juf;Fiwthd kJ kdpj capUf;F Mgj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. me;j tifapy; fs;> rhuhak; Nghd;wit kdpjid ngUksT ghjpg;Gf;Fs;shf;FfpwJ vd;gjw;fhf mjw;F mDkjp kWj;Jtpl;L ,e;jpahtpy; jahuhfk; kJghd tiffshd gPh;> tp];fp> gpuhe;jp> uk;> [pd; Mfpatw;iw mDkjpf;Fk; Kiw eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ,JNt ehfhPfkhfTk; fUJfpd;wdh;. ekJ Njrj; jiyth;fshd fhe;jp> uh[h[p Nghd;wth;fSk; fs;Sf;filfis %Ltjw;F Nghuhbdhh;fs;. Mdhy; ,uh[h[papd; rfhthd rj;jpa%h;j;jp ,jw;F vjpuhf epd;wdh;. 1937k; Mz;L Njh;jypy; fhq;fpu]; ntw;wp ngw;wJ. fhq;fpu]; MSk; midj;J khfhzq;fspYk; G+uz kJtpyf;if nfhz;L tu epidj;jJ. mjw;F Kd;Ndhbahf nrd;id jpfo;e;jJ. gpd;dh; 1946 Njh;jy; eilngw;wJ. mjd; gpd; kPz;Lk; kJtpyf;if nfhz;Ltu Ml;rpahsh;fs; epidj;jdh;. mg;NghJk; nrd;id khfhzNk kJtpyf;F nfhz;Ltu Ntz;Lk; vd Kjypy; Fuy; nfhLj;jJ. Xke;Jhh; uhkrhkpapd; mauhj ciog;ghy; 1948y; nrd;idapy; G+uz kJtpyf;F mkYf;F te;jJ. Mdhy; ,e;jpahtpy; kw;w khepyq;fis xg;gpLk; nghOJ kJtpyf;F vd;gJ Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gltpy;iy. muRf;F tUtha; mjpfkhd msT ,jpypUe;J jhd; fpilf;fpd;wd vd kw;w khepyq;fs; ,jid Cf;fg;gLj;jtpy;iy. ,jdhy; ,J gpuhe;jpaq;fspy; kJtpyf;if jPtpukhf mky;gLj;j Kbahj epiy Vw;gl;lJ. fhq;fpu]pd; ngU Kaw;rpapd; tpisthf 1954 brk;gh; 6y; xU tprhuizf; FO xd;wpid mikj;jJ. ,f;FO Muha;e;J 15 ghpe;Jiufisf; nfhLj;jJ. ,f;FO =kd; ehuhazd; jiyikapy; Vw;gJj;jg;gl;ljhy; =kd; ehuhazd; FO vd miof;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; gpd;dh; 1964y; kw;nwhU FO xd;Wk; Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. “Njf; re;j;” jiyikapy; xU FO xd;iw

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 109 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X epakpj;jJ. ,th; gQ;rhg;igr; Nrh;e;jth;. Xa;T ngw;w cah;ePjpkd;w ePjpgjp Mthh;. ,f;FOTk; rpy ghpe;Jiufis nfhz;L te;jJ. mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; [dthp 30> 1970k; Mz;L fhe;jpapd; Ehw;whz;L jpdk; nfhz;lhlg;gl;lJ. mt;tpohtpy; ehL KOtJk; kJtpyf;if nfhz;L tu Ntz;Lk; vd vz;zpdhh;. Mdhy; ngUk;ghyhd khepy muRfs; ,jid Vw;ftpy;iy. muRf;F ,jdhy; ngUk; Nghpog;G Vw;glf;$Lk; vd mQ;rpd. me;j R+o;epiyapYk; jkpofj;jpy; kJtpyf;F mkypy; ,Ue;jJ. jkpo;ehl;by; fhq;fpuRf;F gpwF mz;zhtpd; Ml;rp Vw;gl;lJ. ,t;tuRk; kJtpyf;fpy; cWjpNahbUe;jJ. gpd;dh; fiyQh; fUzhepjp Ml;rp Vw;gl;lJ. ,t;thl;rpapy; kJtpyf;F uj;J nra;a jPh;khdpj;jJ. Vndd;why; ehl;by; Vw;gl;l epjpneUf;fb ,jw;F fhuzkhf mike;jJ. uh[h[p> fhkuh[h;> fhapNj kpy;yj; Nghd;Nwhh; vjph;j;jdh;.1971 [Piy 30 md;W fs;Sf;filfSk;> 1974 nrg;lk;gh; 1 rhuhaf;filfSk; %lg;gLk; vd mwptpg;G nra;jhh;. mjdhy; kJtpyf;F kPz;Lk; eilKiwf;F nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ. mjd; gpd;dh; vk;.[p.Mh; Ml;rp Vw;gl;lJ. ,t;thl;rpapYk; kJtpyf;F eilKiwapy; ,Ue;jJ. kJtpyf;F G+uzkhf nfhz;L tug;gl Ntz;Lk; vd jpl;lj;Jld; Ml;rpf;F tug;gl;lhYk; mjid epiwNtw;Wtjpy; mjpfkhd rpf;fy;fs; Vw;gl;ld. ,r;rpf;fy;fis jPh;g;gjw;F rl;lj;jpy; rpy jpUj;jq;fs; $l Nkw;f;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. ,Ue;jhYk; ,jid KOikahd mstpy; nray;gLj;jKbatpy;iy. fhuzk; fs;sr;rhuhak;. fs;sr;rhuhak; ngUFtjpd; %yk; Nghpog;GfSk;> rhTfSk; mjphpj;jd. ,jid rkhspf;f vk;.[p.Mh; 1981 Nk 1y; kJtpyf;if uj;J nra;a cj;jutpl;lhh;. ,jdhy; kPz;Lk; fs;Sf;filfSk;> rhuhaf;filfSk; jpwf;fg;gl;ld. ,jdhy; ,f;filfspd; chpkq;fs; Vyj;jpy; tplg;gl;ld. ngUk;ghyhdit jdpahh; trk; xg;gilf;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; tpisthf kJit nkhj;jkhf tpw;gid nra;tjw;F xU epWtdk; epWtg;gl Ntz;Lk; vdTk; gzpf;fg;gl;lJ. me;epWtdj;jpd; ngah; jhd; ,d;iwa “lh];khf;”. ,e;epWtdk; 1983 [Piyapy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. 1989y; fUzhepjp kPz;Lk; Ml;rpf;F te;jhh;. mth; me;Neuj;jpy; kypT tpiy kJit mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;. ,jw;F ngz;fs; kj;jpapy; gyj;j vjph;;g;G vOe;jJ. ,jd; njhlh;r;rpahf kJtpyf;if nfhz;Ltu Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nfh~k; khepyk; KOtJk; xypf;fg;gl;lJ. Mdhy; ve;j khw;wKk; epiwNtwtpy;iy. fUzhepjp Ml;rpf;F gpd; te;j n[.n[ayypjh kypT tpiy kJit uj;J nra;jhh;. ,jd; tpisthf fs;sr;rhuhak; fs;s tpw;gidf;F te;jJ. ,tw;iw Fbj;J capiu kha;j;Jf; nfhz;lth;fs; gyh;. mjdhy; kJ xopg;Gr; rl;lk; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ. ,r;rl;lj;jpd; %yk; Vuhskhdth;fs; tof;Fj; njhlh;e;jhh;fs;. epiyik fl;Lf;flq;fhky; NghfNt kPz;Lk; md;iwa epiyia rhp nra;tjw;fhf n[ayypjh rhuha tpw;gidf;F mDkjp toq;fpdhh;. md;wpypUe;J ,d;Wtiu kJtpyf;F Nfhhpf;if njhlh;e;J vOe;j tz;zk; cs;sJ. muR tUtha; fhuzj;ijf; fhl;b ,jid xopg;gjw;F jaf;fk; fhl;b tUfpwJ vd;Nw $wyhk;. lh];khf; Kjypy; ntWk; 1500 yl;rk; &ha; KjyPl;by; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. mz;ikapy; ,jd; tUtha; tpguk;. ml;ltiz II Mz;L nkhj;j tUkhdk; 2011 – 12 &.21>96>602.40 yl;rk; 2012 – 13 &.25>31>366.86 yl;rk; ,jid Muk;g KjyPl;by; xg;gpLk; nghOJ 1600 klq;F mjpfk;. kJghd jahhpg;ghsh;fshf kplh]; Nfhy;ld; Kd;dpiyapy; ,Uf;fpwJ. rjh;d; mf;hpgh;d]; ,uz;lhkplj;ijAk;> vk;gpb];byhP]; %d;whkplj;ijAk; ngw;wpUf;fpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf ,t;tifahd MiyfSf;F jug;gl;l Mh;lh;fis vLj;Jf;nfhz;Nlhkhdhy; mjd; cz;ikj; jd;ikia Ghpe;Jnfhs;s KbAk;.

ml;ltiz III Miy Mh;lh;fs; nrg;lk;gh; 2010 – khh;r; 2011 kplh]; Nfhy;ld; 26.65 kw;Wk; 51.06 rjh;d; mf;hpgh;d]; 54.96 kw;Wk; 78.46 vk;gp b];byhp]; 74.99 kw;Wk; 100 Nkhfd; GwthP]; 29.07 kw;Wk; 48.24 rpth b];byhp]; 50.22 kw;Wk; 63.45 Aidnll; ];gphpl;]; 71.43 kw;Wk; 100

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xNu Mz;by; kl;Lk; vt;tstjpfkhd jahhpg;Gfs; ntspte;Js;sd vd;gij Nkw;fz;l ml;ltizapypUe;J mwpayhk;. kf;fspd; gad;ghLk; NjitAk; ehSf;F ehs; kpf Nkhrkhd mstpy; ngUfpf; nfhz;Nl jhd; Nghfpd;wd. ,j;jF jPikfshy; Vw;gLk; ngUk;ghjpg;Gfis kf;fs; czuhJ ,y;iy. ,Ue;jhYk; mDgtpj;Jf; nfhz;L jhd; tUfpd;wdh;. G+uz kJtpyf;F vd;gJ Nfs;tpf;FwpNa. ,d;iwf;F vOg;gg;gl;l G+uz kJtpyf;F vd;gJ ,d;dhspy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ my;y. fhyk;fhykhf vog;gl;l ngUk; Nfhhpf;if. ,jpy; xU rpyhpd; caph; jpahfKk; mlq;Fk;. me;j thpirapy; jdJ 16Mk; tajpypUe;Nj kJtpyf;F Nghuhl;lj;jpy; jd;id ,uz;lhtJ kJ tUthiag; ngUf;Fk; NtiyiaAk; XNu Neuj;jpy; nra;fpwhh;. ,t;tpU NtiyiaAk; xUtNu nra;tjhy; mjpy; $Ljy; Rik NfhshWfs; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. kJ tpw;gidia fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; nghWg;G NtnwhUthplk; xg;gilj;jhy; fl;Lf;Fs; nfhz;Ltu tha;g;G cs;sJ. xt;nthU jdpkdpjDf;Fk; ehl;bd; ,iwikia vt;thW kjpf;fpd;NwhNkh mNj khjphp jdpkdpjDf;F vd;W xU ,iwikia mjhtJ xOf;fj;ij fhg;ghw;w Kaw;r;rpf;f Ntz;Lk;. Fbfhudha; ghh;j;J jpUe;jhtpl;lhy; Fbia xopf;f KbahJ. muRjhd; ,jw;F Kaw;rp vLf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjy;y. kdpjd; vd;gtd; MW mwpT gilj;jtd;. ,UNtW lk;sh;fspy; ey;y ePh;> rhf;fil fye;j ePh; itf;Fk; nghOJ ekJ mwptpd; gad;ghl;lhy; rhf;fil ePiu tpl;L tpl;L ey;y ePiu vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpNwhk; my;yth mNj khjphp kJ kdpjDf;F NfL tpistpf;Fk; kdpj clYf;F Mgj;J vd;gij njhpe;J nfhz;l kdpjd; jhdhf mjid iftpl Ntz;Lk;. xt;nthU kdpjDf;Fk; gFj;jwpAk; jpwd; cz;L. Njitahd ,lq;fspy; mjid gad;gLj;jj; njhpe;jhy; kJtpyf;F rl;lk; xd;Nw Njitapy;iy. jhdhfNt epiyik fl;Lf;Fs; mlq;fptpLk;. mjpfkhd ,lq;fspy; ehk; fhz;fpNwhk;. Nghijapdhy; kidtpia Jd;GWj;JtJk; gps;isfis nfhLikg;gLj;;JtJk; md;whl tof;fkhf nfhz;Ls;sdh;. rpy FLk;gq;fspy; Fbahy; mtjpg;gLk; je;ijahpd; mtyj;ij fhz rfpf;fhj Foe;ijfspd; kdepiyiaAk; fhz;gJ fz;$L. mz;ikapy; ,uhkehjGuj;jpy; xUtd; Fbj;Jtpl;L te;J ehs;NjhWk; jdJ je;ijaplk; nrhj;J jfuhW gz;zpf; nfhz;bUe;jhdhk;. xU ehs; mtd; tof;fk; Nghy; Fbj;Jtpl;L jfuhW nra;Jtpl;L Ngha; xU kuj;jbapy; Jhq;f nrd;whd;. mtuJ je;ij ,tid eltbf;ifia nghWf;f Kbahky; mtid ntl;bf; nfhd;Wtpl;lhh; vd nra;jpfs; thapyhf mwpfpNwhk;. ,e;j xU nra;jpfs; kl;Lky;y gy nra;jpfs; ekf;F fpilf;fpd;wd. mNj Nghy; gP`hhpy; N`f;Guh vd;w ,lj;jpy; kfsph; gQ;rhaj;J eilngw;wJ. mg;gQ;rhaj;jpd; jPh;g;gpy; Fbg;NghUf;F Jilg;gj;jhy; jz;il nfhLg;gjhf jPh;khdk; epiwNtw;wpaJ. NkYk; Fbg;NghUf;F &.2500 /- mguhjkhfTk;> Fb tpw;gid nra;NthUf;F &.19000 /- mguhjkhfTk; nfhLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;; vdTk; jPh;khdk; epiwNtw;wg;gl;lJ. ,t;thW Kaw;rp vLg;gjd; %yk; XusT Fbia epWj;j KbAk;. jdp kdpj xOf;fk; fhf;fg;gl Ntz;Lkhdhy; G+uz kJtpyf;F eilKiwf;F tuNtz;Lk;. mjw;F murhq;fKk; xj;Jiog;G ey;f Ntz;Lk;.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 111 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X ghh;it Ehy;fs; 1. Nfhkjpehafk;> P.jkpoftuyhW> ,uh[ghisak;> 2009. 2. Hardgrave, L.Robert, The Dravidian Movement, Bombay 1965. 3. Kj;Jf;Fkhh;> R.jpuhtpl ,af;f tuyhW> nrd;id 2014. 4. Rajjayan, K.Tamilnadu, A Real History, Tiruvandrum, 2005. 5. Santhanam.A.N. The Dravidian Movement in Tamilnadu and its legacy, Madras 1982. nra;jpjhs;fs; 1. The Hindu, Oct 15, 2007. 2. Times of India, 29 Oct 2009. 3. The New Indian Express, 4 June 2010. 4. Business Standard, 4 June 2010. 5. Deccan Chronicle, 12 Aug 2010. 6. The Hindu, Tamil, Jan 18, 2015. 7. The Hindu, Tamil, July 24, 2015. 8. The Times of India, 29 Nov 2013.

Neh;Kfj; Njh;T 1. ee;jpdp> rl;lf;fy;Yhhp khztp> kJiu> Njjp Nk.28>2014. 2. ntq;flhr;ryk;> rrpngUkhs; rNfhjuh;> Nryk;> Njjp [Piy 21> 2015.

Web Site 1. http://tasmac.tn.gov.in 2. [email protected] 3. [email protected]

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 112 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

NAGARAJA TEMPLE- NAGERCOIL

Dr. N.Meenakumari Assistant Professor of History Saraswathi Narayanan College, Perungudi, Madrai

The area comprising the present Kanyakumari district was a part of the erstwhile Travancore state. In 1835, when the state was divided in to Northern and Southern divisions, this area formed part of Southern division and was placed in the charge of Dewan Peishkar, Kottayam. In July 1949, when the United States of Travancore and Cochin was inaugurated, the present Kanyakumari area continued to be a part of Trivandrum district of Kerala State. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode Taluks, which formed the southern divisions of the former Trivandrum District, were predominantly Tamil speaking. They agitated for the merger of this area with Madras State. The States Reorganisation Commission also recommended this. Accordingly, the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 was passed and the Kanyakumari District was formed on 1st November 1956 , with the four Taluks, Viz., Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode and merged with Tamil Nadu. Thiru. R .Thirumalai I.A.S assumed charge as the first Collector of Kanyakumari District on 01.11.1956. Temples formed the nucleus of social life in the country.They integrated the various segments of the societyfrom diversity. Temple is a place of worship. A sacred house of gods and goddesses, itcatered to the religious needs of the people and provides a link between man and god and the earthly life and the divine life. Worshipping gods in temples not only infuses divinity and purity tothe heart of the devotees but also it is natural outlet of their religious impulses and sentiments. They believed that if gods and goddesses were appeased,there would be rain and prosperity.So the heavenly beings werepleased with offerings of abhishekhas(sacred bath) oblations, rituals and festivals according to a gamic prescriptions. The South Indian temples have always played a vital role in the religious, social, cultural and economic life of the people. In this context, it is possible to bring in to light the unique nature of the famous Shiva temples of Kanyakumari District.While singing the glory of our motherland, the national poet Subramania Bharathi says : All the nations in the world it is Bharat that nurtured the highest culture and civilization. From his words we learn that India had been considered as a holy piece of land in the whole world. Why India is called a holy land? Why it is known as Punya Bhoomi(Holy Land) ? In his poem Bharathi has given a list of reasons why India is called as a holy land. The first and foremost feature of India is its divine affinity. The poet says that India is a land of temples which elevate the people to spiritual dignity.The temples where Hindu Gods and Goddesses are enshrined and the real pillars and protected forts of Hinduism. They have the greatest influence in strengthening the spiritual and cultural aspects of our country. Our ancestors have sacrificed their lives for the construction and maintenance of these temples. Our sculptures, music, dance, mantras and every aspects of our culture were dedicated to God in temples. Indian temples are thus the standing monuments of the everlasting spiritual and cultural heritage ofour country.The main parts of a temple are, (1) Garpagraha (Sanctum Sanctorum)(2) Vimana (3) Ardha mandapa (4) Prakarasand (5) Gopura (Tower). Indian temple is only a reflection of the physical form of aman. One can find different types of art and architecture in the temples of Kanyakumari District. The melodies sound produced by the musical pillars of Suchindrum temple, the beauty of the 145 woodenpanels depicting the story of Ramayana found in the Ramaswamy temple at Padmanabhapuram,

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 113 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X the exquisite wooden carvings of Udayamarthanda mandapa in Thiruvattar temple, the religious integration of Nagaraja temple at Nagercoil and the cultural integration of twelve Shivalayas are the important features of the temples in Kanyakumari District.Architecturally we find several types of temples in Kanyakumari District. The Nagaraja temple of Cherastyle,Cholarajakoil of Chola style and the Suchindrum temple of Pandya style clearly show the impact of Chera, Chola and Pandya rule in Kanyakumari District. There are several temples with conical vimana of Kerala style in Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluk sof Kanyakumari District. There is a natural cave temple at Chitharal hill and a rock- cut cave temple at Thirunandikkarai. The two tired conical vimana in theMahadeva temple at Palliyadi is unique. Kanyakumari District is having temples of great antiquity and cultural importance. Temples also functioned as a source of history. Music and dance formed a regular part of the temple festivals.Educational institutions were also run by the temples. A copper plate inscription dated A.D.866 inform us that an institution of learning in literary and martial arts was established in the campus of the Vishnu temple at Parthibhasekarapuram.The temple of Nagaraja at Nagercoil which unifies the four streams of Indian religion Saivism, Vaishnavism,Jainism and Buddhism is a fine example of religiousintegration. Thetemple also serves as an arena of sports. On Shivarathiri several devotees start from the temple at Thirumalai and finish their marathon pilgrimage at Nattalam covering nearly 100 km. in 12 hours. That is called as Shivalayaottam. Thus, we have seen the Hindu temples werenot only places of worship but the very focus of society.

Nagaraja Temple is a Hindu temple worshipping Nagaraja (King of Serpents- Vasuki) situated at the heart of Nagercoil town. The name for the town Nagercoil originated from this temple. The temple has innumerable statues of serpents. The temple has two main deities, Krishna (reverred as Ananda Krishna) and Nagaraja. The upadevathas are Shiva, Subrahmanya Swami, Ganesha, Devi and Dwarapalaka. As ancient tradition the priests are Namboothiri Brahmins who are referred by Pambumekkat mana in Thrissur, Kerala.The temple has a vast pond. Devotees consecreate Naga idols in the temple and offer milk and turmeric powder as a part of their prayers. The temple is open from 4.00 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. and from 5.00 p.m. to 8.30 p.m.

Naga worship Nagas are children of Kashyapa and Kadru. Among the prominent Nāgas of Hinduism are Manasa, Sesha, and Vasuki. The Nairs of Kerala are clans which are believed to have originated from the serpent dynasty. Legends says that the nāgas also carry the elixir of life and immortality. Garuda once brought it to them and put a cup with elixir on the ground but it was taken away by Indra. However, a few drops remained on the grass. The nāgas licked up the drops, but in doing so, cut their tongues on the grass, and since then their tongues have been forked. Nagas are snakes that may take human form. They tend to be very curious. According to traditions, Nāgas are only malevolent to humans when they have been mistreated. They are susceptible to mankind's disrespectful actions in relation to the environment. They are also associated with waters — rivers, lakes, seas, and wells — and are generally regarded as guardians of treasure.They are objects of great reverence in some parts of southern India where it is believed that they bring fertility and prosperity to their veneration. Expensive and grand rituals like Nagamandala are conducted by Tuluva's in their honor (see Nagaradhane).The prominent of nagas in the Puranas are

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• Vasuki or Naga raja, The King of the Nagas. • Ananda or Aadi Sesha, The serpent on whom Vishnu does yoga nidra(Ananda shayana). • Karkotaka, controls weather. • Padmavati, the Nāgī queen and companion of Dharanendra. • Paravataksha, his sword causes earthquakes and whose roar causes thunder. • Takshaka, tribal king of the Nāgas, whose kingdom was called as Takshashila. • Ulupi, a companion of Arjuna in the epic Mahabharata. • Manasa, the Hindu goddess of Nagas; the curer of snake-bites and the sister of Vasuki • Kaliya, a snake punished by Krishna in Yamuna river.Matali, charioteer of Indra; Matali was also the charioteer of Rama during the Lanka Battle.

Ashta Naga The eight revered nagas are referred as ashta nagas they are Shesha, Vasuki, Takshaka, Karkotaka, Shankhapala, Gulika, Padma and Mahapadma. It is said about the colors of nagas that Vasuki is pearl white, Takshaka is red, Karkodaka is black with 3 white stripes in his hood, Padma is pink as lotus with white streak and coral ornaments, Mahapadma is white with trident mark in head, Shankhapala is yellow with white streak in hood, Gulika is red with crescent mark in hood.

History It is difficult to ascertain the exact age of the temple. There is no authentic epigraph to aid the historian with its chronology. The mountain Mahendragiri in the Kanyakumari district is referred to as the abode of Nagas in the Ramayana of Valmiki. From this, it can be presumed that the origin of Naga influence in the area goes back to legendary times.From the five headed-serpent deity of the temple, the name of this town Nagercoil is derived; gradually its old name, Kottar, has mostly faded. There is a part of town called Kottar, so the old name remains.

Traditional background There is a traditional background regarding the origin of Nagaraja temple.One day when a girl was cutting grass, blood began to spurt from below. She discovered that the sickle had cut into the head of a five-headed serpent. Dazed with fear, the girl fled to the nearest village and reported what she had seen. People in large numbers flocked to the spot and witnessed the miracle with their own eyes. By the joint effort of the villagers, the place was cleared and preserved for the purpose of worship. They built a small shrine in the locality and worshiped the five-headed serpent. Hearing that the miracle happened at this place, people from other places visited the temple and offered poojas.

King of Kalakad Once the King of Kalakkad, who was stricken with leprosy, came to the temple on Sunday in the Tamil month of Avani and did penance before the deity. Miraculously, he was cured of the disease, and the fame of the temple spread far and wide. The king built the present temple in gratitude. On every Sunday during Avani (August/September) the king, accompanied by his wife and children, used to visit the temple and offer poojas. Ever since, the temple is visited on every Sunday in Avani by thousands of devotees and the serpent shrine is worshiped.

References 1. T. Madhava Menon, A Handbook of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 2000, pp. 245-260. 2. S. Padmanabhan, Kumari Mavatta Kovilkal (Tamil), Nagercoil, 1974, pp. 32-40.

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3. R.Venkatraman, India Kovil Kattidakalai Varalaru (History of Indian Temple rchitecture) Tamil, Madurai, 1983, pp.107-114. 4. Aaivu Kalanjiam, Monthly Historical Research Journal, Nagercoil, December 2001, pp.5-10. 5. A.K. Perumal, Sthanumalayan Aalayam (Sthanumalayan Temple) Tamil, Chennai, 2008, pp.137-142. 6. M. Immanuel, Kanyakumari Aspects and Architects,Nagercoil, 2007, pp.37-44 7. S.K. Thangam, Ahilathil Arputha kovil (Glorious temple of the world) (Tamil), Suchindrum, 2000, pp.70-75. 8. D.Velappan, Nanjilnad (Tamil), Nagercoil, 2000, pp.7-10. 9. Souvenior, released in connection with Astabanthana Mahakumbabishekam, thanumalayan temple, Suchindrum, 1984, pp.10-15. 10. S.Padmanabhan, Temples of Kanyakumari District, Nagercoil, 1970, pp.15-20. 11. T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Travancore Archaeological Series, Vol.I, Trivandrum, 1908, pp.127-130. 12. Souvenior, Kanyakumari Devaswom Board, Suchindrum, 1971, pp.5-9. !!

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LAND GRANTS OF THE VIJAYANAGAR RULERS

Dr.M.Baby Rani, M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D., Associate Professor of History V.V.Vanniaperumal College for Women, Virudhunagar

Dr.S.Vaidehi, M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D., Associate Professor of Economics V.V.Vanniaperumal College for Women, Virudhunagar

Introduction th The ideological impetus attributed to the formation of Vijayanagara Kingdom in the 14 century A.D. 1 was spent by 1450 A.D. when the region of Deveraya II ended. Then and thereafter, Vijayanagara was itself a successful conquest state with much of Tamil country, Karnataka and Andhra under Telugu and Kannada chief’s whose ruling authority was based upon military service to Vijayanagar kings. th When the second Pandya royal authority was displaced in the 16 century by that of Vijayanagar commanders and other military adventures from Andhra and by petty Marava chieftains from the 2 southern region continued to be controlled by the Brahmanas and Vellalas. They enjoyed the right of Kani or communal ownership of land. th The rise of the Vijayanagar kingdom in the 14 century A.D. was mainly due to the universal desire fell all over south India among all classes of Hindus to protect their dharma against their enemies. The Vijayanagar rulers subdue the enemies of Hinduism. They had their chief aim to protect the hindu 3 dharma.

Historical Background The fragmentary character of Vijayanagar politics could be ameliorated but not overcome, by any administrative structure as long as lordship itself continued to be segmentary. Vijayanagar empire was the outcome of the revolutionary movement which had begun in Deccan for the expulsion of Muslims 4 from that part of the country. Ever since the conquest of Deccan by Malikafur in the region of Ala-ud- din-Khilji the vanquished raceshad nursed a feeling of deep resentment against their musalman oppressors. The musalmans had caused much havock in the country destroying human lives desecrating scared shirnes and robbing the people of their wealth. The fall of the Kakathiyas in1327 A.D.The weakness of 5 the Hoysalas made the rise of a new power possible. And the Vijayanagar empire soon rose as a mighty work against the muslim of the north. The circumstances of its birth determined its future policy in regard to administration and to the last day its existence Vijayanagar remained essentially a military state with a strong theocratic or religious basis. The Kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bhukka about 1386 A.D. They belonged to Sangama dynasty. Last ruler of this dynasty was dethroned by Narasimha, a minister in 1409 A.D. After this 6 usurpation, Vijayanagar came under Saluva dynasty. In 1505 Saluva dynasty was replaced by Tuluva dynasty, the most distinguished ruler of the dynastry was Krishnadevaraya. After death of Krishnadevaraya the empire faced its decline. The Bhamini Sultans formed a quadruple alliance against 7 the Hindu kingdom. At the battle of Talaikotta in 1565 A.D. the Hindu army was completely routed and

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 121 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X the city was snacked. This was a decisive victory and Vijayanagar empire was extinguished and chaos prevailed in the kingdom.

Religious condition The rulers of Vijayanagar were staunch hindus. They always encourage the Hindu religion in several ways. Religion did not mean according to the ideas held by the founders and their successors. Saivism 8 alone or Vaishnavism alone, but it embraced all the system of religious thought. It is broad mined policy of toleration was followed by the Vijayanagar rulers. Such a policy was not so successfully followed by any other dynasty before Vijayanagar. Religious persecution on a vast scale and wars in the name of a particular sect are less frequent. Infact the emperors followed the non-intervention policy in religious affairs. There were four important hindu religiois sects in the country, namely Saivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism and Buddhism.

Saivism Saivism was the most popular religion during the region of the first dynasty. It enjoysd the patronage of Kings and Countries and had a fairly large following drawn from all classes in society. 10 Vidyaranaya, the chief architect of the Vijayanagar empire, was a great teacher of Advita. He made notable contributions through his philosophy of Advaita. The Sangama rulers were followers of the Orthodox School of Saivism known as Pasupata, and considered the pasupata teacher Kriyasakti as their Guru and regarded Virupaksha as their tutelary deity. The fact that Kriyasakti Guru himself granted some lands to the local Vishnu temple speaks of the Catholicism of the preceptors, who guided the 11 rulers.

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism was most popular religious sect among the hindusim during the region of Vijayanager rulers. The Vaishnava temples, Vaishnavism. Prominent among them were Gopana and Saluva Mangu, 46 who had taken a leading part during Kampanas invasion of Madurai.

Grants made to temples The Emperors of Vijayanagar were staunch Hindus. They always encouraged the Hindu religion in several ways. Generally they made grants of lands at very loq rent to individuals as well as to institutions. The Brahmadaya grants usually took the form of land either small in size or whole 47 villages. It was known as agraharas which were granted to Brahmins either as a reward for their learning or to enable them to impart religious and secular knowledge to the younger members of the 48 community. The devadana grants were made to the temples for the purpose of carrying on daily worship and festivals to deities to whom they were dedicated. The mathapura lands were granted to the Saivite, and probably also to the Vaishnavtive temples and madas inorder to enable the religious of the respective 49 sects to study theology and spread their respective tenets among the laity. The rise of religions like Vaishnavism and Lingayatism which included the belief in a personal god whose service was considered one of the chief means of obtaining salvation, gave a fresh imprtus to 50 temple building. The ruler of Vijayanagar and their subordinates built hundreds of new temples, repaired several old ones and endowed them richly with lands and money so that the daily worship might be carried on in them without interruption. The gods in whose honour these temples were built, were believed to have the same needs as persons occupying exhalted stations in life such as Kings and 51 Princes.

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The archaha had to give the idols a bath and dress them properly before he offered them food. In the evening, the musicians were required to entertain the deity by their music both instrumental and 52 vocal. Flowers, sandal paste and costly jewels were required for adorning him and his consort. Even to carry on the ordinary daily worship of the temple, the service of several people were needed. The musicians, dancing women, flower gardener, archaha and other menial servants had to co-operate in 53 looking after the comforts of the deity presiding over a temple.

Besides there were monthly festivals during which the god and his consort had to be taken in a procession. The Brahmotsava or the annual festival had to be performed for ten days continuously on a 54 grant manner. For all these a heavy amount of money needed. The service of the temple was costly but as if made a direct appeal to the imagination of the people owing to its impressive character, many came forward to pay willingly the expenses of the gods, however heavy they might be. The temple endowments did not always come from the Raya and his nobles. Ordinary men and women made grants of land and money to gods in order to acquire merit for themselves and their 55 relations in the next world. The bigger and more famous temple was the richer were its endowments. 56 The grants had to be properly managed by somebody on behalf on the gods.

Grants made by the Emperors th The period of 16 century marked the zenith of territorial expansion and political sway of Vijayanagar rule in Tamil country Vijayanagar kings had made gifts for their own merit. Achutadevaraya 57 made a gift of village for the merit of Vasava Nayak in 1534 A.D. The inscriptions record that grants were for there merit of father, mother, brother, wife ancestors and other individuals. There is an inscription which records the usage of a prefix called Swami for whose merit the gift was made through 58 addressing the person in the most respectable form. According to Hindu dharma the gift which was made for merit a person’s helped the individual to secure a coveted place in heaven and this gift absolved all his sins accumulated by the man in his life advertently. Land and money were gifted to gods for the merit of persons to attain Swarga as gleaned 59 from epigraphs. The ruler of the first Sangama dynasty appears to have been great patrons of Saivism. A line of Kalamukha divine is the Kriyasakthi, figure prominently in the records of the Vijayanagar rulers. The 60 entire line of teachers of the Vijayanagar period assumed only the distinctive. Insciptions belongs to th 12 century A.D., the strong holds of Kalamukha saivism, support the above contention. The cult of the Vidyesvaras appers to have been borrowed by the Saiva siddhanta system from the mention of the 61 concept of the Viyesvara in their system.

Village Grants According to an inscription date 1371 A.D. Harihara donated a village called Konduru renamed as 62 Devasapuram in honour of his Guru Vidyaranya to a siva temple. On this date the same ruler granted some land in the village of Marudadu to the Varadaraja temple at Bhagirathi. 63 In 1378 A.D.harihara granted 22 villages to the Triyam baka and Viranayana temple at Gadag. Two copper plate inscriptions dated 1391 A.D. and 1398 A.D.refer the ruler as the worshipper of God 64 Triyambaka. Many references in contemporary epigraphical records from all part of the empire registering land grants and cash endowments for worship in the temples dedicated to Veerabhadra attest to the great popularity of the Lingaya cult of Saivism. In 1392 A.D.Mailappa built the gopura of the temple of

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65 Veerabadra at Penukonda. Harihara Maharaya granted certain taxes collected from the villages Pura and MAramanahalli for decorations and services of the god Veerabadra. The object of highest reverence in Veearasaiva theology was Jangama . He was identified with Siva 66 himself and his blessings were sought at all times. Agrahara villages were also granted to the Jangamas. Saluva Parvatayadeva Maharaja granted buildings, gardens and cows for feeding Brahmans and Jangams in the Mallikarjuna temple at Srisailam. A record dated 1480 A.D. from Kunigal, where Matha was built 67 in memory of Virupaksha III. The spread of Veera Saivism and the great popularity in enjoyed amoung the masses as well as the classes in Vijayanagar empire gave a great fillip to the production of Veera Saiva literature of a high order. According to an inscription from Sringeri dated 1356 A.D. Vidyatirtha bestowed some lands upon 68 Brahmans on the occasion of the consecration of the God Vidyasankara. A stone inscription of Bukka states that on the occasion of his visit to Sringeri Matha in1356 A.D. and Bukka made a grant to Vidyatirtha Sripada . The Acharyas of the Kamakoti pita at Kanchi helped the propagation of the tenets 69 of Advaita and commanded the respect of the Vijayanagara rulers. In 1507 A.D. Veerranarasimha granted the villages Elichehur and Venpakkam to Mahadeva 70 Saraswati temple. In 1522 A.D. King Krishnadevaraya gave the villages of Podavur renamed 71 Krishnarayapuram and Kattupattu to the same temple. In 1528 A.D. six years after his first grant, 72 Krishnadevaraya granted the village of Udayambakam to Sadasiva Saraswathi temple. Virupaksha was a Saiva and also described as Parama Iswara . According to his Somalapuram grant he was renowned as Churika Bhalanetra . He performed his coronation in the presence of Lord 73 Virupaksha at Hampi. On the occasion of his coronation in 1466 A.D. he granted 200 kulis of land in the village of Virupakshapura to a Veera Saiva Guru in the temple at Hampi along with four hundred 74 pagodas. In the same year he also granted lands in the village of Hebbala to god Chenna Kesava of Belur 75 for daily offerings and the Vaijayanti garland for the god. In 1474 A.D. he made another gift of the village Alugodu in the presence of the god Chandramauli of the Bhaskara temple on the banks of the 76 Tungabhadra river. Saluva Narasim has devotion to Vishnu is expressed through the large benefactions made to the Vaishnava temples. Among them the Venkatesvara temple at Tirumalai received the large share of the 77 royal bounty. He granted eleven villages to the same temple between 1456 A.D. and 1473 A.D. He constructed the Vasantha mandapam in the middle of Swami Pushkarini at Tirumala where the proceeional image of Sri Venkatesvara rested during the flot and summer festivals. He installed an image 78 of Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy on the Pathway leading to Tirumala hill in 1485 A.D. The special privilages and honours granted to the Srivaishnavas in the time of Saluva Narasimha were unique. The Vaishnava temples also were recipients of many gifts. The service rendred by Krishnadevaraya to the growth of Vaishnavism with the sense of supreme devotion and dedication is a significant facet of religious thought in the Vijayanagar period. The prominent Sri Vaishanava temples of the period that received the maximum attention and patronage of the king were the Sri Ranganatha swamy temple of Srirangam and Sri Venkatesvaran temple at 79 Tirumala. Achutharaya was a staunch follower of Vaishnavism. He was crowned as the King at Tirumala where 80 he was bathed in the water poured out of the land of the God Venkatesvara in 1529 A.D. Like Kirshnadevaraya he also visited the Venkatesvara temple a Tirumala. His first visit took place in 1533 81 A.D. along with his queen Varadaji Amman and his son Kumara Venkadatri. He presented a big kapha strewn with pearls, r ubies, emaralds and diamonds, four Bahuvalayam, a pair of ornament set with gems 82 for the head and various other jewels.

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From Achutaraya’s record dated 1535 A.D. it is clear that he instituted two new festivals, Lakshmi 83 Devi Mahotsvam and the Punarvasu tirunal in the Tirumal temple. The expense of which he granted to the temple a portion of the income from the villages in the Kondaveedu. Achutaraya consecrated a 84 temple for Achuthaperumal at Tirupathi and developed an agraharm of 120 houses round the temple. For daily worship of this perumal he granted the village of Paritiputtur. The large grants to the Varadaraja temple at Kanchi by Achutha prove that he was the ‘Istadeiva’ of 85 the king. Lord Varadaraja occupied a superior place in the heart of the King. In 1529 A.D. the year of his 86 coronation, Achutharaya gave 14 villages for the big special offering to God Varadaraja of Kanchi. Probably he sought the blessings of the God for the prosperity of his Kingdom. After three years in 1532 A.D. he performed the Tulabhara of pearls when he visited, Kanchi with his wife Varadadevi and son Kumara Venkatadri Udayar. He also made a gift of 1000 cows and presented the Divine Insignia, the conch, dicus, Abhaya Hasta and a Vaishnava forehead mark all set with jewells and 87 assigned the income of villages to the temple. He made architectural additions to the existing temples. Consecrated idols and remitted taxes due to the King in favour of the Vaishnava temples. In 1533 A.D. Achutharaya granted house site lands to the servants connected with the Tiruvikrama 88 temple at Tirukoyilur. After a year in 1534 A.D. he made a gift of land with a house in the presence of Vithesevaran to two Sri Vaishnava Bhrahmanas who recited the puranam Bhakti Sanjivini in the 89 Narasimha Perumal temple at Narasingapuram. In 1536 A.D. he built a sixteen pillared mandapa in the Srirangam temple to accomadate devotees on the festival days. The consecration of the image of Tillai 90 Govindarajaperumal by Achutharaya was an important event of his reign. He also set up the image of God Tillai Govindarajaperumal in 1539 A.D. at Chidambaram. He granted 500 Pon along with 4 veils of 91 land for the maintenance of daily workship of the idol. The greatest achievement of Achutha so far as the propagation of Vaishnavism and the foundation of Nayakship of Madurai.

Land Grants Vaishnavisim gained a strong hold during the reign of Sadasivaraya. The British Museum plates of Sadasivaraya record a grant by him of thirty one villages to the Ramanuja shrine at Sriperumpudur to enable the Vaishnava devotees to carry on the regular and incidental worship of Vishnu with incense, 92 lights, oblations of food, flowers, dancing, singing, music, umbrellas etc. He presented two hundreds bulls for the services in the temples of Tirumala and the Nammalvar’s Ramanujakutams at Tirupati. The Yasyanur copper plate grant of Sadasivaraya contains a verse in adoration of the Vaishnava leader Ramanuja. Sadasivaraya made visites twice to Sri Venkatesvara temple at Tirumala. On the auspicious 93 occasion he made a Sarvamanya gift of taxes to the temple. His gifts were few and not lavish unlike his predecessors who embellished the temples with rich gifts. However the large gift of lands in thirty one villages to the Ramanuja shrine at Sriperumbudur is sufficient evidence of Sadasivaraya’s devotion 94 Vishnu. Aliya Ramaraja was the foremost among the devotees of Vishnu. Ramaraja who represented the 95 Araveedu dynasty who was responsible for the installation of Sadasivaraya on the Vijayanavism. In 1545 A.D. Ramaraja granted Pudupattu for the purpose of conducting Mukkoti Dvadasi festival, daily worship and other services to the Venkatesvara and the Govindaraja temples at Tirumala and Tirupati 96 for the merit of the emperor Sadasivaraya. He also granted four veils of land for a daily offering in his own name as Mudal prasadam or first offering to Venkatasvara. He also arranged that the dono’s quarter share of the offered prasadam should be handed over to the Nammalvar’s Ramanujakutam established at Tirupati for feeding the Vaishnva 97 devotees. In 1530 A.D. he granted lands to the Venkateswara temple at Tirumala.

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The cult of Vithoba or Vithala was an important aspect of the Bhakti movement which gained momentum in the Vijayanagar empire. The cult based on total devotion to Lord Krishna in the name of 98 Vithala along with Rukmini at Pandharpur attained great popularity in Maharastra. The popularity of the cult in Vijayanagar is proved by the existence of temples dedicated to Vithala sculptures of Vithala, inscriptions registering grants of land, cash payments and structural additions to the temples of Vithala. According to an inscription dated 1554 A.D. Timmaraja made made a 7 velis of land grant to the temple. Another inscription dated 1516 A.D. registers the construction of a hundred pillared mandapa to God 99 Vithala at Hampi by Krishnadevaraya. Devaraya I made a gift of land in the of the village Belame in the mepinadvriti for the worship of 100 Gumnata swami of Beloga. His son Vijayaraya I granted Meleyur to the God Vijaya ofr Kanakagiri. Devaraya ordered the building of a Chaitalaya dedicated to Parsvanatha in the capital itself in the year 1426 A.D., obviously meant to satisfy the religious needs of the time, and especially to demonstrate once again the validity of one of the Birudas borne by the emperors of Vijayanagar that they were the 101 protectors of Sakala Varnasrama Dharmas. In 1511 A.D.Krishnadevaraya registers a gift of 7 velis of land in the village Marakkudi Sendamarai 102 Kannanallur for the daily offerings to god Ranganatha. In 1515 A.D. Krishnadevaraya ordered on the representation of Devendrakirti, that the lands belonging to the Neminatha basti at Varangal which had been granted by Devaraya should be cleared of 103 forest and restored to the same basti. In 1532 A.D.Achutaraya on the representation of Vaiappa Nayak, issued an order remitting the Sulavari taxes on the lands belonging to the shrine of Vijayanayak at 104 Sambai. Devaraya I made a grant of 4000 kulis of land in the village with its toll revenue for the service of the God Hanumantadeva. Devaraya II exdtended patronage to the Kalasapura Anjaneya temple in the vicinity 105 of Kampili in 1434 A.D. An inscription of the regin of Devaraya II describes the tolerant outlook of the King he granted villages, several ornaments and gold vessels to the Ranganatha temple at Srirangam in 106 1438 and 1448 D.D. He even invoked the blessings of Sri Ranganatha for the spiritual welfare of his 107 mother, by granting four villages to the same temple. During his hunt in 1434 A.D. Devaraya visited the local temple of Rama and gave it a sarvamanya grant of lands with an income of twenty Varaha and also 108 some land in Haneyanad. In this connection, the influence of two Vaishnava brothers, Uttamanambi and Chakaraya, at the court of Devaraya II deserves notice, The two brothers, who brothers, who are believed to have migrated 109 to Srirangam from Srivilliputur were associated with the administration of Srirangam temple. Devaraya II built a mandapa in front of the shrine of Annamutri and installed an image of Hanuman, He 110 presented eight elephants to the same temple in 1382 A.D. In 1472 A.D. Mallikarjuna registers a gift of land after purchase for providing certain offerings to the 111 god in the name of Pallikondaperrumal at Ambattur. King Mallikarjuna made a grant of land in the village of Uttamanceri Kiliyur to the Srianganatha temple at Srirangam for his victory, long life and happiness. The Saluva and Tuluva rulers followers of Vaishnavism, were likewise great devotion to the God. This shows that Veera Narasimha not 112 withstanding his learnings towards Vaishnavism respected the feelings of the Saivas. Among the rulers of Vijayanagara, Krishnadevaraya, a great warrior, statesman and administrator was a refreshing example of the religious toleration of the Hindu rulers. Though he was a great believer of Vaishnavism, he extended his benefactions to the innumerable Saiva temples and patronized Madhava 113 teachers. He paid many more visits to Tirumala. He worshipped the Lord with Kanakaabhisekam of 114 30,000 gold varahas and by grantings 600 kulis of land in the village of Tallapakam for daily offerings.

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In 1513 A.D. he went to Kalahasti and presented to the God there a golden Prabhavali set with precious stones and some villages the gift was made for the merit of his parents. During his Kondaveedu campaign in 1515 A.D. Krishnadevaraya visited Srisailam. The village of 115 Maduru was granted to the God Narasimhaswami of Srisailam for providing offerings to the God. He preformed the tulapurusadana in the Amareswara temple and granted agraharas. HE visited Kanchi in 1516 A.D. and made gifts worth 1500 varahas which accured from the lands donated for sacred offerings 116 117 to Varadaraja of Kaqnchi. In 1517 A.D. he attended the Mahamagam festival at Kumbakonam. Krishnadevaraya pleased the Saivas and Vaishnavas by presenting two cars for the Vinayaka in Ekambarantha temple and Krishna in the Varadaraja temple. He also granted to velis of land for the float 118 festival of Ekambaranatha at Kanchi. An inscription on the south wall of the central shrine in the Veerataneswara temple at Virkudi dated 1516 A.D. states that Krishnadevaraya donated many land grants and 20,000 Varahas of gold to Siva and 119 Vishnu temples in the Chola mandalam. In 1518 A.D. he granted 300 kulis of land to the Kotinatha 120 temple in the presence of the Virupaksha linga on the bank of the Tungabadra. The spirit of tolerance that prevailed in the empire is also reflected in the invocatory verses in same of the contemporary epigraphs. Numerous inscriptions of the period berar testimony to the liberal grants made to the Saiva as well as Vaishnava temples.

References 1. T.V.Mahalingam, southIndian Polity, University of Madras, Madras, 1967, p.26. 2. Ibid ., p.29. 3. K.A.Nailkakantasastri, History of South India , Oxford University Press, Madras, 1976, p.118. 4. Ibid ., p.168. 5. Konduri Srojini Devi, Religion in Vijayanagar Empire, Sterling Publishers Pvt, Ltd., New Delhi, 1990, p.86. 6. K.A.Nilakantasastri, op.cit., p.171. 7. Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India – Vijalanagara, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 1994, p.78. 8. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.48. 9. Ibid ., p.50 10. Ibid ., p.53. 11. R.G.Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Savisim and minor religious sstems, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1982, p.110. 12. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.186. 13. R.Dayalan, Early Temples of Tamilnadu, New Delhi, 1992, p.13. 14. Ibid ., p.14. 15. Ibid ., p.50. 16. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.76. 17. Ibid ., p.77. 18. K.A.Nilakantasastri, Development of Religion in South India, New Delhi, 1963, p.56. 19. R.Dayalan, op.cit., p.44. 20. Ibid ., p.45. 21. D.Devakunijari, Madurai Through the Ages, Madras, 1979, p.76. 22. Ibid ., p.81. 23. S.I.I., Vol.IX, No.427.

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24. S.I.I., Vol.XVI, No.43. 25. Ep.Ind, XVII, p.110. 26. N.Venkata Ramanayya, op.cit., p.286. 27. K.A.Nilakantasastri, Development of Religion in South India, p.137. 28. S.I.I., Vol.I, No.159. 29. Ep.Ind, Vol.XVII, p.110. 30. S.I.I., Vol.VII, No.62. 31. Ibid., No.73. 32. R.G.Bandarkar, op.cit., p.160. 33. S.I.I., Vol.XVI, No.153. 34. Ep.Ind., Vol.VI, p.306. 35. K.D.Bharadwaj, op.cit., p.126. 36. Ep.Ind., Vol.XXV, p.323. 37. Ibid .,p.325. 38. Ibid ., p.126. 39. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.112. 40. S.I.I., Vol.XVI, No.127. 41. Ibid ., p.109. 42. S.I.I., Vol.IX, No.174. 43. Ep.Ind., Vol.IV, pp.5-6. 44. Ibid ., p.12. 45. S.I.I., Vol.IX, No.46. 46. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.186. 47. Ep.Ind., Vol.VI, pp. 336-370. 48. S.I.I., Vol.IX, No.592. 49. Ep.Ind., Vol.XVI, p.222. 50. Tirumala Tirupati Devastanam Epigraphical Report, Part I p.28. 51. K.V.Raman, Srivaradaraja Swamy Temple – Kanchi, New Delhi, 1975,p.97. 52. S.I.I., Vol.IX, No.413. 53. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.219. 54. S.I.I., Vol.VI, No.324. 55. Ep.Ind., Vol.XVII, No.124. 56. A.R.E., 126/1964. 57. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.120. 58. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.107. 59. T.T.D.E.Report, p.294. 60. S.I.I., Vol.XVII, No.169. 61. A.R.E. 147/1964. 62. M.H.Rama Sharma, The History of the Vijayanagar Empire, Vol.I,Bombay, 1978,p.44. 63. T.T.D.E.Report, p.283. 64. Ep.Car, Vol.VIII, p.193. 65. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.116. 66. Ibid ., p.12. 67. Ep.Car., Vol.III,p.105. 68. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.310.

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69. M.H.Rama Sharma, op.cit., p.66. 70. S.I.I., Vol.XXI, No.110. 71. Ibid., No.112. 72. N.Venkata Ramanayya, Kampili and Vijayanagara, Madras, 1929, p.88. 73. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.123. 74. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.126. 75. Ibid., No.133. 76. S.I.I., Vol.XVI, No.118. 77. S.I.I., Vol.XXIV, No.156. 78. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.119. 79. Ibid., p.121. 80. R.G.Bandarkar, op.cit., p.226. 81. T.T.D.E., Report, p.279. 82. Ep.Car, Vol.IV, Ch.196. 83. S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.303. 84. Konduri Sarojini Devi, op.cit., p.112. 85. S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.155. 86. Ep.Ind., Vol.V, pp.216-219. 87. Ep.Car, Vol.IV, Ch.210. 88. T.T.D.E., Report, pp.305-307.

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kJiu Ml;rpf;fhyf;fijfSk; Gfoplq;fSk;

Nt.kPdh cjtpg;Nguhrphpia> jkpo;j;Jiw Vy tptrhapfs; rq;ff; fy;Yhhp> Nghbehaf;fDhh;

Kd;Diu fw;fhy kdpjdha; tho;e;J te;j kdpjd; nky;y nky;y ehfhpfk; ngw;W jhd; ghh;j;j kw;Wk; Nfl;ltw;iwj; jdJ fw;gid mwpTf;F Vw;wp ,yf;fpaq;fisg; gilf;f Muk;gpj;jhd;. kdpjid kdpjdhf thor; nra;Ak; ,af;fpaq;fs; midj;Jk; tuyhw;Wg; ngl;lfkhfTk; jpfo;fpwJ. ,t;tifapy; Kjypy; tdkhfTk; (flk;gtdk;) gpd; “tpohTkjp %Jhuhf ”tsg;gk; ngw;W jw;NghJk; te;Njhiu tuNtw;Fk; jkpoh;jk; ghuk;ghpaj;Jld; jpfOk; kJiuapd; rpwg;Gf;fisAk;> mt;T+hpd; gz;ila nray;KiwfisAk; giwrhw;Wk; tifapy; ,d;iwa kJiuapy; xU rpy Gfoplq;fSk; mjw;fhd Mjhuq;fSk; vQ;rpAs;sd. mjid ntspg;gLj;jp kJiuapd; rpwg;Gfis vLj;jpak;GtNj ,f;fl;Liuapd; Nehf;fkhFk;.

CUk; NgUk; fyhr;rhuj;jpd; jiyefukhf jpfOk; “kJiu ” Kd;G “flk;g tdr;Nrj;jpuk;” vd;Nw miof;fg;gl;L te;jJ. ,e;epiyapy; “kJiu vd;w ngah; ngw Guhzf;fij xd;Wk; $Wth;. flk;gtdf;fhlhf Kd;G jpfo;e;j ,d;iwa kJiuapy; flk;gtdj;ij flf;Fk; epiyapy; tptrhap xUth; xU kuj;jpd; mbapy; Rak;G ypq;fj;ijf; fz;Zw;whh; vd;Wk; gpd; mg;nghOJ kJiuia Ml;rpj; nra;j FyNrfu ghz;badplk; ,ij njhptpf;fNt mt;turh; fhl;ilj; Jha;ikr; nra;J me;j ypq;fj;ijr; Rw;wp Nfhapy; vOg;gpdhh; vd;Wk;> ,e;epiyapy; rptdpd; jiyapypUe;J xU nrhl;L Njd; tpoNt md;wpypUe;J “kJuk;” vd;w mbg;gilapy; “kJiu ” Mapw;W vd;gh; ,jid> “The King Kulachakara Pandiya built a Temple around the lingam. A honey drop form Lord Shiva’s hair “Madharam” fall in the city when he visited the temple when being built is said to be the reason behind “Madurai” on the day the City was to be named Lord Shiva is said tohave appeared and drops of 1 nectar from his hair fall on the two so the place was named Madurai “Sweetness” is meaning of Tamil” vd;w mbfs; tpsf;Ffpd;wd. murpay; gz;ila fhyj; jkpofj;jpy; kf;fs; ,aw;ifNahL $ba gz;ghLila tho;f;ifia elj;jpdh;. nghJkf;fspy; fiyQh;fspd; kPJ nfhz;l kdpjNeak; xUGwk; ,Uf;f jd;idNa ek;gp tho;fpd;w rhkhd;a kf;fs; kPJk; kdpjhgpkhd mbg;gilapy; kd;dh;fs; ele;J nfhz;lJ md;iwa ey;yhl;rpiag; giwrhw;WfpwJ. ,t;thwhf coTj; njhopYf;Fk; tzpfj; njhopYf;Fk; topfhl;Lk; Kd;Ndhbahf mf;fhy kd;dh;fs; tpsq;fpdh; ghz;bad; neLQ;nropaDk; ,r;rpwg;gpw;Fhpatdhf ,Ue;jhd; jdJ kf;fshfpa rpWnjhopy; nra;gth;fs; Kjy; ehd;F epyj;jpy; thOk; kf;fSk; mth; Fbtop gy;yhz;L tho tho;j;jpdhh;fs;. ,jid> “rpWFbg; ngUe; njhOth; Fbnfo;,a ehdpytnuhL njhd;W nkhope;J ”2 vd;w ghlybfs; rpwg;gpf;fpd;wd. ehl;by; thOk; kf;fisg; Gwf;fzpf;fhky; Ml;rp nra;Ak; murdpd; topia kf;fSk; gpd;gw;wp elg;ghh;fs; kf;fsplk; ,jkhfg;grp kfpo;tpj;jYk; jsh;r;rp Vw;gLk; NghJ Ntz;ba cjtpf;fisr; nra;jYk; murpd; jiyaha flikahFk; vd;gij “Fbjop,f; Nfhnyhr;Rk; khepy kd;dd; mbjoP, epw;Fk; cyF ”3

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vd;wJ jpUf;Fws;. ,jd;top nghJkf;fspd; kPJ kd;dh;fs; nfhz;bUe;jj kdpjNeag;gz;G cUg;ngw;wpUg;gijf; fhz KbfpwJ. kJiuapd; md;W epytpa ghz;bahpd; Ml;rpAk; ,t;thwhfj; jpfo;ejikf; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ. kJiuapy; epytpa murpaYk; Ml;rp khw;wq;fSk; kJiuapy; ghz;bah;fs; njhlq;fp Kfkjpah;fs;> Ry;jhdpah;fs;> tp[aefu NguuR ehaf;fh;fs; Mq;fpNyNah;fs; vd; Ml;rp khw;wq;fspd; fPo; murpay; epfo;Tfs; eilngw;Ws;sd. jhaKiwfspy; mbg;gilapy; njhlh;e;J ghz;bah;fs; kJiuia Ml;rp nra;j epiyapy; Re;ju ghz;bad;> tPughz;bad; Ml;rp epiyapNy khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;Ls;sd. tPuhz;baid vjph;j;j %j;j md;idapd; gps;isahfpa Re;jughz;bad; njd;dhL Nehf;fp jpy;ypapypUe;J gilnaLj;J te;j Ry;jhdpah;fshd “myhTjPd; fpy;[papd;” gilj;jiytdhd“khypfhg;g+hpd;” cjtpia tPughz;badplk; Njhw;W Ml;rpia iftpl;l Re;jughz;bad; Ntz;bdhd;. ,jid rhpahd tha;g;ghf fUjpa mth;fs; jq;fsJ typikahy; kJiuia jq;fs; trg;gLj;jpdh;. kJiuapy; Ry;jhd; Ml;rpia epWtpdh;. mjd;gpd; ghz;bah;fshy; kJiuia kPl;f Kbatpy;iy vdpDk; rpjWz;L Ml;rp nra;jdh;. ,th;fspd; gpd; “KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;”shy; mDg;gg;gl;l “ryhYjpd; mrd;rh ” thy; kJiu Kfkjpah;fs; iftrk; te;Js;sJ. ,th;fspd; Ml;rp kJiuapy; nfhLq;Nfhy; Ml;rpahfNt ,Ue;jJ. ,jw;F rhd;W “,gd; gJhjh ” vd;w K];yPk; tuyhw;W Mrphpahpd; Fwpg;Gfspy; fhzf;fpilf;fpwJ. 1341-1341 tiu kJiuia Ml;rpGhpe;j “,ahJj;jpd; jq;fdhprh ” kiyf;Nfhl;iliaf; ifg;gw;Wtjpy; jdf;F ,ilA+whf ,Ue;j 80 taJ Kjpatiu tPuts;shsid nfhd;W mth; Njhiy chpj;J rijia vLj;J tpl;L clYf;Fs; itf;Nfhy; milj;J kJiuapd; kjpy; Rthpd; Nky; njhq;ftpl;lhd; vd;W Kfkjpah;fspd; Ml;rpapy; Nehpy; fz;l kJiuapy; epfo;e;j ,e;epfo;it fz;bj;J vOjpAs;shh;. Fkuh; fk;gd; jiyikapy; gilnaLj;J te;j tp[aefu NguuR kJiuapy; epytpa KfkJ Ry;jhd; Ml;rpia KbTf;F nfhz;L te;jJ. 1371-Mk; Mz;L KjNy Ry;jhdpah;fspd; KJnfYk;G Kwpf;fg;gl;L Ml;rp epiwTf;F thpYk; 1378 tiu Kfkjpah;fspd; Ml;rp epytpaJ. Mq;fpNyah;fs; ,ilapy; ethGfs; vd kJiuapy; gy;NTW Ml;rpkhw;wq;fs; epytpd. kJiuapy; rkz rkak; 2500 Mz;LfSf;FKd; tlehl;by; Njhd;wpa njhd;ikahd rkak; rkzk;. jkpo;ehl;bw;F fp.K.2k; Ehw;whz;by; te;j ,th;fs; jq;fs; rkaf; nfhs;ifiag; gug;Gtij ikakhff; nfhz;L kJiuiar; Rw;wpAs;s kiyfspy; jq;fsJ ,Ug;gplq;fis mikj;J nfhz;ldh; vd;gh;. ,d;Wk; mth;fs; tho;e;j Fd;Wfis “vz;ngWFd;wk;” vd;Nw miog;gjhf njhy;nghUs; Muha;r;rpahsh; Nt.Ntjhryk; fUJfpwhh;. mit jpUg;guq;Fd;wk;> Fuz;bkiy> rkzh;kiy> ahidkiy> mofh;kiy> ehfh;kiy (ehfkiyg;GJf;Nfhl;il) mhpl;lhgl;b> fPotsT kiyf;Fd;W> ,f;Fd;wq;fs; rkzh;fspd; ciwtplkhfTk;. fy;tpf;fw;Fk; ,lkhfTk;> topghl;L Gdpjj; jsq;fshfTk; Mjhpj;jdh; vd;gh;. ghz;bahpd; tuyhW kw;wk; jkpo; vOj;jpd; tsh;r;rpia mwpe;J nfhs;s ,f;Fd;wq;fs; rhd;WfshFk;. kJiuapy; rkzh;fspd; tPo;r;rp fp.gp.7y; rkz rkaj;ijr; rhh;e;j $d;ghz;badpd; kidtp kq;ifah;furpahh; irtr; rkaj;ijr; rhh;e;j epiyapy; jdJ fztid irt rkaj;jpw;F khw;Wk; nghUl;L Fyrpiyahh; cjtpia ehbdhh;. ,e;epiyapy; irt rkaj;ijr; rhh;e;j jpUQhdrk;ge;jh; rkzh;fSld; mdy;-Gdy; thjk; nfhz;L ntd;wJld; $d;ghz;badpd; NehiaAk; Nghf;fp irtj;ij kJiuapy; epiyehl;bNahNjhL rkzh;fis tPo;r;rpf;Ff;fhuzkhdhh;. tPo;r;rpg; ngw;w rkzh;fis fONtw;wpa ,lk; ,d;Wk; kJiuapypUe;J 10 fp.kP epq;fp kJiu kPdhl;rp mk;kd; NfhapYf;F ghj;jpag;gl;l rpd;d fpuhkkhd “rhkee;jk;” vd;w ,lj;jpy; cs;sJ. ,q;F jpUQhdrk;ge;jUf;F NfhapYk; cz;L. ,g;nghOJk; rpj;jpiuj;jpUtpohtpd; 6k; ehspy; nfhz;lhlg;gLk; fONtw;wk;

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 131 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X tpoh tpkh;irahf eilngw;W tUfpwJ. ,e;epfo;T kJiuapy; epfo;e;j kj vy;iy kPwYf;fhd rhl;rpahFk;. (fONtw;wk;-vd;gJ nrq;Fj;jhd $uhd Nty; Nghd;w fl;il eLtpy; rkzh;fis cl;fhu itj;J cly; fpope;J ,we;J Nghf nra;jyhFk;) ,Jtiu 8000 rkzh;fs; ,we;Jgl;ljhf nghpaGuhzk; $WfpwJ. $l;lhf rhfbf;fg;gl;l ,th;fspd; cly;fis kpUfq;fs; kw;Wk; gwitapdq;fs; cz;ld vd;w cz;ikia GJf;Nfhl;il MTilahh; Nfhapypy; XtpakhfTk;> kJiu kPdhl;rp mk;kd; Nfhtpypy; Mapuq;fhy; kz;lgj;jpy; rpiyfshfTk; tbf;fg;gl;Ls;sjpypUe;J mwpayhk;. ,d;Wk; Midkiyapy; rkzh; gLf;if ,Uf;fpwJ. mJkl;Lkpd;wp fpgp 7k; Ehw;whz;by; jpUQhdrk;ge;jh; jdJ kJiug;gjpfj;jpy; 8000 Ngh; the;jjhff; $wpAs;sdh;. fp.K.2-Kjy; fp.gp 13 tiu rkzh; tho;T epytpaJ. guq;Fd;wk; vd;w ,d;iwa jpUg;guq;Fd;wj;jpNy 3 ,lq;fspy; rkz gs;spfs; cs;sd. mit kiyapd; mbthuj;jpYk; RidAs;s fhrptpRtkiy cr;rpapYk; cikahz;lhh; Nfhapy; GwKk; mike;Js;sJ. ,d;W ,it midj;Jk; “eLtz; muR njhy;ypay;” Jiwahy; ghJfhf;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. rkzh; gs;sp mikj;J tho;e;jdh; vd;W rq;f ,yf;fpa fhyk; njhl;Nl ,yf;fpaq;fspy; gjpT nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. rkzh;fisg; Nghy ngsj;j rkak; kJiuapy; nray;Ghpatpy;iy fp.gp.9-k; Ehw;whz;ilr; rhhe;j ngsj;j rkaj;jtuhd “jPh;j;jq;fuh;” vd;gtiuNa ,d;iwf;F ghz;bf; Nfhtpypy; Kdpahz;bahf topgl;L tUfpwhh;fs; vd;W fy;ntl;L rhd;W top mwpayhk;. kJiuapd; Gfoplq;fs; kJiu efhpy; ,d;Wk; Gfoplq;fs; epiwa mike;Js;sd. mtw;wpy; Kjd;ikahdJ kPdhl;rp mk;kd; NfhapyNy. Kd;dhspy; rptDf;fhd MyakhfNt flk;gtdkhf ,Ue;jg; gFjpiaf; FyNrfug;ghz;bad; rPh; nra;J Rak;Gthf Njhd;wpa ypq;fj;ijr; Rw;wpYk; Nfhapy; vOg;gpdhh;. ,q;F rptd; kl;LNk tzq;fg;gl;l epiyapy; gpd; kPdhl;rpAk; mjhtJ jpU Mythahdhh; vd;W rptDk; mq;faw;fd;dp vd;w ngahpy; kPdhl;rpAk; tzq;fg;gl;ldh;. ,d;W Neuk; jtwhJ rpwg;ghf g+i[fis nra;J tUk; ,Nj kPdhl;rp mk;kd; Nfhapypy; Kd;NdhU fhyj;jpy; 45 Mz;LfSf;F g+i[ ,y;yhjpUe;jJgy Mz;LfSf;F Kd; khypf;fg+h; kJiuia Nehf;fpg; gilnaLj;jhd;. tUk; top vq;Fk; ,uj;jk;. td;Kiw jhd; ,JNt njhlh;r;rpahdJ. Fwpg;ghf Nfhtpy;fis ,bj;jhd;. ,y;iyNay; %h;j;jpiaahtJ ,bg;ghd;. gy Nfhtpy; %h;;j;jpia fhg;ghw;wptpLth;ek; kf;fs; ,g;gbahf Jtq;fpaJ jhd;fy;jpiu. (fy;jpiu vd;gJ fpufj;jpw;F fh;g;gf fpufj;jpw;F Kd; xU Rtiu vOg;gp mjw;F Kd; xU %h;j;jpia gpujp\;il nra;JtpLthh;. Mf;fpukpg;ghsd; Vkhe;J Nghthd;) ,ij Nfs;tpg;gl;ldh; kJiu kPdhl;rp mk;kd; Nfhtpiy Nrh;e;j 5 rpthr;rhhpahh;fs; vg;gbahtJ ekJ Nfhtpiy fhg;ghw;w Ntz;Lk; Rthkp kPJ xU kpNyr;rd; $l if itf;ftplf; $lhJ vd;W rgjk; nra;J nfhz;ldh;. Rthkpf;F mgpN\fnky;yhk; nra;J Kbj;J> fz;zpy; ePUld;> ‘kPz;Lk; cd;id vg;NghJ fhz;Nghk; rh;Ntrh ’ vd;W fjwpagbNa fy;jpiu vOg;gpdhh;fs;. mriyg; Nghy efy; Vw;ghL nra;ag;gl;lJ. khypf;fg+h; te;jhd;. midtiuAk; Jd;GWj;jpdhd; khl;Lf; fwpia thapy; jpzpj;jhd;> nry;tq;fis nfhs;isapl;lhd;. ,tdJ gilnaLg;ghy; 48 Mz;Lfs; g+i[ ,y;iy. mjd;gpd; tp[aefu rhk;uh[;ak; Jtq;fpaJ. Kfyhah;fis Jtk;rk; nra;jhh;fs;. gpd; Nfhapy; gzp rPh; nra;jdh;. mr;rkak; rpthr;rhhpahpy; xUth; tNahjpf epiyapy; te;J cz;ikf; $wpag;gpd; fy;jpiu ,bj;J cz;ik ypq;fk; ntspg;gl;lJ. 48 Mz;Lfs; fopj;J jpwe;j epiyapYk; midj;Jk; mg;gbNa ,Ue;jJ. (tpsf;F> g+> re;jhdk;) gf;jpapy; ,ijf; fz;L jpisj;jdh;. ,d;Wk; me;j NfhtpYf;F Nghdhy; cilf;fg;gl;l rptypq;fk; xU Xukhf Jh;f;if mk;kd; vjphpy; cs;sij midtUk; fhz ,aYk;. (v.fh): rPuhUk; G+q;fkyj; njs;sKNj NrapioNa Mjpguh giuNa mk;gpifNa ….re;jjKk; ePNa Jizahfp epd;wpul;rp mq;faw;fz; 4 jhNa ruzQ; ruz;”

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 132 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X vd;W gf;jp Ruf;f kJiuapy; tPw;wpUf;Fk; kPdhl;rpak;ikf;Nf chpj;jhd ngaiur; #l;b jpUg;Ngh&h; rpjk;gu Rthkpfs; ghbAs;shh;. nghJthf jpuhtpl fl;blf;fiy gy;yth;> Nrhoh;> ghz;bah;> tp[aefu Nguurh; ehaf;fh; vd; Ie;J epiyfspy; cs;sd. ,f;NfhapNyh 3 fl;blf; fiyia (ghz;bah;> tp[aefug; Nguurh;> ehaf;fh;) cs;slf;fpaJ.Kjyhk; khwth;kd; kPdhl;rp mk;kDf;Fhpa Nfhapyhf Muk;gpf;fNt njhlh;e;J fp.gp.13k; Mz;by; fpof;F NfhGuj;ij Kjyhk; rilath;k Re;jughz;baDk; fp.gp14.y; guhfpuk ghz;badhy; Nkw;FNfhGuKk; Kbf;fg;gl;lJ. ,t;tuyhw;W epfo;it jpUQhdrk;ge;jh; jdJ gilg;gpy; $wpAs;shh;. gpd; Kfkjpauhy; Nrjg;gLj;jg;gl;l ,f;Nfhapiy Fkhufk;gdd; vd;w tp[aefu Nguurh; Nfhapy; KOikg;ngw gzp nra;jhh;. ,t;thwhf mikf;fg;gl;l Nfhapy; ,d;Wk; Mapuq;fhy; kz;lgk;> gytpj xir vOg;Gk; Jhz;fs;> Guhzk; $Wk; rpw;gk; kw;Wk; xtpaq;fs; vd gy mk;rq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. kJiuiar;Rw;wpAs;s tPjpfs; xt;nthd;Wk; rpwg;ghd fhuzg;ngah;fisj; jhq;fpAs;sd fPo Mtz %y tPjpapYs;s “tpl;lthry;” ghz;bah; Ml;rpapy; KOikg;ngwhky; tplg;gl;l gFjpapd; vr;rkhFk; “mfpy; re;J ” vd;W tPjpg; ngah; mikaf;fhuzk; ghz;bah; Nfhl;ilr; Rw;wp mfop ,Ue;jjd; Gyg;ghlhFk;. jpUkiy ehaf;fh; muz;kid “fp.gp 16y; ehaf;fhpd; Nfhl;il 72 nfhj;jdhh; nfhz;L fl;lg;gl;lJ vd;Wk; 1631-k; Mz;by; epiwTw;w ,t;tuz;kid jw;NghJ ,Ug;gijtpl 4 klq;F nghpajhf nrhh;f;f tpyhrk;> jq;ftpyhrk; vd; ,uz;L ,Ue;jjhfTk; $WfpwJ ”8 ,e;jpaf; fl;blf; fiy Ehy; mJkl;Lkpd;wp ehaf;fh;fshy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l gzpfshf njg;gf;Fsk;> GJkz;lgk;> 2 Njh;fs; vd ,d;wsTk; epiyj;Js;sd. itif MW ghpghly; kJiuiag; gw;wpAk;> itia Mw;iwg; gw;wpAk; $WfpwJ. itia MW ePh; epiwe;J nry;Yk; Mwhff; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. jw;NghJ ,Uf;Fk; Mw;iwf; fhl;bYk; Kw;ffhyj;jpy; 3 klq;F mfykhfTk;> nropg;ghfTk;> mUfpNy “fpUJkhy; ejp ” xd;W XbajhfTk; tuyhw;Wr; rhd;whjhuq;fs; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wd. itia Mw;wpy; ngUf;nfLj;J tUk; ePhpy; Ntfj;ijr; Rl;Lk; ghpghlypy; fpisfisAk; kuq;fisAk; Ntfkhf mbj;Jr; nry;Yk; Mwhff; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. Gz;zpa ePuhff; fUjg;gl;l itia Mw;wpy; kf;ffs; jq;f;s; clypy; g+rpa g+r;Rf;fs; #ba kyh;fs; vy;yhk; Mw;wpNy tpl;ldh; vd;Wk;> ,jidf; fz;l me;jdh;fs; Jha;ik mope;Jtpl;lJ vd;W Gdpj ePuhliy ePf;fpdh; vd “NtWgL Gdy; vd tpiu kz;Zf; fypio 5 Gyk; mhp me;jzh; fyq;fp kUz;L ” vd;w ghpghly; thpfs; vLj;jpak;GfpwJ. kJiuapy; itia ePh;g;ngUf;nfLj;J XLk; jpUtpUe;jija+h; vDk; jpUg;gjpapy; caph;fSf;F mUspid mspf;Fk; jpUkhy; mkh;e;J mUs;Ghptjhy; 6 “,Ue;ija+h; mkh;e;j nry;t ” vd;W Nghw;Wg;gLfpd;wikahy; mwpayhk;. ,tw;wpypUe;J jpUkhy; gs;sp nfhz;Lk;> mkh;e;Jk; mUs;nra;j Nfhapy;fs; rq;ff;fhyj;jpy; kJiuapy; ,Ue;Js;sij mwpaKbfpwJ. fy;ntl;Lf;fSk;;> FiltiufSk; Filtiug;gzpapy; gy;yth;fisAk; tpQ;rpa vz;zpf;ifapy; ghz;bah; fhyj;jpNy cUthf;fq;fs; kpsph;tij mwpayhk;. kJiu khtl;lj;jpy; mhpl;lhgl;bf; Fd;W> thkiy Fd;wj;Jhh;f; Fd;Wfs;> ahidkiy> guq;Fd;W vd ,jpy; ,lk; ngw;wpUf;Fk; ,lq;fs; midj;Jk; goQ;rkzh;fspd; thoplq;fshff; Filtiuf; Nfhapy;fshf> fy;ntl;Lf;fshf ,Ue;jJ cWjpr; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. KUfdpd; mWgil tPLfspy; xd;whd jpUg;guq;Fd;wj;jpy; gw;gy Xtpaq;fs; jPl;lg;gl;bUe;jijf; fz;Zw;w Ngijg;ngz;.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 133 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

“gpwq;fy; ,il,ilg;Gf;Fg; gpwo;e;J ahd; 12 te;j newpAk; kwe;Njd;” vd;W $WtjpypUe;J fw;Fiffis ntl;b mtw;wpd; CNl gw;gy Xtpaq;fs; jPl;lg;gl;lJ vd;gJ mwpag;gLfpd;wJ. kJiuf;fhQ;rpapy; neLQ;nropadpd; tPuj;ijf; $Wkplj;J

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KbTiu “,dpik ” vd;w nrhy;iy jdf;F chpj;jhf;fp nfhz;L “kJukha;” ePjpapd; topapy; nrk;ikahfTk;> fUiz> md;G> gf;jp mbg;gilapy; nropg;ghAk; Ml;rp elj;Jfpd;w kJiuapd; rpwg;Gfis nrt;tNd rq;ffhyg;Gyth;fs; njhlq;fp jw;Nghija gilg;ghsh;fs; tiu kJiuapd; rpwg;Gfis vLj;jpak;gpa tz;zNk cs;sij ,f;fl;Liu ntspg;gLj;jpAs;sJ.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 134 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

EARLY LIFE OF GENERAL NEILL

M.Jaya Chitra, M.A.,M.Phil.,B.Ed Guest Lecturer in History L.R.G Government Arts College for (w), Tiruppur

Neill was born near Ayr.Scotland 1810 and educated at the University of Glasgow. Entering the service of the British East India Company in 1827, he received his lieutenant’s Commission a year later. st From 1828 to 1852 he was mainly employed in duty with his regiment, the 1 Madras Europeans (of which he wrote a Historical Record), but gained some experience on the general and the personal staff as Deputy Assistant Adjutant General and as aide-de-camp.In 1850 he received his majority, and two years later set out for the Second Burmese War with the regiment. He served throughout the war with distinction, became second-in-command to cheape, and took part in the minor operations which followed receiving the brevet of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1854, he was appointed second-in-command to Sir Robert Vivian to organize the Turkish contingent for the Crimean War. Early in 1857 he returned to India. Six weeks after his arrival came the news that all northern India was aflame with revolt. Neill acted proptly; he left Madras with is regiment at a moment’s notice, and proceeded to Benares. th The day after his arrival he completely and ruthlessly crushed the mutineers(4 June, 1857). He next turned his attention to Allahabad, where a handful of Europeans still held out in the fort against the th th rebels. Form 6 June to 15 June his men forced their way under conditions of heat and of opposition that would have appalled any but a real leader of en, and the place, “the most precious in India at that moment,” as Lord Canning wrote, was saved. Neill received his reward – an army colonel and appointment and aide-de-camp to the queen. Other British accounts state that indiscriminate punitive measures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders at the Bibi-Ghar (but after those at both Meerut and Delhi), specifically by Lieutenant ColonelJames George Smith Neill of the Madras Fusiliers (a European unit), commanding at Allahabad while moving towards Cawnpore. At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had attacked and murdered the local European population. On this pretext, neill ordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned and their inhabitants to be hanged. Neill’s methods were “ruthless and horrible” and far from intimidating the population may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities to revolt. Allahabad was soon made the concentration of Henry Havelock’s column. The two officers, through a misunderstanding in their respective instructions, disagreed, and when Havelock went on from Cawnpore (while Neill had reoccupied shortly before) he left his subordinate there to command the lines th of communication. On the 8 of June, native troops of the formerly independent princely state of Jhansi th rebelled and attacked the Europeans in the fort. General Neill reached Allahabad on June 11 , but this was too late for General Wheeler and the residents at Kanpur who surrendered to the forces of Nana sahib and Tatya Tope in exchange for an offer of safe passage to Calcutta. th In this infamous massacre, as they were embarking on boats on the Ganges on June 27 at satichaura Ghat, they were set upon by sepoys and city residents, angered (according to Mukherjee [1990]) at news of General Neill’s outrages and by rumours that the daughter of Nan sahib had been captured and burnt alive by the British. When he heard what was happening, Nan Saheb gave orders that the women and children be spared. Seventy British officers in all survived, but they were imprisoned at a house called Bibighar, where they were massacred the next day. The bodies were thrown down a well, where a British

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 135 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X memorial was subsequently erected. This was replaced after independence by a statue of Tatya Tope, th widely regarded today as a great Indian hero. Havelock’s forces entered Cawnpore unopposed on 17 July.the rebels having fled. He left Neill in command and marched on to relieve the besieged residents of th Lucknow. Neill exacted a terrible vengeance for the Bibigher massacre. On 25 July, he ordered the prisoners taken to the house and forced to lick clean a portion of the bloodstained floor and then hanged. These practices continued until General Colin Campbell stopped them in early November. By then Neill himself had been shot dead in a second attempt to relieve Lucknow. He received a posthumous knighthood from Queen Victoria. At Cawnpore while the traces of the massacre were yet fresh, Neill inflicted the death penalty on all his prisoners with the most merciless rigor. Meanwhile, Havelock, inspite of a succession of victories had been compelled to fall back for lack of men; and Neil criticized his superior’s action with a total want of th restraint. On the 11 of August Cawnpore was threatened by four thousand mutineers, who had arrived in bithur from Saugor, and General Neill called for aid, while, at the same time, the enemy was also reported to be collecting again in Basiratganj. Havelock was determined to strike another blow before recrossing the river to Cawnpore, and he set out with his force the same evening. He once again defeated the enemy in a fierce battle a few miles north of Basiratganj during the next morning, and then withdrew for a third time and crossed the river to Cawnpore. A Second expedition had the same fate, and Neill himself was now attacked, though by his own exertions and Havelock’s victory at Bithor(16 August) the tension on the communications was ended. Havelock’s men returned to Cawnpore, and cholera broke out there, whereupon Neill again committed himself to criticisms, this time addressed to the commander-in-chief and to the Outram, who was on the nd way with reinforcements. On June 2 Neill by a bold and fortunate stroke secured the great fortress of Allahabad, valiantly held by an English Officer with a small Skih force but in imminent danger of falling into the hands of the enemy. Twelve days later Neill was joined by General Havelock just returned from the Persian expedition, an officer grown grey in the service in subordination position, to which the task of relieving Lucknow and Cawnpore had been committed. In spite of his very grave acts of insubordination, Havelock gave his rival a brigade command in the th st final advance. The famous march from Cawnpore to Lucknow began on 18 September; on the 21 there nd rd was a sharp fight, on the 22 incessant rain and on the 23 intense heat. A conflict between Neill and Havelock, another Senior General resulted in an admonition of Neill. A few days later Colonel James Neill st arrived with a British battalion, the 1 Madras Fusiliers, and took over command at Allahabad. By this th time the whole countryside had broken out into revolt, so from the 12 of June Colonel Neill carried out a series of vigorous sorties against the rebels. The Ferozepore Regiment, known as “Brasyer’s Sikhs; played a prominent part in these operations and won further distinctions. These sorties met with considerable success and the district was soon in a th state of submission. On the 17 of June the rebels were defeated and driven out of the city and the British administration was re-established. Before the end of the month Lieutenant Montague arrived form Mirzapore with the reminder of the Regiment and joined Brasyer, who had been promoted to captain for his gallantry at the beginning of the month. The situation at Cawnpore was now serious and it was essential to send a force to relieve the British garrison as soon as possible. Transport was immediately collected and an advance column, consisting of Madras Fusilers and Ferozepore Sikhs, set th out for Cawnpore; on the 30 June. th At Benares, Colonel James Neill, a pious Christian and brutal psychopath, crushed the 17 Native Infantry, hanging hundreds of people Armed British Civilians, acting as ‘volunteer hanging parties’ helped to pacify the city and surrounding areas with summary executions, including young boys who had

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 136 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X paraded in rebel colours. From Benares, Neill proceeded to Allahabad and sacked the city, hunting Niggers. Burning villages and hanging hundreds on the way. Some 6000 men, women and children had been killed, Neill observed. “I may have acted with severity but under the circumstances I trust for forgiveness.” The sick and wounded, heavy baggage and large supply train were left at Alambagh, protected by a guard of three hundred men drawn from all units, in the force. th On the 25 of September the advance from Alambagh began. General Neill’s Brigade was in the lead th and the 78 Highlanders and Ferozepore Regiment were detailed as rearguard and ordered to hold the th bridge at Charbagh until everything had passed. The Madras Fusiliers, with the 84 Foot, forced the bridge and Havelock then led his force round east of the city. This move evidently surprised the rebels, for he met no serious opposition until he arrived a short distance from the Residency. Meanwhile, the highlanders and Sikhs were heavily engaged at Charbagh, where they were attacked by a large force of rebels. After three hours fighting they defeated the enemy and were able to push on. However, they had lost touch with the main British column and took the wrong road. This mistake proved most fortunate, for they suddenly encountered the rear of some guns which were holding up Havelock’s advance and rushed th them without ceremony. The 78 Highlanders and Ferozepore Regiment were at front. The Residency was only some five hundred yards away, but since it was dusk and the column was strung out over a considerable distance General Outram suggested halting. General Havelock, however, was determined to th reach the Residency without delay an ordered the 78 High-landers and Brasyer’s Sikhs to advance. This column, led by Sir James Outram and General Havelock, dashed forward through the narrow streets of flat-roofed, loopholed houses held by the mutineers. The Highlanders and Sikhs fought their way forward with desperate gallantry under continuous fire from the enemy and eventually reached the Bailey Guard Gate of the Residency to the deafening cheers of the gallant garrison. In describing the assault Brasyer wrote. “Onward went the devoted band into a fire that seemed, as General Havelock said, as if nothing could live under it. The Highlanders, being Europeans, were placed in front, but the Seikhs followed them closely, pressed eagerly forward, and loudly cheered. Eventually it became a pell mell race for who should be first. Here Neill fell. Continuing this rushing, the troops were all intermixed, jumping over cuttings, and other obstacles in the street, until they finally reached the gateway of the Residency. But this was not only shut, but barricaded. A scramble ensured the enemy firing from the roofs and windows of houses at us in every direction. At this moment I caught sight of a gap at the side of the gate, forced my way through this, and in reality was the first European of the relieving force who entered the beleaguered Lucknow Residency.” During the day’s desperate fighting many acts of gallantry were performed and the Regiment suffered a very large proportion of casualties. One noteworthy feat of gallantry was that of Sepoy Nihal Singh, of the Ferozepore Sikhs, who carried General Neill, when he was mortally wounded in the final charge, to the rear under heavy fire. Embarking from Madras for Calcutta with the Madras Fusinliers on May 18, 1857, Neill took part in the defence of Benares, Allahabad and Cawnpore, and fell in September 25, while marching at the head of his men through the streets of Lucknow he was shot dead under a furious fire from the enemy’s guns to rescue the garrison. Strict as he was, he was loved not less than feared, and throughout the British dominions he had established a name as a skilful and extraordinarily energetic commander. The rank and precedence of the wife of a Knight Commander was given to his widow, and memorials have been erected in India nd at Ayr. The British officers particularly the military officer was hated by Indians because he was merciless,

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 137 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X heartless, mindless, senseless and ruthless. General Neill was cruel to Indians. Hence the people of Madras Presidency desired to remove this statue which was erected at then Mount Road and at Present Anna Salai. They launched a Neill Satagraha movement to achieve their adjective.

References 1. Select Document 1900-1947, Neill statue Sathyagraha, Tamil Nadu Archives th 2. G.O.No.248, dated 13 March 1928. th 3. G.O.No.842W, dated 24 April 1924 th 4. G.O.No.819/37, dated 16 May 1937, confidential Item No.10 th 5. Letter No.614, dated 12 June 1922. th 6. Extract taken from G.O.No.2616, Local Self Government, dated 13 july, 1937. th 7. G.O.No.1036W, dated 18 September 1924 Home th 8. G.O.No.478, dated 17 October 1927 Home st 9. G.O.Ms.No.1122, Legislative Council Debates, date 21 October,1927 th 10. G.O.Ms.No.1122, dated 12 November, 1927 Home.

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FOREST MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION IN NILGIRIS UNDER THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT

Dr.M.Krishna Priya, M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D., Guest Lecturer in History L.R.G Government Arts College for (w), Tiruppur

The British Government in India introduced a conservation policy under the then inspector General of Forest Sir Dietrich Brandis. In 1864 on the advice of Dr. Voclkre, a German expert, the British th Government passed a resolution on 19 October 1864 declaring a forest policy. In 1865 the forest Act was passed. The Nilgiri Forest, namely the s of the upper reaches, the tropical and subtropical forest on the low altitude slopes, fauna and ecological system underwent significant changes in the British Regime. The British introduced the concept of forest fire protection and the system of long rotation and building up on the Forest capital of growing stock. The present day forest conservation policy took its shape during the British rule. Individuals as well as the British Government made detailed studies of the sholas, Grass lands and the wild life forest management preservation of wild life and introduction of exotic flora and fauna were some of the important contributions of the Britishers. As mentioned earlier, Leshnault, who accompanied Sullivan in 1819, opened the doors to the Nilgiris plant life, which remained unidentified till then. The reports of those who followed described how extensive deforestation and swidden cultivation had left a deep scar on the mountain slope Wallich, who made the earliest report on the forest of Madras, Bombay Presidencies( in 1827) was said to have laid the foundation for conservation.

Nilgiris (Government Reserve Forest) The sholas of the Nilgiris are unique in many respects, the kind of which is yet to be seen elsewhere in the world. Every such forest is a complex and closed circle of ever green trees. Shrubs of two or three strata, a thick under growth of ferns, orchids, fungi, mass and innumerable living organisms. It was found out that sholas take thousands of years to form. They improve soil; secure springs shelter violent wind, maintain high degree of humidity and modify the climate. The properties of those forests were the subject matter of the British Association for the advancement of sciences meeting held in Edinburough in 1850. Subsequently a committee was constituted to bring out the new dimension of the sholas. The observations made in the report in 1851 hold good even in the modern context. The ratio of the forest, grass and arable lands of the Nilgiris before 1850 was 45%, 15% and 20% respectively. Subsequently with the introduction of commercial crops like Coffee, Tea, Cinchona and English Vegetables, large tracks of sholas, swamps and grass lands were brought under cultivation. The Government gave instructions to the public, that they should not collect the minor forest produce such as walnuts, tamarind, cheekacog, (soupnut) in the forest of seagoorMudumalai and Bennai, such articles belong to the government and should be collected under the supervisor of the forest department. Firewood allotment rules came in to action in 1881 according to which lands in the hills settlements and to the neighborhood were required for planting trees for fuel or other purpose. The reserved forests were closed against shooting and fishing. The collector of Nilgiris had the right to protect the reserved forests by declaring government orders i.e.1.Aram by reserve 2.Cairn Hill reserve 3.Governor’s s reserve4.Baikie Reserve to Coonoor 5.Coonoor reserve.

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Public were not allowed to cut trees and permit any animal for grazing without prior permission of the collector and maniyagar. According to rule II of the Government order there was village panchayat, which consisted of a maniyagar. The duty of the panchayat was to take action against violators. The maniyagar was the sole person for forestry administration of the village. If the maniyagar did not follow the Government rule he would be liable to be punished by the magistrate either one year imprisonment or a fine of one hundred rupee or both.

First Conservancy Establishment In 1852, the Government sanctioned an establishment of first forester and 6 peons for conservancy purpose Mr. E.B.Thomas was at this time collector of the district, under whole Jurisdiction the hills saw the filling up of the sholas in and around.Cleghorn Horticulturist Suggested certain measures for the conservancy of forests cutting the trees should be minimized, preservation of certain numbers of trees, replanting the quick growing trees and trees should be planted for ornamental purpose and for fuel. The re-suggestions were accepted by the government, and passed by many conservancy acts. A deputy conservator of forest and an overseer were appointed to look after the Nilgiris sholas and plantations.

Transfer of Forests and Plantations to the Commissioner The Conservancy however continued to be ineffectual and on the creation of the Nilgiris Commission in 1868. The conservancy of forest and plantation was transferred to the commissioner. Under jungle conservancy rules a special officer was appointed in 1869 placed under the commissioner, drawing a special horse allowance form the conservancy fund. Major Jago was the first man who was appointed as the special officer.

Retransfer to Forest Department At the close of the 1874-75, the sholas and plantations were retransferred under sanction of Government of India to the forest department.In 1878 a commission was appointed to look after the woodlands in the plateau.

Forest Management and Conservancy Captain Watson of the police department was appointed as the conservator of forests to accomplish the forest policy.Preservation and conservancy policies were further motivated. The collector of Madras raised tea plantations with the assistance of chatter Menon, in 1842 on the western slopes of the hills. McIver the superintendent of Garden was asked to renovate the sholas. According to the annual report of 1857, a full time officer was appointed by the Government. A severe law namely the Madras Forest Act of 1882 was passed and the objectives of the law were, 1. To demark and declare the definite boundaries of Government forests and safeguard them. 2. To afford protection to the wild life habitats. Steps were taken to plant up the open areas in the hills with fast growing exotic trees like wattle(acacia), broom gorse etc, the road bunds of the Nilgiris were also planted with such trees to bind the soil. The orders of the Government enclosed the ecological benefits and insisted on the importance of green cover.

Conservation of Wild Life The Nilgiri Fauna was as rich as its Flora the combination of the sholas had grasslands often intercepted by perennial streams which nourished many species of the animal kingdom. Some species

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 140 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X like the NilgirisTahr, the NilgirisLangoor, the gaur, The Nilgiris laughing thrush, The NilgiriSalianetc, are endemic and have embellished these hills from time immemorial. The Reputation of the Nilgiris as the best hunting ground in the south was great Tigers, Leopards, Elephants, Slosh Bears, Ibex, Various, Deer Antelopes and Hyenas. Wild Dogs and wild boars could be found on the slopes and plateau of the region in the early decades of the nineteenth century. It was the Britishers who opened the sportsmen’s paradise for the rest of the country.The British Government responded to the consequences of their depredations with preservationist initiatives. In 1877, a group of sportsmen who had become alarmed by the domination of game formed the Nilgiris Game Protection Association, which drafted the Nilgiri game and preservation Act, 1879; requires licenses for the imposing restrictions on Fishing and Hunting. The Nilgiri Game Protection Association succeeded in introducing Woodlook, snipes, and the British game birds to the Nilgiris, as well as the spaniels and other days to hunt them.It also attempted to stock Nilgiri streams with trout-a Herculean endeavor which was subsequently assumed by the Madras Government, which imported eggs from Germany, Wales and New Zealand.The first foxhounds were introduced to as early as 1829, and a regular pack was running by 1845. By the late nineteenth century the Nilgiris variant of the English for hunt the Jackal bunt had become fully institutionalized with a regular “Season” but the conserving policy both at the Government and individual levels, the Central Government Legislations like the wild Elephants Protection Act of 1876, banned the hunting of the wild life. The first conservatory was built in 1856; ornamental ponds were made in 1864. The Nilgiri District Game Association was born in the meeting held on October 3, 1877 in the Secretary’s room of Nilgiri Library.Colonel Wilson who presided the meeting was elected the first honorary secretary of the Association. One of the main objectives of the Association was the preservation of the fauna of the Nilgiris. The Committee appointed for drafting the rules of the Association carefully made by laws. The “South India Observer” which was then a will circulated daily brought out the aims and salient feature of the Associations. The Associations also aimed at the preservation of game and fish. It introduced and acclimatized new species in the district. Public was restricted from shooting kinds of cow bosons. An entrance fee (Rs.5/-) was collected from the sporting gentlemen and the proceeds was paid to the collector. Rules for hunting and shooting, Revised Government order communicated– Power vested in the Revenue department, transferred to the forest department. Benne addition V reserved forest, reservation under the section 16, approved government order communicated. Gun tax was collected, fishing licenses was approved and licenses issued by the association. The Government readily recognized the role of the association for which the collector and the forest officials were the ex-officio president an advisers respectively. In accordance with the forest laws made then and there the association functioned efficiently.

References 1. Administrative Report of Madras Presidency, 1870, p.109. 2. Cleghorn Hugh, Forest and Gardens of South India, W.H.Allen and Co, Leader Hall Street, London 1861. 3. Cleghorn, Hugh. “Conservator of Forest, Madras Presidency, Forests and gardens of South India”. Leadon Hall Street, London, 1861.p.79. 4. Dane Kennedy, “The Magic Mountains”, Hill station and the British Raj, Oxford University of California press, California, 1996, p.60. 5. Davidar ERC, “Nilgiris wildlife and Environment Association, Ootacamund”, Bombay 1877, p.3.

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6. Francis.W. Madras DistrictGazetteer: The Nilgiris, Madras: Superintendent, Government Press, 1908. 7. G.O.Ms. No. 1471, Development, dated 13 June 1938. 8. G.O.Ms. No. 56, Development, dated 10 January 1935. 9. G.O.Ms. No. 701, Development, dated 13 May 1935. 10. G.O.No 552, dated 8 February 1935. 11. G.O.No. 518, A (revenue) dated 4 Aug 1899. p.14. th 12. G.O.No.1407, (Reserve Forest), (forest no.182), dated 18 December 1884. 13. Gopalakrishnan, M. (ed), Gazetteer of India Tamil Nadu State: The Nilgiris District, Madras: Government of Tamil Nadu, 1995. 14. Grigg, H.B. A Manual of the Nilagiri District in the Madras Presidency, Madras: E.Keys, Government Press, 1880. 15. J.B. Lal, Indian Forest: Myth and Reality (Dehra Dun, 1989), p.18. 16. Minute book, Nilgiris wildlife and Environment Association, Ootacamund, 1877, P.3. 17. Nilgiri District Gazetteer 1935. 18. Paul Hockings, "British society in the Company, Crown and in Paul Hockings (ed.,) Blue Mountains- the Ethnography and Biogeography of a South Indian Region, Oxford, 1989. 19. Paul Hockings, “Ancient Hindu Refugees”, Mouton Publishers, The Hague, (Vikas Publishing House pvt.ltd, New Delhi), 1980. 20. Price, John Frederick. Ootacamund: A History, Madras: Government Press, 1908.

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MANU’S CONCEPTION OF MAN AND SOCIETY

Dr.S.F.Naseem Jan Assistant Professor & Head, Department of History

L.R.G.Govt Arts College (w) Tirupur

Introduction The manuscript is awork almost encyclopedic in scope .The work deserves to be studied as a whole although it is not easy to say what precisely lends cohesion to the work. The one ideal which dominates the entire work, broadly speaking, is the preservation of a social order with the Brahmin at the top followed by the Kshatriya, the vaisya and the sudra. The order is recommended or natural as well as normative grounds. The respect and prestige of this order is natural in that four varnas were created by brahma and that an innovation introduced by men, in their perversity, would be found beneficial and wholesome in the individual, the community and the state. How far this hierarchical order outlined by Manu would receive a national support as we visualize it today, is a different matter. The smriti is a huge compendium of descriptions and prescriptions, the latter being more important and preponderant, as we understand the term. Manu is not a philosopher of law like Plato, forexample, he is not even an author, in the strict sense of the term. He emerges as a formidable editor, althoughthere are a few passages (ix, 182-183) where Manus ‘own views have been recorded. The Smriti is encyclopedic in the sense that it deals with several topics belonging to other sastra or disciplines. It is no doubt primarily a work or dharma. How far Manu hassucceeded in making Moksha an integral part of dharma will be examined in the sequel. When we go to the smriti today, we seek, consciously or unconsciously, to comprehend it with mentality shaped by modern education, notions and ideals. It is almost impossible to study smritis with the windows so completely closed that no berth of modern social, political and legal ideas is allowed to enterthe society of present day.

The Key Concepts of Man Andsociety Bymanus’ Concepts 1. The concept of a Cara (I, 108-110 VERSES) The concept of acara occupies a position what we call as ‘given ‘and the key concept .It means the matter of human will and effort .It means a code. It describes the disciplined Brahmins, rooted by the Vedas. 2. The Doctrine of Sristi (creation) (1, 18,25verses) Manus’ views on creation are relevant because the nature of things, used in the broadest sense, including emotions and passions sincethey too are created.(1,18,25),are determined by the creator. The social order itself is a creation by the lord. Manu is not one of those who think that the social order came in to existence as a result of human decision.(1,21,29).In a significant sense mans’corporate life is the central issue of the Manusmriti.Manu in his verses quotes determines the nature of things than moral growth and progress, which necessarily presuppose freedom ,is not possible. From the verses which deal with sristi it appears that in Manus ’scheme changes do take place, at least genetically. 3. The Doctrine of Varna (I.88 and X.75) The concept of varna has been examined at length by almost all sociologists interested in Hinduism and India .The major portions of the discussions on varnas ,in so far as the Manuscript is concerned ,is devoted to the Brahmins. The discussion centers round the normal duties of the four varnas, regulations

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 143 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X governing their marriages and prescriptions regarding their dresses, the kind of education they should receive, mostly about the learning of the Vedas, and suggestions regarding their names. 4. The concept of Asrama (III.77-78and vi87-90) The discussion on the varnas is fairly widespread in the Manusmriti ,while the asramas are mentioned at III.77-78and VI.87-90.We have seen earlier that the different varnas have their respective functions; likewise ,there are certain functions associated with the four asramas ,or stages of life ,through which men belonging to the upper varnas are expected to pass through. Manu believes that the life of contemplation remains reconciled to believe that the life of action in Manus’ scheme. Manu was primarily interested in the life of a householder leads or a life of action which contributes the growth of family and society and solidarity. 5. The concept of Dharma Dharma is one of the most important concepts.Varna dharma refers to professions, but also to social. Dharma is found identified with karma which in turn is determined by ‘Varna’. Dharma is related to sex in that men and women have their respective Dharma’s.(v.146.f .ixia) Dharma has something to do with asramas(iv.1f;vi .1-32 and 88-89) . Dharma refers to yoga may not be so in another. Dharma refers to the duties of a monarch; an entire chapter has been devoted to this topic (Cha vii).Dharma seem to be natural, refers to moral qualities like patience, temperance, purity etc. Dharma is also determined by the individual’s role (viii .355).According to Manu Dharma, a ‘master meaning ‘.The temptation to identify one meaning and give it a prominent place, though great, must be avoided. 6. The supremacy of the vedas (11, 13, 14 and 166; vi84xii.94) The Vedas are supreme almost in every respect .The Vedas contain the truth regarding the nature of things and the prescriptions contained in the Vedas are wholly binding. TheVedasare apramaya (xii.94), thatis, the validity of the Vedic truths and injunctions cannot be ascertained by the limited human mind. According to Manus’ conception the Brahmins alone are authorized to teach the Vedas (x.1); while the Kshatriyas and the vaisyas are allowed only to the Vedas. The word sastra means what is today called ‘science ‘on systematized and organized knowledge ; in second sense, it means a treatise or exposition of the principles of a subject and.finally ,it is used in the sense of’ injunction ‘.Incidentally, the Vedas are accepted as the final authority by all the systems of philosophy except Buddhism ,Jainism and carvaka thinkers. 7. The Doctrineof’Rebirth’ (xii, 5, 6 and 7) This is another doctrine which was widely accepted by nearly all Indian thinkers in antiquity. It is associated with the doctrine of karma. Individual subsequent births are determined by the kind of actions he performs; these actions are performed by his mind, speech and body. There are a philosophical observations pertaining to the nature of self and its relationship to body; however these observations are not always clear. Manu accepts and reiterates the widely accepted view that the soul is born again and again. Unfortunately, however ‘Rebirth’s used metaphorically in at least two places.(11, 47 and 169). 8. The Goal seeking nature of Man (II, 2, 3 and 4) This is mentioned specifically in ii, 2,3and 4 and Manu’s generalization appears to be based on empirical observations (11, 4) .There seems to be an attempt at combining two diverse human characteristics, one belonging to the realm of values. The fact is that man is a creature who desires. But he ought to transcend desires and stop seeking goals. We should remember that Manu is by nature goal- seeking ,then there should be rules is within the Vedas, that teach man manners and customs of wise men and ,finally , one’s own conscientious reflection .(ii,6),for the salvation of human’ goal seeking ‘the Vedas remain the highest court of appeal.

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9. The Notion of Hierarchy There are many verses where Manu refers to the superiority of certain varnas over other varnas or of certain professions and even of certain virtues. The notion of a hierarchical order pervades all through the Manu thinks that the varnas hierarchy should reveal itself in the names of men and women belonging to the different varnas, in their attires and in that manner they greet. The concept of hierarchy has attached the attention of a large variety of sociologists and philosophers. In the language of the Upanishads,” Men of knowledge” carve out for themselves one path whilemen of action another path.Men who acquire the highest knowledge go beyond birth and death. 10. The Five Cardinal Virtues The five cardinal virtues for all the numbers of the four varnas (x.63) are non-violence, truth, non – possession, purity and control of the sense organs. It has been argued that here is a conception of man which cuts across the barrier of varnas; perhaps there is some strength in the argument applicable to all humans. 11. The concept of karma (I.88 f; iv.3; viii, 410; ix.32f; x, 74 f) Like Dharma, karma too is a concept which is widely used in Indian philosophical literature. Karma means nothing more than a ‘quality’ or function with which things are naturally endowed (1.29&30).Karma like Dharma is relative to varna (I 88 f; iv .3; viii .410; ix .326 f ,x .74 f) .Karma is said to have three sources ,the mind ,the body and the speech (xii,6,7,and 8).Karma is said to be the cause of happiness as well as unhappiness.(vi,79 ) .Karma gives grounds for believing that the relationship between the path of action and the path of knowledge ,on which the controversy is fairly old, is not discussed by Manu. Manu is nowhere found suggesting that karmacauses ‘bondage’. A stain of thought having a fairly ancient origin. There are a few slokas where the importanceof karma has lowered(xii.84 and 85),but karma has never been referred to as a source of bondage.

Conclusion Manu’s conception of man and society leads to the question; is Manu relevant today? It is a fact that being Indian we have a moral duty to articulate this strand of tradition conceptually, as far as that is possible. Manu’s Smriti work may be compared to the traditions of antiquity- Chinese, Greek, and Roman, Jewish and Islamic. The study would be rewarding even purely as an academic exercise. Some of the issues raised in the work, if sifted properly, may be found pertinent to one who cares to go into the roots of things, legal, economic, political and social. The study is not only academically rewarding, it is equally interesting to one who is deeply concerned with the issues imbedded in contemporary social, political and legal problems. Manus’ philosophy of man and society must be viewed in the context of this tension between equality and hierarchy ,equality of some sort among the members of a particularVarna even for the purpose of recognizing that they belong to the same Varna and hierarchy among the varnas. Toseek to define man as though he is an object of nature having nothing to do with race or stockmen or age, or education custom, tradition or milieu, according to Manu, is to define a non-existent creature, The notion of ‘natural, inalienable and sacred rights; a phrase popularized by the Declaration of rights in 1789, would thus be vacuous for Manu .Man is to live together is imbedded in the wider and broadernotion of Dharma. They need to live togetherbecause Dharma, which is revealed, ordains such an order, because the rights and obligations will remain unscathed if they live together and guide their lives, individual as well as social, according to Dharma. The notion of Dharma with all its capacity holds the key to the understanding of Manus ‘scheme.

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References 1. 1. ManuSmriti, viii, 23; Naradasmrti, 1, 34. 2. Manusmrti, viii, 13; Narada smrti; iii, 10 3. Smrti candrika, ii, 18, Parasara Madhavtya, iii .24` 4. Indra Deva and Shrirama, Growth of Legal System in Indian Society (Allied publications, 1980) 5. Manusmrti, viii, 10-11; Yajnavalkyasmriti; II 6. Manusmrti, VIII 13; Narada smrti; 11 7. Brahapatismriti, 1,102; kitydyamasmrti, 70.

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ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT

P.Vasuki, M.A., M.Ed., M.Phil., Assistant Professor, Deptarment of History L.R.G Govt Arts College for Women, Tirupur

Abstract Education is a powerful instrument of social change and development. It is a unique investment in the present and future. This implies that educational is essential for all, that education can promote the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy represented in our constitution. Education develops manpower for different levels and sectors of economy. Its main function being to make known of new generation with the ways of the world, so as to maintain and preserve social order. During times of rapid social change, during the first and second half of the 20th century, the role of education in the service of the nation is so important. Education is a power tool for the cultivation of eternal values so as to provide the unity and integration of our people. It should help to eliminate obscurantism, religious fanaticism, violence, superstition, fatalism, honesty, truthfulness, courage, conviction, tolerance, love for justice and compassion will be sought to be promoted. The importance of education is not only in knowledge and skill, but it help us to live with others. According to our education should not merely give us some techniques so that we lead successful lives, but should also help us discover “lasting values”. The ultimate aim of education is strike a balance between individual development and social harmony, spiritual and material outlook, Physical and intellectual development. The relatively immediate aims of education is to support one-self and one’s family preservation and enhancement of culture, and also helps to cultivate higher values of life.

Introduction Education can be used as a tool to empower the individual person. In the current system of education, student are able to see their own role in the transformation. These individuals changes leads to social change that society. Education has played an important role in the development and propagation of scientific thought, science and technology. Every aspect of man’s life has witnessed a phenomenal change that brought by education. Education brings about changes in behavior-pattern of society by enabling every individual to effectively understand and hence participate in the activities of society and to make positive contribution to the progress of individual, community and nation. India was the first country in the world to establish a government-level program of family welfare and planning through education.

Aim’s of Education To develop “Better Social Order”, proper disposition is to be fostered in individual, for which for following four virtues are essential 1. Vitality 2. Courage 3. Sensitiveness and 4. Intellect

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Only on developing the first three qualities, one’s character is shaped. The fourth quality “intellect” is to be sharpened by schools and colleges. Only if character is developed, intellect could be refined, intellect is without character is useless.

Education in Present Period Education today is oriented to promoting values of an urban, competitive consumer society. Through the existing education system, India has produced in the last five decades number of scientists, professionals and technocrats who have excelled in their fields and made a mark at the national and international levels. On the growing population as a liability, we should change the population into an asset and strength along with trying to control its growth. This can be done only by education and human development. The three main deficiencies in the present education system may be described as follows: 1. The present education does not generate or fortify the type of knowledge that is relevant to our changed society. 2. Technology associated with a particular body of knowledge is inappropriate to our stage of development in terms of its employment potential or investment demands. 3. Education has failed to provide value framework which may prepare committed politicians, bureaucrats, technocrats, and professionals on whom our nation can depend for sophisticated system of support services to be useful in taking the country to the highest level. Though education does not guarantee high status and higher positions to all people, yet without education, an individual is unlikely to achieve social mobility. Education plays a role in equalizing opportunities in three ways. 1. By making it possible for all those who have the desire to be educated and the ability to benefit by that facility; 2. By developing a content of education which will promote the development of a scientific and objective outlook. 3. By creating a social environment of mutual tolerance based on religion, language, caste, class, etc. for providing equal opportunities of social mobility to all individuals in society, and for providing equal opportunity to secure Good education is crucial.

Role of Education in “Modernization” Education has a two-fold role in technological change-industrialization and modernization. On the hand, it prepares the manpower required for technological demands in industrialization. It helps in skill development and human resource development. This is done through formal education. Mass education in the development of values, attitudes, beliefs and knowledge is another role of education. This is to be achieved through a network of non-formal education. It is through such education that the values and life styles demanded by a modernizing society are facilitated so that they are shared by the mass of populations. In this education is a catalyst in modernization. Further, education has to encourage innovations and inventions, creativity needs to be encourage in school children and colleges.

Education of Women Providing for all facilities and opportunities for the learning of females on par with those available for the education of males is termed as Women’s Education. Indian women could be divided into three categories based on their socioeconomic status are 1. Those below the poverty line. 2. Those who struggle for retaining the middle class status and economic security.

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3. Those who enjoy good and stable economic security. In 1917, some Indian ladies of South established Indian Women’s association in Madras and organized its branches in different parts of country. The revolutionary poet Mahakavi Bharathi proclaimed, “This world can prosper only it women are all educated on par with men”. Gandhiji went one step further in his statement, “women should receive education on par withmen; if necessary provide them specialized education.” Kothari commission also considered that “For the full development of human resources, welfare of family and good up-keep of children, inculcating good conduct in them, women’s education is more important than education of the males”. The National Policy on Education, 1986 also laid emphasis on education for attaining women’s equality which will foster the development of new values. The strategies proposed are: encouraging educational institutions to take up active programmes to further women’s development removal of women’s illiteracy, removing obstacles inhibiting their access to elementary education, and pursuing policy of non-discrimination to eliminate sex stereotyping in vocational, technical and professional courses.

Innovative Programs of Central and State Governments for Education Innovative Programs includes Operation Black Board Scheme, District Primary Education Programs, Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, Rastriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan, Rastriya Uchchatar Siksha Abhiyan, and Samachaar Kalvi.

Operation Black Board One of programs recommended in the National Policy on Education, 1986 to strengthen the Primary education is ‘Operation Black board’. Operation Black board lays down the minimum level facilities to be provided in all elementary schools.

District Primary Education Project [Dpep] DPEP was launched in 1994 as a major initiative to revitalize the education system. Specific strategies to increase enrolment and retention of girls, SC and ST Students.

Nature of Social Change and Its Impact on Education The Changes in Status of Women Women was looked upon as the symbol of “Shakti”, power and energy in the cosmos. “It is the law of Hindus and not the religion which denied women property rights, used to compel girls to marry before puberty and deny the rights to remarriage of widows, radical change has been brought about in the Hindu social system by these new laws. The problems of purdah by way of illustration, the first decades of the twentieth century, enlightened Hindus as well as Muslims campaigned for the abolition of the purdah, apart from the social injustices involved in this practise there was the shining example of the freedom of movement among women in the whole of peninsular India from Maharashtra to Kerala The department of women and child development in ministry of Human Resource Development. Government of India prepared a National is the most important instrument for human resource development, education of women was given top priority. The National Policy of Education (NPE-1986) attempted for the first time to address itself to the basic issues to women’s equality. In the section titled “Education for Women’s Equality”, the policy states- “Education will be used as an agent of change in the

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 149 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X status of women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well- conceived edge favour of women.The National Education System will play a positive, interventions role in the empowerment of women- “Women become empowered through collective reflection and decision making. The parameters of empowerment are • Building a positive self-image and self- confidence • Developing ability to think critically • Building up group cohesion and fostering decision making and action • Ensuring equal participation in the process of bringing about social change Skill development for girls should be continuous process of learning and should supported by programmes administered by other agencies such as polytechnics, Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs),Women’s Centres in Agricultural and Home Science College. Education institutions would be encouraged to take up programmes like adult education, modern awareness building, legal literacy, information and training support for socio-economic programmes of women’s development instructional programmes through media, which directly benefit the community and bring about the empowerment of women.

The Changing Position of Labour The 1971 Census registered a sharp decline in the Work Participation rate (WPR) defined as the percentage of workers among population as compared to the (1961) Census. The Census Commissioner, for the 1991 Census, “work” was defined as follows: “Work is defined as participation in economically productive activity. Such participation may be physical or mental in nature. Work involves not only actual work but also effective supervision and direction of work .It also includes unpaid work of farm or in family enterprise”. Technological up gradation, modernisation and scientific advances in production process constitute the essence of growth of productivity whether it be in organised industry, agriculture or small industry. A clear view of efficiency and employment effects downstream should be formulated before setting about the management of technological change.

Social Security and Industrial Housing The worker in the pre-industrial organisation obtained the sense of security as a member of a joint family and a caste. Religion also gave a sense of security. Before independence the only measure of social security an industrial worker enjoyed was provided by the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923, and the various maternity benefit Acts passed by the Provincial Governments after1929.

The Expansion in Mass Media Educational programmes of AIR cover a wide spectrum including curriculum based programmes like school university broadcasts. These are broadcast from 78 Stations. Service is entirely regional using the regional language of the people whom these programmes are meant. Radio support is provided to correspondence courses of Andhra Pradesh University and Madurai Kamaraj University. Radio has support to the National Adult Education Programme is also by AIR 30 Stations. The ministry of education set up a national board of audio-visual education in 1953 in order to plan, produce and use the classroom films. The board has a well- equipped film laboratory. It had 4400 films and 2000 films strips on stock in 1960.

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Institutional Social Changes The social change may be „institutional which includes change in more definite structures such as form of organization, roles and role content. The adoption of democracy and adult franchise in India has made training in responsible and responsive citizenship absolutely necessary for the electorate. This may ultimately affect the content and the method of teaching in educational institutions as well as the teacher-taught relationships.

Change in Size and Composition of Population The change may be in the size and composition of population. The explosion of population with differential rates of increase in different regions, communities, socio-economic groups and age groups may necessitate many changes in the educational system. Students with different levels of intelligence and educational aspirations, belonging to different socio - economic classes, different castes and religious groups have begun to come in the same type of educational institution and are huddled in same classroom. All these changes also necessitate change in the educational system. Thus, different types of social changes occurring in society make the existing educational system dysfunctional to a certain extent and in course of time pressurize to bring changes in it.

Social Change and Lags in Indian Educational System In response to social change educational system must also change. The change may be in consonance with the social change and meet the new goals and demands of various social groups adequately. Otherwise a lag is created between the goals and demands of the society and the goals and demands of the educational system. A number of such lags have occurred in the Indian educational system after independence and in many ways perform a dysfunctional role in Indian society. This has been accepted by the Kothari Commission very clearly. It reported: As is well known, the existing system of education is largely unrelated to life and there is a wide gulf between its content and purposes and the concerns of national development Instead of promoting social and national integration and making an active effort to promote national consciousness, several features of the educational system promote divisive tendencies; caste loyalties are encouraged in a number of private educational institutions; the rich and poor are segregated, the former attending the better type of private schools which charge fees while the latter are forced, out of circumstances, to attend free government or local authority .

Modernisation of Education in India: Problems The modernization of education in India becomes a special problem in several ways. India has adopted the path of economic development within the framework of a free society and therefore it cannot adopt authoritarian means to modernize education. The centre has to get the willing consent of the states and each state has to get the willing consent of its elected representatives in their legislative assemblies before introducing any major change in the allocation of resources to education or in the educational system itself. Secondly, India has no colonies to depend on for resources to meet the expenditure on modernizing its educational system. It has to depend on its own self and find out its own resources which are bound to be very limited. But, it can avail assistance from advanced countries and international agencies like UNESCO which have developed programmes to assist educational development in developing countries. However, the fact that this aid will also be limited has to be taken into account. Thirdly, India has lots of diversities. It economy is mixed, including modern factories along with traditional agriculture. Its tribal, rural and urban groups show very wide contrasts in their physical and social conditions of living. The different levels of development at which the various sections of

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 151 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X society stand differentiate their educational needs and complicate the problem of educational development. The aims, methods and organization of education which may be functional for one group may be dysfunctional for the other.

Conclusion Education has become one of the influential instruments of social change in India. It has led to the mobilization of people’s aspirations for development and change. Thus in modern complex national societies, education can neither be regarded as a controlling force conserving cultural heritage, nor could it be viewed as an agent of social change. It can only be regarded as a cooperative force in bringing about social changes decided by the forces possessing more pervasive power in society. Thus the Indian education system needs a complete overhaul through proper legislation and its effective implementation. Legislations should be made taking into account the regional diversities of each state. The masses should be made aware of the new developments.

References 1. Prof. K.Nagarajan, M.Sc. (phy) M.A., (phy) M.Ed., Ph.D., Education In Contemporary India, Sri Ram publishers 2. B. Kuppuswamy, Social change in India, 5th revised and enlarged edition, Konark publisher pvt ltd. [3] http://www.sociology guidr.com / education / education and social change 3. Ram Ahuja (2005). Social Problems in India New Delhi. 4. Dash, M. Education in India: Problems and Perspectives. Atlantic Publishers &Distributers, 2000. 5. Kotwal, Pradeep. Modernisation of Social Work Education. Adhyayan Publishers & Distributors, 2011.

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gHe;jkpHh ; msitfs;

Kidth; e.rjp#;Fkhh; cjtpg] nguhrphpa h]/ jkpH]j]Jiw ! gy;fiyf;fHf cWg;g[f; fy;Y}hp/ fd;dpahFkhp njhw;wk] kdpjd] jpl]lkpl;l xU ehfhpf thH;f]ifia vjph]nehf;fpr; bry;yj] bjhl';fpa fhyf]fl]lj;jpy] g[jpad gyt[k; njhd;wj; bjhl';fpd. vjida[k; xU fl]Lg]ghl;od;fPH]f] fhzj;bjhl';fpa ehfhpf kdpjd;/ jd;thH]f]ifapy] gy JiwfspYk] gytpjkhd xG';F Kiwia mikj;Jf;bfhz;lhd;. msit KiwfSk; mt;thnw njhd;wpapUj;jy] ntz;Lk]. gH';fhy kf;fs; gz;lkhw]W Kiwapy] bghUl;fisf] ifkhw]wpf;bfhz;ldh]. ,k;Kiwapy] epiwfis tplf; Fiwfns mjpfkhff; fhzg]gl;ld. vdnt/ btt;ntW gFjpfspy] thH]e]j FGf;fs;/ j';fSf]Fs] bghJthd rpy mog]gil mst[ Kiwfis mikj;Jf; bfhz]L mjd;go bfhs;tija[k;/ bfhLg]gija[k; nkw;bfhz;lhh]fs]. Muk;gf] fhyj;jpy] mikj;Jf;bfhz;l mst[fbsy;yhk] btWk; mDkhd msit fshfnt ,Ue;jpUf;f ntz;Lk]. fhyg]nghf;fpy] kdpjdpd; mwpthw;wyhy] msit Kiwfs; tsh]r]rpg]bgw;W ,d;iwa epiyia mile;Js;sd. gHik gy E}w]whz;LfSf]F Kd;ng msit Kiwfs; njhd;wptpl;ld vd;gjpy] Iakpy;iy. vdpDk;/ mjid cWjpg]gLj;Jk; ,yf;fpar] rhd;Wfnsh/ gpw tuyhw;Wr] rhd;Wfnsh ,y;yhjjhy] mijg]gw;wpj; bjspthf vJt[k; TwKotjpy]iy. Rkhh] 5000 Mz;LfSf]F Kd; thH]e;j rpe;Jbtsp ehfhpf kf;fspilna gytifahd msitKiwfs; rpwe;j Kiwapy] tH';fp apUe;jjhf tuyhw;W Muha;r]rpahsh]fs] TWfpd;wdh]. ntj';fspYk] mst[ gw;wpa Fwpg]g[fs] ,Ug]gjhff; TWth]. jkpHfj;jpy] bjhy]fhg]gpah] fhyj;jpw;F Kd;ng Rkhh] 2000 tUl';fSf]F Kd;dhy] msitKiwfs; epytp ,Ue;jd vd;gJ bjspt[. msitfs; gw;wpf; TWk; bjhy]fhg]gpa E}w]ghf;fs] ,jw;Fr] rhd;Wfshf tps';Ffpd;wd. r';ffhy msitfs; ePl]ly]/ Kfj;jy]/ vLj;jy]/ vz;zy] Mfpa msit Kiwfs; r';f fhyj;jpy] tHf;fpy] ,Ue]jd. fHw;rpf;fha;/ Fd]dpKj;J/ k"]rho tpij nghd;wd vil mst[fshff; bfhs;sg]gl]ld. bjhs;shapuk;/ Mapuk]/ E}whapuk]/ bts;sk]/ Mk;gy]/ jhkiu Kjypa vz;qg]bgah]fSk]/ fhzp/ Ke;jphp/ fhy]/ miuf;fhy] Kjypa gpd;d';fSk; tHf;fpypUe;Js;sd. Ndpaj;ijf] (0) Fwpf;f ‘ghH]’ vd;w brhy; gad;gl]lJ. kh/ ntyp/ fk;g[ vd]gd epyj;jpd; msitf; Fwpj;jd. ‘mk]gzk;’ vd;gJ xU kuf;fhy] mst[ila Kfj;jysitahFk;. j';fj;ijf; ‘fh ’ vd;wdh]. ,ijj; Jyhf;nfhypy] epWj;Jf; fzf]fpl]ldh]. fh/ bghd; Kjypad bghd;dpd] viliaf; Fwpj;jd. ,it bghw;fhRfshft[kpUe]jd. ‘bjho ’ vd;gJ vilapd; filrp msthFk;. vdnt/ r';ffhyj;jpy] gz;lkhw;W Kiwf;Fk] nkw;gl;l fhR tHf;fj;jpypUe;jij mwpa[k;nghJ mth]fspd; Kjph]e]j ehfhpfj;ij mwpa KofpwJ. ,d;W fpilf;Fk; cnuhkhg[hpf; fhRfs; r';ffhy thzpgk; bgw;wpUe;j mayfj; bjhlh]iga[k;/ bghUshjhu tphpthf;fj;ija[k; czh]j;Jfpd;wd. if mst[ Kjypy; Mjpkdpjd; mst[ KiwfSf;Fj] jdJ KG iffisa[k;/ fhy;fisa[nk gad;gLj;jpdhd;. bghUl]fis vz;qtjw;Fk]/ ifahy] vLj;J viliaf; fzf;fpLtjw;Fk;/ Jzpia msf;f KHk; nghLtjw;Fk;/ jhdpa';fisf] ifapy; thhp mse]J bfhLg;gjw;Fk]/ rpwpjst[ kUe;Jfis tpuystpy; tH';Ftjw;Fk]/ kdpj cliy msg;gjw;Fk] kdpjd; jdJ ,U iffisa[nk gad;gLj;jpdhd;. ,jw;F tpuyst[/ ifast[/ fhyst[ vd;W bgah].

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 153 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X fhy; mst[ epyj;ij msg;gjw;Fk]/ ,U Ch;fSf;F ,ilg;gl;l J}uj;ij msg;gjw;Fk] kdpjd; fhy;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdhd;. mo/ fhjk] Kjypad fhyhy] msf]fg]gl]l epy mst[fshFk]. fz; mst[ ( Set Maths) fhyg;nghf;fpy; vil mst[fspy; mjpf gHf;fKs;s kw;Wk; njh;r;rpg;bgw;wth;fs; ,Ue;jdh;. ,th;fs; ghh]itahnyna xU bghUspd; epiwia/ vz;zj;ijr; ( count) brhy;Ykst[f;Fj; njh;r;rpg; bgw;wpUe;jdh;. ,ijna fz;zst[ vd;wdh;. ,jd] mog;gilapnyna "fz; msf;fhjjh ifasf;fg; nghfpwJ> " vd;Dk; gHbkhHp ,d;Wk; fpuhk';fspy; tH';fptUfpwJ. fz;zhysf;Fk; ,t;tst[Kiwapd; jpUe]jpa totnk mz;ikf; fhyj;jpy; tHf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;j Set Maths vd]Dk; mst[ KiwahFk;. ,jpy; njh;r;rpg;bgw;wth]fs] ,e;j kh kuj;jpy; Rkhh; vj;jid kh';fha;fs] cs;sd> ,e;j thiHf; Fiyapy; vj;jid thiHf;fha;fs; cs;sd> ,e;jf; Tl;lj;jpy; Rkhh; vj;jid egh]fs] ,Ug;ghh;fs;> vd;gdtw;iwbay;yhk; fz;l khj;jpuj;jpnyna TwptpLk; jpwd; bgw;wpUe]jdh]. "esghfd; njnuhl;oahf ,Ue;J njiur; brYj;jpf; bfhz;oUf;fpwhd;. njh; fhj J}uk; bry;tjw;Fs; fz;zpik neuj;jpy; fle;J nghFk; kuj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; gwitfis vz;zptpLfpwhd]. ” ,ij tpsf;f Kw;gLifapy;/ xU kuj;ij ehd;F TWfshfg; gphpj;J/ xU Fwpg;gpl;l Twpy; vj;jidg; gwitfs; ,Uf;Fk; (Rkhh] 50) vd;gij itj;J (4 x 50) bkhj;jg] gwitfisf; (Rkhh; 200) fzf;fplyhk; vd;fpd;wdh]. ,k]Kiwapy] fzf;fpLk; gHf;fk; ( Set Maths) jw;nghJ tHf;fpHe;J tUfpwJ. tpisahl;Lk; vz;fzpjKk; gHe;jkpHh; tpisahl;Lfspy;; vz;fSk;/ mst[fSk; ,ize;jpUe;jd. ,jdhy;/ FHe;ijfs; vspjpy; vz;fisf; fw;Wf; bfhz;ldh;. rpWth]/ rpWkpah] tpisahLk;/

'xU Flk; jz;zp vLj;J xU g{ g{j;jhr;R* ' ,uz;L Flk; jz;zp vLj;J ,uz;L g{ g{j;jhr;R* ' nghd;w ghly]fspd; tHp vz;fis vspjpy; fw;Wf;bfhz;ldh;. jhak;/ gy;yh';FHp (ghz;o)/ tl]lhLjy] nghd;w tpisahl;Lfs; gHe;jkpHhpd; vz;fzpj tpisahl;Lfns MFk]. ,jd; tHp FHe;ijfs; vspjpy] vz; fzpjk; fw;wdh;. fz;zh\r;rp/ ePUf;Fs; kiwe;jpUe;J vz;fis vz;zp tpisahLjy; nghd;w jkpHh; tpisahl;Lfspy; vz;fns rpwg;gplk; bgWfpwJ. C";rypy; xUth; Ml/ kw;wth; Kjyhkth] vj;jid Kiw Modhh]> vd;W vz;qthh]. ,t]tpisahl]oy] vz;zj;ij tpl;Ltplf; TlhJ vd;gjpy; FHe;ijfs; ftdkhf ,Ug;gh;. ,jdhy; vspjpy; vz;fzpjk; gapd;wdh;. nfhyk; nghLk; gHf;fk; gHe;jkpHh; thH;tpy; gphpf;fKoahj xd;W. vz;fisr; rhpahf mikj;Jg] g[s;sp itf;fhtpl;lhy; nfhyk; rhpahf mikahJ. nfhykplt[k; ,ayhJ. ,jdhy;/ vz; fzpj mwpt[k;/ nfhyk; nghLk; gHf;fKk; ,ize;nj ,Ue;jd. ,jdhy;/ vz;zyst[k;/ fiy eaKk; kfsph] kdjpy] tsh;e;jJ. nfhykpLtjhy; fw]wYf;F mog]gilahd kd xUikg;ghLk; ( Concentration ) tsh]e]jJ. vz]qg]bgaUk;/ msitg]bgaUk; cyfpy; Kjypy; vz;zyst[jhd; njhd;wpapUf;f ntz;Lk;. vz;zy; msitapypUe;Jjhd; vy;yhtpjkhd gpw mst[fSk; njhd;wp tsh;e;jpUf;f ntz;Lk;. vz;zyst[jhd; vy;yhtpjkhd gpw mst[fSf;Fk; mog;gilahf mike;Js;sJ. Mjpkdpjd; mst[ KiwfSf;F Kjypy; jd; if/ fhy;fisj;jhd; gad;gLj;jpdhd;. mjpYk; Fwpg;ghf/ iftpuy;fisg; gad;gLj;jpanj cyfpy; msitfspd; bjhlf;fkhf mikfpwJ. ,jdhy]/ vz;zysnt cyfpy; Kjypy] njhd;wpapUf;f ntz;Lk] vd;gJ bka;ahfpwJ. ,d;Wk; gpw vy;yh msitg]bgah]fSk; vz;qg]bganuhL ,ize;nj gad;ghl;oy; cs;sd. ,jw;F cjhuzkhf rpytw;iwf; Fwpg]gplyhk;. cjhuzk] : xU tuhfd; vil/ ,uz;L rtud; eif/ \d;W fz neuk;/ ehd;F KH Jzp/ Ie;J fhj J}uk;/ MW go bea;/ VG thu fhyk;/ vl;L kuf;fhy; bey;/ xd;gJ kzpj;Jsp/ gj;J tUlk; vz;fSk;/ mst[fSk; xd;iwbahd;W gphpj;jwpa Koahj tz;zk; xd;Wld; xd;W gpd;dpg;gpize;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd. vz;izj; jtph]j;J mst[fis kl]Lk] Fwpg;gpLtJ vd;gJ ,ayhj xd;W.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 154 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X vz;zy] msitg]bgah] vGjg;gLtJ vGj;J vdg]gl;lJ nghy/ vz;zg;gLtJ vz; vdg]gl;lJ. Kjypy; kdpjd; vz;qtjw;Ff] if tpuy;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdhd;. gpd;dh; totj;jpy; rpwpaJk;/ vLj;Jr;bry;y vspaJkhd THh';fw;fisa[k;/ rpW Fr;rpfisa[k;/ gpd;dh] FwpaPLfisa[k; gad;gLj;jpdhd;. vLj;jyst[ vLj;jy]/ epWj;jy]/ J}f]fy]/ fdk; ghh]j;jy] ,it midj;Jk; vLj;jysitiaf; Fwpg]gpLfpwJ. ehkjPg epfz;L/ “vz;/ ,yf;fk;/ J}f]fk]/ epiw ” vd epiwg] bgah]fisf; Fwpg]gpLfpwJ. kuj;jpd; vil/ j';fj;jpd; vil/ jhdpa';fspd; vil/ fk;gpapd; vil/ jputg; bghUl;fspd; vil/ fhw;wpd; vil/ R{hpad; Kjyhd nfhs;fspd; vil/ kUe;Jg; bghUl;fspd; vil vdg; gy;ntW tifg;gl;l vil mst[fSf;Fk; mtd; btt;ntW tpjkhd vilg;bgah;fisa[k;/ vilf; fUtpfisa[k; ifahz;lhd;. rhd;whf/ j';fj;jpd; viliar] rtud;/ fH";rp/ k"]rho vd;Wk;/ mjpf vila[s]s bghUl]fspd; epiwiag] gyk;; vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpl]ldh]. jdpg]gz;g[ epWj;jysitiag] gpw msitfSld; ,izj;Jf; TwpapUg]gpDk; mjw;bfd xU jdpj;jd;ik cz;L. gpw msitfspypUe;J khWgl;lJ epWj;jysit. “… mst[k; epiwa[k; vz;q"] Rl;o ” “epWj;jypd; mstpd; …” / “mst[k; epiwa[k; ntw;Wik apay ” vd;Dk; bjhy]fhg]gpa E}w]ghf;fSk]/ “msbghL epiwa[k; thpd; kpFbkd;g ” “mst[k; epiwa[k; thpd; ,ay;ghFk;” vd;Dk; Kj;JtPhpa E}w]ghf;fSk; ,jw;Fr] rhd;whf cs;sd. ,yf;fz tpsf;fKk] ,t;thnw TWfpwJ.

,yf]fz ,yf;fpa';fspy] epiwg]bgah]fs] jkpHfj;jpy] bjhd;Wbjhl]nl gytifahd epWj;jysitfs; tHf;fpypUe;jd vd;gJ cz;ik. jkpHh] tuyhw;iwa[k;/ gz;ghl]ila[k; TWk; Kjy] jkpH] E}yhfpa bjhy]fhg]gpaj;jpy] epWj;jysitg] gw;wpa Fwpg]g[fs] gy ,l';fspy] tUfpd;wd. bjhy]fhg]gpaj;jpw;Fg; gpd; njhd;wpa ,yf;fpa';fs] M';fh';nf rpy epiwg]bgah]fisj; je;J bry;fpd;wd. ,ilf;fhyj;jpy] vGe;j fy;btl]Lf;fspy] epiwg]bgah]fs] gy fhzg]gLfpd;wd. gytif epiwg] bgah]fisa[k;/ mtw;wpd; tha]g]ghl]ila[k; Fwpj;Jr; bry;tjpy] fhye;njhWk; njhd;wpa epfz;LfSk;/ mfuhjpfSk; Kf;fpa g';F tfpf;fpd;wd. epWj;jysitf] fUtpfs] gpw msitfisg] nghd;W epWj;jysitia neuoahf mstpl Kotjpy;iy. VnjDk; xU bghUis xU Fwpg]gpl;l msthf (epiwf;fy] my;yJ go) mikj;Jf; bfhz;L/ mjndhL xg]gpl;nl bghUs;fspd; epiwiaf; fzf]fpl Koa[k;. ,t;thW xg]gpLtjw;Fj; juhR (Balance) vd;w fUtp gad;gLj;jg]gLfpwJ. ‘juhR ’ epWj;jysitf;F mog]gilahf mike;jpUf;Fk; fUtp vdyhk]. jhuR (jpuhR) vd;gij Jyh/ Jyhk]/ Jyhf;nfhy]/ epWg]ghd] vdt[k; Fwpg]gpLth]. ts;Sth] ,jidr] ‘rkd; bra;J rPh] J}f]F'; nfhy]’ vdf; Fwpg]gpl;Ls;shh]. “Kd;nd jhd; rkdhf epd;W gpd; jd;fz; itj;j ghuj;ij tiuaWf;Fk; Jyhk]” vdj] Jyhf;nfhYf;F tpsf;fk; jUfpwhh] ghpnkyHfh]. epiwfs] (Weights) tp"]"hd tsh]r]rp ,y;yhj gH';fhyj;jpy]/ ,d;wpUg]gJ nghd;W cnyhfj;jhy] bra;j Kj;jpiug]gofs; (Weights) ,Ue]jpUf;ftpy;iy. Xust[ rkkhd rpy mDkhd msitf; fw]fisna Kd;ndhh] gad]gLj;jp te;Js;sdh]. rpe;Jbtsp kf;fs; - Rz;zhk;g[f]fy]/ rpnyl]Lf;fy]/ khf;fy] nghd;w gytif fw;fis epiwf;fy;yhf (Weights) gad;gLj;jpdh] vd;W Muha]r]rpahsh] TWfpd;wdh]. vil ntWghl;ow;nfw]g mt;msitf;fw;fs; cUtj;jhYk]/ gUkdhYk] ntWgl;L mike;jpUe;jd.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 155 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

jkpHfj;Jg] gH';fhy epiwf]fw;fis nehf;Fk;nghJ xnu totpyhd/ Vfnjrk; xnu viliaf] bfhz;l/ fhyj;jhy] mHpe;J nghfhj/ gyfhyk] xnu jd;ikapy] epiyepw;ff]Toa gytifahd tpijfis (seeds) vilf;fw;fshfg] gad;gLj;jpapUg]gij mwpaKofpwJ. k"]rho/ Fd;wpkzp/ bey;kzp/ bfhs;/ Iatp/ rPufk] nghd;wtw;iw ,jw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhff; Twyhk]. ,itjtpu tuhfd;/ fhR nghd;w rpy ehza';fisa[k; epiwf;fy;yhfg] gad;gLj;jpa[s]sdh]. gH';fhyj] jkpH]kf;fs; jl]g/ btg]g epiyfshy] khwf;Toa ,t;tsitf;fw;fshy] xU bghUspd; rhpahd viliaf; fzf]fpLtJ vd;gJ ,ayhj fhhpak; vd]gij czh]]e]jdh]. vdnt/ gpw;fhyj;jpy] jl;gbtg]g epiyfshy] ghjpf]fg]glhj gytifahd cnyhf';fshy] bra;ag]gl;l Kj;jpiug]gof]fw]fis eilKiwf;Ff] bfhz;Lte;jdh]. xU bghUspd; rhpahd vilia ,jd; \yk; fzf;fpl Koe;jJ. epiwf; fw;fspd; bgah]fs] gH';fhyj;jpy] bgUk;ghYk]/ epiwf;fw;fsha; gad;gl;l bghUs;fspd; bgauhnyna mt;tt] epiwf]fw;fs; tH';fg]gl;ld. k"]rho/ fhzk]/ Fd;wpkzp/ rpWfLF nghd;wtw;iw ,jw;Fr] rhd;W fhl;lyhk]. “Re;jughz;oad; nfhy]”/ “cyfse;jhd; nfhy]”/ “Mlty;yhd; vd]Dk; kuf;fhy]”/ “brg]g[f]fhy] jpUr]rpw]wk;gyKilahd;” vd murd; bgauhYk]/ Mz;ltd; bgauhYk] ePl;ly]/ Kfj;jy] mst[f] fUtpfs; bgah] bgw;wpUg]gijg; nghd;W/ vLj;jysitf; fUtpfSk; murd; bgauhYk;/ ,iwtd; bgauhYk] tH';fg]gl]ld. mt;tt] fhyj;jpy] Ml;rpg[hpe;j kd;dh]fs] gyh] ,jw;fhf Miz gpwg]gpj;jijf] fy;btl;Lf;fspy] fhzKofpwJ. “msg]gdt[k; epWg]gdt['; fabyGjp ” vd;Wk;/ “gz;Ls;s nghjtpj;J msg]gdt[k; Kfg]gdt[k; epWg]gdt[k; fabyGjp ” vdt[k;/ “Mlty;yhd; vd;Dk; Foi"f] fy;yhy] epiwbaLj;J … j#znkUtpl';fh] vd;Dk; fhRf]fy;yhy] epiwbaLj;Jk]” vdtUk; fy;btl]Lg] gFjpfs; nkw;Twpa Tw]Wf]Fr] rhd;W jUfpd;wd. mf;fhyj;jpy] tHf;fpypUe;j mst[f]fUtpfs; mtuth] ehl]L Kj;jpiu bghwpf;fg]bgw;W/ me;je]jf]fhy murh]fs] bgauhnyna tH';fp te;jpUf;fpd;wd. nfhapy]fspy] vGe;jUspapUf;Fk; \h]j;jpfs; bgauhYk] rpy ,l';fspy] mst[f]fUtpfspd; bgah]fs] tps';Ffpd]wd. Mlty;yhd; vd;gJ rptbgUkhDf]Fhpa xU bgah]. mg;bgauhy] bghd; Kjypatw;iw epWf;f cjt[k; nfhapy] epiwf;fy;/ ‘Mlty;yhd;’ vdg] bgah] bgw;wJ. ‘Foi"f]fy;’ vd;gJ nrhHh] fhyj;jpy]/ ehl;oy] bghd; Kjypatw;iw epWf;f cjtpa xU epiwf]fy]. ,it jtpu/ brk;ikgz;lhuf;fy;/ gz;lhuf; fy; vd;Dk; epiwf;fw;fSk; ,Ue;Js;sd. ,tw;iwg; ghh]f]Fk;nghJ mf]fhyj;jpy] nfhapy]njhWk; ntWgl;l epiwf;fw]fs] ,Ue;jd vd;gJ bjhpatUfpwJ. efu';fspy] mJ efuf;fy; vdg]gl]lJ. bghd;id epWf;f Mzpf;fy] vd;Dk; epiwf;fy; ,Ue;Js;sJ. jkpHfj;jpy] epWj;jysit - md;Wk; ,d;Wk] bjhy;fhg]gpah] epWj;jysitiag] gy ,l';fspy] Fwpg]gpl;oUg]gpDk; epiwg] bgauhf ‘fh ’ vd;gij kl]Lnk Fwpg]gpLfpwhh]. vdpDk;/ mth] fhyj;jpy] ntW gy epiwg]bgah]fSk] tH';fpapUe;jd vd;gij/ “mstpw;Fk; epiwapw]Fk; - bkhHpKjyhfp csbtdg]gl;l xd;gjpw;bwGj;nj mit jhk] f r j g vd;wh e k vd;wh mfu cfunkh litbad bkhHpg ” vd;Dk; E}w]ghtpy] Twpa[s]shh]. ciuahrphpah] TWk; epiwg]bgah] bjhy]fhg]gpaj;jpw;F ciu fz;l ,sk;g{uzh]/ fH"]rp (fH"]R)/ rPufk]/ bjho/ gyk]/ epiw/ kh/ tiu/ me;ij/ f@R/ bfhs;/ Iatp vd;Dk; epiwg] bgah]fisf] Fwpg]gpl]Ls;shh]. er]rpdhh]f]fpdpah] ,tw;nwhL ‘Fd]wp ’ vd;Dk; epiwiaa[k; Fwpg]gpLfpwhh]. ed;D}yhh] gytifahd msitfisf; Fwpg]gpl;oUg]gpDk;

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 156 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X epiwg]bgauhf vija[k; jutpy;iy. fhz;oif ciuahrphpah] fH"]R/ tPir/ J}f]F/ kz';F/ bjho/ f@R vd;Dk; epiwg] bgah]fisf] Fwpg]gpl]Ls;shh]. bjhy]fhg]gpaj;ij mLj;j r';ffhyj;jpy] fH"]R/ fh vd;Dk; epiwg] bgah]fs] tHf;fpy] ,Ue;Js;sd. jpUf;Fwspy] ‘bjho ’/ ‘f@R ’/ ‘Fd;wp ’ vd;Dk; epiwg]bgah]fs] fhzg]gLfpd;wd. rpyg]gjpfhuk; ‘fH"]R ’ vd;Dk; epiwg] bgaiu kl]Lk; Fwpg]gpl;Lr; brhy;fpwJ. ,ilf;fhyj;jpy] tH';fpte;j msitg]bgah]fis mwpa epfz;LfSk;/ fy;btl]Lf]fSk; Kf;fpa Mjhu';fshf cs]sd. epfz;Lfs; TWk; epiwg]bgah] jpthfu epfz;L J}f]F/ fh/ Jyhk]/ epiw/ gyk]/ bjho vd;Dk; epiwg] bgah]fisj; jUfpwJ. gp';fy epfz;Ltpy] J}f]F/ Jyhk]/ fh/ gyk]/ bjho/ ghuk]/ f@R/ tPrk] vd;Dk; epiwg] bgah]fs] fhzg]gLfpd;wd. gy;yth] fhy epiwg]bgah] gy;yth] fhyj;jpy; bghd;dhdJ fH"]R/ k"]rho Mfpa msitg] bgah]fshy] epWf]fg]gl;Ls;sd. ghz;oah] fhyj;jpy] bghd;/ bts;sp Kjyhd cah]e]j bghUl]fs] fH"]R/ fhzk; vd;Dk; epiwf] fw;fshYk]/ rh]f]fiu/ fha;fwp/ g[sp Kjypad Jyhk]/ gyk; vd;Dk; epiwfshYk] epWf]fg]gl;L te;Js;sd. me;ehl]fspy] nrh]/ tPir/ kz';F vd;gtw;why] epWf;Fk; tHf;fk; ,Ue;jpUf;ftpy;iy. nrhHh]fhy epiwg]bgah] fp.gp. 896 Kjy; 1279 tiua[s]s nrhHh] fhyf] fy]btl;Lf;fspy] fH"]R/ k"]rho/ Fd]wp vd;Dk; epiwg]bgah]fns mjpfkhff; fhzg]gLfpd;wd. kh vd;Dk; mst[k; tH';fp te;jpUf;fpwJ. brk;g[/ gp;j;jis ,tw;why] bra;ag]gl;l ghj;jpu';fs] gyk; vd;Dk; msitahy] epWf]fg]gl;Ls;sd.

JizE}w]gl;oay] 1. r']f ,yf;fpak] (KGtJk;)/ ghl]Lk; bjhifa[k]/ Kjy; bjhFjp/ Ky;iy epiyak]/ 9/ ghujp efh] Kjy; bjU/ jp. efh]/ brd;id – 17. 2005 2. j"]irg] bghpa nfhtpy] mst[nfhy]/ ,uhkd;. nt./ ,uhruhrnrhHd; 1000 - MtJ Mz;L tpHh epidt[r] rpwg]gpjH]/ j"]rht{h]. 3. rpw;g mst[fs] - infaL/ fzgjp.it./ ,uz;lhtJ cyfj;jkpH] khehL/ brd;id/ 1968 4. gz;ilj; jkpHh] thH]tpy] thdpay]/ (gf;. 60-66)/ ,yf;fpaf; fhl]rpfs;/ fhe;jpkjp byl]Rkp. e./ fPjh gjpg]gfk]/ Re;jufk]/ 43V/ kPdhl]rpg[uk; fpHf;F/ J}j;Jf;Fo – 2/ 1998 5. jkpHpy] Kfj;jysitg] bgah]fs]/rptfhkp.r./ (gf;. 194 - 213)/ ,sntdpy] \d]W/ ,s']nfh kd;w btspaPL/ jkpH]j;Jiw/ nfusg] gy;fiyf;fHfk]. 1974 6. bjhy]fhg]gpaUk; vz;qg]bgaUk]/ nrJ uFehjd;.e./ bre;jkpH]r] bry;tp (khh]r]) brd;id. 1988 7. jkpHpy] epWj;jysitg] bgah]fs]/ (gf;. 158 - 173)/ eapdhh].kh./ ,sntdpy] \d]W/ ,s']nfh kd;w btspaPL/ jkpH]j;Jiw/ nfusg] gy;fiyf;fHfk]. 1974 8. jkpHpy] ePl;lysitg] bgah]fs; (gf;. 176 - 193)]/ gftjp. F./ ,sntdpy] \d]W/ ,s']nfh kd;w btspaPL/ jkpH]j;Jiw/ nfusg] gy;fiyf;fHfk]. 1974 9. jkpHh] jk] vz;zpay] Ez;zwpt[/ Kdpag]gd]. bghd;./ bre;jkpH]r] bry;tp (Vg]uy])/ brd;id. 1979/ 10. vz;zysit/ tpg[yhde;jh] Rthkp/ bre;jkpH] (brg]. – mf;.)/ kJiu. 1941 11. epWj;jysitfSk; Kfj;jysitfSk] (gf]. 211-216)/ QhpQud;.r./ jkpH]ehl]L tuyhw;Wf] fUj;ju']F/ tuyhw;Wg] nguit btspaPL/ brd;id. 1979 12. jkpHh] tuyhW fhl]Lk; vz;zyst[/ jkpHuR (Vg]uy])/ murpdh] njhl]lk;/ mz;zhr]rhiy/ brd;id - 2/ 2004 13. jkpH] ,yf;fpa']fs]/ fy;btl]Lf;fs; fhl]Lk; jkpH] vz;fs;/ msitfs;/ FwpaPLfs;/ bre;jpy; bry;tf;Fkud;.kh./ Kidth] gl;l Ma;ntL/ kJiu fhkuhrh] gy;fiyf;fHfk]/ kJiu. 1989 14. jkpH] vz; fzpj tuyhW/ Kidth] gl;l Ma;ntL/ tpndhgh.nt./ jkpH]g] gy;fiyf;fHfk]/ j"]rht{h]/ 2006 15. jkpH]bkhHpafuhjp (M. g.)/ fjpiuntw]gps;is. eh./ Vrpad; vLnf#dy] rh]tP!]/ 45. g[Jbly;yp/ 1981 16. fHfj;jkpH] ifafuhjp/ (k.g.)/ fHfg]g[yth] FGtpdh]/ jpUbey;ntyp bjd;dpe;jpa irtrpj;jhe;j E}w]gjpg]g[f] fHfk]/ brd;id. 1980 17. gp']fy epfz;L (K. g.)/ gp']fy Kdpth]/ jpUbey;ntyp bjd;dpe;jpa irtrpj;jhe;j E}w]gjpg]g[f] fHfk]/ brd;id. 1968 18. Tamil Lexicon, Vaiapuri Pillai.S., (Ed.)., University of Madras, Madras. 1982

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 157 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

SREE NARAYANAGURU: SAVIOUR OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Dr.B.Sheeeba Kumari, M.A.,M.Ed.,M.Phil,Ph.D ., Assistant Professor, Department of History,

S. T. Hindu College, Nagercoil

Recent years, depressed class emerged in all spheres of Kerala, Tamilnadu and all over India. The empowerment of the non-privileged is today given a national priority, even among the political parties and governments. In this context, Sree Narayana Guru devoted himself for socio-economic and cultural reforms for the non-privileged in Travancore* society particularly for the uplift of the Ezhava women. His reforms for women empowerment among Ezhava community is remarkable one in Kerala in the eighteenth century and the early nineteenth century. All this reforms for women empowerment**paved the way for the progress forsocial justice of depressed class women in Kerala.The rise is not all of a sudden emergence. It can be traced from the contribution of the social reformer Sree Narayana Guru. Sree Narayana Guru started his struggle against the denial of education, struggle against political and social oppression of women, the struggle of the women have organized for better working conditions, the struggle where women agitate for the recognition and remuneration of their work with in the house hold there by increasing the scope of the productive sector by changing the definition of work, the struggle where women have participated in various social and political movements affecting the larger social system such as the participation of women in issues concerning ecology, consumerism or the preservation of cultural patterns of a particular group or society are the important struggles of 1 empowerment for women. Sree Narayana Guru held the view that education is a most important feather to enlighten and empowered the women against oppression and exploitation. Because he thought education has always been considered as the most powerful instrument for social change. In his view, education has to play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women. The newly emerged educated middle class among the lower castes realized that the spread of education was essential for overcoming their economic and social backwardness. He also knew that those who controlled educational opportunities also controlled the avenues of economic and bureaucratic spheres. Narayana Guru advocated free and compulsory education irrespective of caste or creed, and also Guru demanded educational facilities for peasants and workers of Ezhava women. During this Period Guru established educational institutions instead of temples in 1911. A Sanskrit school was began in Sivagiri, a weaving school at Aruvippuram, English and Malayalam school at 2 Vaikom and one in Courtallam for the benefit of children of the under privileged classes, and he appointed some teachers from this community. The consequences of the educational reforms Dakshayani the first women graduate from the lower caste becoming a member of the Kochi legislative council and the constituent assembly later on. Based on this, the government has an Obligation to make sure that Ezhava women can enjoy a whole range of human rights, such as the right of life, freedom from torture or cruel, in human degrading treatment or punishment, freedom from slavery, the right to privacy, the right to marry only with free and full consent, and the right to take part in public affairs. The life and dignity of pulaya women depends on the realization of these human rights. However they got politically empowering and breached systematically. Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam, and the Sree Narayana Dharma Sangam are working

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 158 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X among the communities at the bottom of the social ladder, the Ezhavas attracted attention in particular, the presence of women. By these organizations Narayana Guru reformed their domestic and social life, abolished superstitious, bad customs and wasteful ceremonies, encouraged temperance and economy created a yearning for knowledge and power, strengthened industrious habits, promoted public spirit 3 co-operation and union, made their lives in all ways poor, richer and stronger. Sree Narayana Guru and his followers fought for the empowerment of Ezhava women. As a result of this the Ezhava and other depressed class women were actively involved in the anti - caste and anti - untouchably movements in 1920’s. They have increasingly felt and articulated the need for a separate plat form created, developed and controlled by themselves through which they could forge their own identity, fought for their rights and find solutions to their problems. Rather they assert that there is a need for strong alliances between the Ezhava movement, the women’s movement and the Ezhavas women movement if their common vision of social, economic and political equality and justice for all is to be realized. Sree Narayana Guru made positive changes in the lives of Ezhava women, such as legal action against caste based atrocities, political empowerment of Ezhava women, economic empowerment against growing pauperization, building self - confidence and leadership. As a result after 1941 there 4 has been no independent self-respect leadership or movement of Dalits in Kerala. However, in the recent there has been a ray of hope due to the development of Bahujansaaj party in the state with its strong cadre base, which has successfully provided a new impetus to the young, educated youth and employees of the downtrodden sections. This new dynamics of Kerala’s socio- politics will empower the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, backward classes and other religious minorities along with other weaker sections of upper caste strata in a real sense. Through the reforms of Sree Narayana GuruEzhava women got empowerment in some qualities. Women become truly empowered and attained in awareness about risks prevailing at home in work place, in traveling and staying outside home, political, legal, economic and health awareness in the Kerala society. Above all “women .self-help groups” and “Kudumbasthree women empowerment organizations” was organised by the government in various part of Kerala to strengthen the women power and to show them the right path to grow their self - confidence and significantly improve their way of living to be independent. With such an initiative now it is learnt that more than 90 percent of women in Kerala have gained their self - confidence and they are actively in the decentralized governance process in panchayathraj institutions. Now in Kerala the women groups collectively formed a new women’s organization called ‘SNEHITHA’, which exclusively focus on advocacy and lobbying for women friendly policies at local self- government level, at state level and acting on various local issues through these schemes women entcerprenars are emerging. Empowerment of women is slowly getting momentum. The 33 percent reservation for women is a major step for the empowerment of women. As the result in Kerala number of women who entered the political has been quite large. Now the number of women in the LSGIS exceeds the 33 percent. Kerala ministry also accommodated a women from the depressed class Miss. Jayalekshmi the minister of scheduled caste and scheduled Tribe. Not only the legislative assembly but also the participation of women in central government, local bodies, and social service organization are remarkable one in Kerala society. The Malayalee women are working in various departments of the Kerala government and non - governmental organisations. It fulfilled the aim of Sree Narayana Guru. Sree Narayana Guru implemented lot of programmes successfully more than a century ago when there was poor access to transport, communication and resources, and no organizational support. The only driving force was the spirit to perform and cross hurdles. Yet the

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 159 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X process of change resulted in a new confidence among the target group. They organised themselves, raised resources and volunteered their services for the reform process. The whole process survived for a couple of decades and slowly lost its spirit, yet left behind admirable and visible changes. On the whole, we can say, living in stirring times, he broke all conventions and became a pioneer in social reform and national unity. He was the crusader for women’s rights, and his unstinted hard work and devotion to whole the social and political emancipation of women should be placed on record.

References 1. The name Travancore is derived from the term Srivardhanapuri or Srivazhumcode, which means the seat of prosperity. Thefour Tamil speaking Taluks of Kanyakumari districts viz, Agasteeswaram, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode constituted the erstwhile Travancore. It was located in the south-west portion of the Indian peninsula. This was formed by the reorganisation of provinces of India on linguistic basis in 1956. As per the recommendation of the state reorganisation commission the Tamil speaking southern four taluks were separated from Travancore and organised into a new revenue district in the name of Kanyakumari to be merged with the state of Tamilnadu. 2. Empowerment “is when women can achieve whatever they want”. Women empowerment concept was introduced at the third International women’s conference at Nairobi in 1985. The conference defined “Women empowerment as a redistribution of social power and control of resources in favour of women”. Control over resources like education, employment and political power and house hold resources like income, property, health, nutrition and decision making. For gaining this control one must primarily have the access to these resources. 1. Empowerment of women, students news, No.5, April, 1998, p.l 1 2. Balakrishnan, K, Sree Narayana GuruvinteSamboornaKrithikal (Malayalam) 3. kottayam, 2002, p.231 4. Gopinathan Nair P.R. Education and Socio economic change in Kerala, Vol.4, No.8, 1976, p.31. 5. Swami Dharma Theertha, History of Hindu Imperialism, Madras, 1992, p.239.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 160 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

THE BATTLE OF COLACHEL

Dr.N.Subha Nanthini Assistant Professor, Deptartment of History S.T. Hindu College, Nagercoil

Introduction th 1 The Battle of Colachel was a battle that took place on 10 August 1741 (31 July OS) during the Travancore-Dutch War, when forces of Marthanda Varma, the king or Raja of the Indian state of Travancore (also known as Tiruvitamkur) defeated forces of the Dutch East India Company (also known as the VOC), and the allied Rani of EleyadathuSwarupam at Kulachal (anglicised to Colachel or Kolachel) in India. Other notable coastal battles on the West coast of India by native sailors like KunjaliMarakkar in th th the early 16 century, and by KanhojiAngre in the early 18 century were on a smaller scale and more 2 guerrilla in nature. The Raja’s success is attributed to the tactical genius of his prime minister, Ramayyan Dalawa. This battle is important because it marked the decline of Dutch influence over India, assisting 3 the British East India Company’s rise and eventual British rule.

Background Almost all the pepper that the Dutch imported into their country came from the Great kingdom of Kayamkulam. When the then Maharajah of Travancore, Marthanda Varma, realized that the Rajah of Kayamkulam was involved in certain conspiracies against him, he became bent on destroying Kayamkulam and annexing the kingdom. This endangered Dutch interests and Marthanda Varma, who feared the British would give the rights of pepper trade to them, ending the Dutch monopoly. With this in view the Dutch Governor wrote of Marthanda Varma asking him to end aggressions against Kayamkulam to which the Maharajah wrote back asking him not to interfere in matters that did not concern him. The Governor then met the Maharajah in person and threatened war on the basis that they were a “superior” power should attack them “there were forests in Travancore into which he and his people could retire in safety” and that he had himself been planning to invade Europe with his fishermen. 4 This last interview ended, thus, in tension and the Governor decided to attack Travancore.

The Battle The battle began when a force of Dutch marines under the leadership of a Flemish commander, Captain Eustachius De-Lannoy (also spelt D'lennoy) were sent to Travancore to secure a trading post from the Raja. They landed with artillery in Colachel, then a small but important coastal town, and captured the territory up to Padmanabhapuram, the then-capital of Travancore. The arrival of the Raja's army from the north forced the Dutch to take up defensive positions in Colachel, where they were attacked and defeated by the Travancore Nair forces. The key element of the Kings’ army was his personal army, known as the Travancore Nair Brigade or locally known as the Nair Pattalam. This unit was later integrated into the Indian Army as the 9th Battalion Madras Regiment and the 16th Battalion 5 Madras Regiment in 1954. Some twenty eight Dutch soldiers were taken prisoner. After the defeat, the commander joined the 6 Raja's army in return for his life being spared, and served in it for over two decades. A pillar of victory which gives details about the war still stands near the coast of Colachel. There are some folk tales among the local Mukkuvar people about this war. The tale says among other things that

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 161 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X the local Mukkuvar (Malayalam for fishermen) fishermen were asked to stand along the beach in multiple rows with their oars kept along the shoulders so that it would appear like soldiers standing with their guns. This might have been a trick meant to create a psychological fear for the Dutch navy. The local 7 Christian fishermen, co-operated very much with the Raja's Nairs during this war.

Impact A direct outcome of the event at Colachel was the takeover of the black pepper trade by the state of Travancore. This development was to have serious repercussions on the Dutch and the trading world of Kerala at large. In 1753 the Dutch signed the Treaty of Mavelikkara with the Raja agreeing not to obstruct the Raja's expansion, and in turn, to sell to him arms and ammunition. This marked the beginning of the end of Dutch influence in India. The VOC continued to sell Indonesian spices and sugar in Kerala until 1795, at which time the English conquest of the Kingdom of Kochi ended their rule in 8 India. Capitan De Lannoy, who joined his service, was promoted to the Senior Admiral (Valiya Kappithan), and modernized the Travancore army by introducing firearms and artillery. He was granted 9 the Udayagiri fort (now also known as Delannoy’s fort) to reside.

Tributes • The Indian government has built a pillar of victory in Colachel to commemorate the event. • The Indian Postal Department released a Rupee 5 stamp on April 1, 2004 to commemorate the 10 tercentenary (300th anniversary) of the raising of the 9th Battalion of Madras Regiment.

References 1. A. P. Ibrahim Kunju, the Battle of Colachel (1741), Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol. II, p.377. 2. A. Varatharajan, History of Colachel (Tamil), 2005, P.25. 3. Ibid., p.26. 4. A. Sreedharamenon, Kerala History Gazetteers, Trivandrum, 1962, p.209. 5. Nikilan Perumal, The Truth about Travancore, 1939, p.200. 6. Ibid., p.201. 7. Pillar of victory (Article), Maalai Malar, The Tamil Evening daily, Nagercoil Edition, 03 - 06 - 2006, p.3. 8. The Truth about Travancore, 1939, p.217.

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 162 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X

THE STRUGGLE FOR THE EMERGENCE OF KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

Dr.A.Azhahesh Assistant Professor of History Lekshmipuram College of Arts and Science, Neyyoor

Abstract It was during the reign of Marthanda Varma UttramTirunal, a struggle developed in South Travancore for the merger of the four taluks namely Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Agasteeswaram, and Thovalai with Tamil Nadu. The political activities of the people of state were mainly influenced and guided by this "State People's Conference convened at the initiative of the Indian National Congress. The formation of the State Congress, in 1938, set in motion a series of agitations at Eraniel, Marthandam and Puthukadai demanding responsible government. The period between 1946 and 1956 bears much significance as for as the Modernhistoryof Kanyakumari District is concerned. On account of this, the State Reorganisation Act 1956 was passed and the Kanyakumari District was formed on 1 st November 1956 with the four taluks, such as Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai, Agasteeswaram and merged with, Tamil Nadu. In memory of this, the meeting was arranged at S.L.B. High School, Nagercoil, in which the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu Sri. K. Kamaraj was the Chairperson.

Introduction In 1829, Maharaja RamavarmaSwathithirunal ascended the Travancore throne. He introduced many administrative reforms in the State like codification of law on the British model in 1835. Introduction of Western education was also one of his reformative measures. The spread of English education in 1 Travancore paved the way for the struggle for the freedom . In 1836, AyyaVaikunta Swamy first started the freedom struggle in Kanyakumari District and in 1956itwas ended by Marshal Nesamony. Nearly 220 years of sufferings of the people of Kanyakumari District had been finished by about 120 years of struggle which is the real history of Kanyakumari 2 District . There were many struggles fought against Travancore State by the people of Kanyakumari District. Many leaders were imprisoned. Hence, there were many strikes in front of the Court, Registrar's Office and Taluk Office. The speed of struggles increased as well as police tried to suppress the struggles. Many Tamilans were also killed at the struggle. People conducted various struggles in various places. As a st result of many if these struggles, Kanyakumari district was merged in the Tamil Nadu on 1 November, 1956.3

Travancore Tamilnadu Congress Tamils lived in large number in the ninetaluks in Travancore state. In the Tamil regions Malayalam 4 was the official languageand the Tamils in Travancore met many hardships . During that period 5 Travancore state congress was favoured tounifyKerala. So many Tamil leaders vacatedthe party . They gathered together at Nagercoilon 16th December 1945, under the leadership of Sam Nathanial and formed the new political party. “All Travancore Tamilan congress” That party was 6 continuouslycompelling for the merger of Tamil regions in Travancore with Tamilnadu . And they th formed working committee. The committee meeting held at Eraviputhur on 30 June 1946. The name of the Political Party was changed to “Travancore Tamilnadu Congress (TTNC)”. The party take more effort 7 to merge of Tamil regions in Travancore with Tamilnadu .

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Revolt of Eraniel The Tamil Nadu Congress decided that they had to arrange Mahatma Gandhij’s Birth Day which would be celebrated on October, 1947. In this connection, Travancore Congress arranged to be held a procession at Eraniel, but at the same day the State congress also arranged a meeting at that particular th place on 6 October 1947, on that day at 4.00 p.mthe members of Travancore Congress, started from Kandanvilai Church as a procession with drum and music. A chariot was drawn by bullock which carried Gandhi's photo. When the procession approached nearby Monday Market, the volunteers of Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress carried written boards in their office in which it was written, "We must form Tamil Mahanam". The volunteers of the State Congress, removed this advertisement board. So both, parties 8 fought against each other . Two persons were wounded. When procession was going on peaceful it was th stopped at Gandhi Maidanam near Monday Market by the Police. On 7 October 1947, the people of Neyyoor, Monday Market and Eraniel closed all their shops as a protest against the cruel actions taken by police of State. Travancore Congress. Again Sam Nathaniel of Travancore Congress sent a message by telegram to the King about the incidents and wanted him to take necessary actions. But, no favourable reply came from the Government. That Eraniel incident created bad relationship between this two 9 parties .

Merger of Travancore-cochin th On 13 April 1944, Travancore-Cochin annexure was opposed and the volunteers begun strikes under the leadership of Sam Nathaniel. On the first day at Nagercoil, under the leadership Sam Nathaniel burnt a portion of the Gazette, few stamps, and deed stamps as a mark of opposition. R.K. Ram, the General Secretary, conducted a procession in a peaceful manner. But thatnight Sam Nathaniel, P.S.Mony, 10 st R.K. Ram, Gandhi Raman and the Committee members were arresterd . On 1 July 1949, the member of Travancore Cochin came into effect. The King of Cochin Voluntarily left is Kingship. Cochin Travancore combined together and the King of Travancore took the Kingship. Both assembliesjoined together as one. 11 th Both Ministries combined together and few formed a new ministry under Narayana Pillai . On 13 July 1949, the Tamil Nadu Travancore National Congress started strikes against the combinedkingdom As a result of that, Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress left the strikes as per the announcement of 12 SardarVallabaiPataand Sri. Kamaraj Nadar .

South Boundary Conference th On 6 January 1950, a conference was held at kanyakumari. The members who participated in the conference decided that the Tamil regions of Travancore would be joined to Tamil Nadu. This conference is called South Boundary Conference" There were many committees to work well for the conference. One 13 among them was Nesamony who did it wellunder Krishnaswamy Bharati , who was also member of the Committee of Construction Draft of India, Desiga. VinayagamPillai, a matured minded poet, who collected 14 many old historical records took up chairmanship and delivered the presidential address . He made it clear thatTamilians had a long wish to join with nearby Tamil Nadu. The people of Tamil Nadu also 15 wished to welcome them again, it was their duty to join hands both Tamilians by the authorities . As a welcome speaker, Nesamony pointed out the sufferings of the Tamilians by Travancore Malayala 16 Government . Then, K.A.P. Viswanathan, Tamilnadu delivered lengthy speech. As a result of that many 17 decisions were taken in the meeting to achieve and joined Kanyakumari with Tamil Nadu .

RajyaReformists, Commission On May last 1954, this Bassal Ali Commission came to enquire it. Travancore Tamil Congress met and gave a memorandum to the Commission that Devikulam, Peermedu Taluks would also be annexed to

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18 Tamil Nadu . So the government wanted them to be pushed away. Police took steps and about 400 false cases were registered. So, the Travancore estate workers and the men Travancore Tamil Nadu opposed the government. Those leaders of the Workers Union and leaders of Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress 19 who opposed the government were beaten to death . Police made harm to Kuppuswamy and his car was damaged by them.So, Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress M.L.A.s gave complaint against the atrocities of 20 police to the Chief Minister, but no action was taken . th On 11 August 1954, there were gun shooting took place in which many were killed. AArulappanNadar of Puthukadai, A. Muthuswamy-Nadar of Killiyoor, N. KumaranNadar of Thottavaram, N. Chellappa Pillai of Puthukadai, A. Peer Mohamed of Thengapattinam, C. Pappu Panickar of Thoduvatti,S. Ramayyan of Nattalam, A. Ponnayyan of Attoor, M. Palayyan of Manali were shot dead. Police made atrocities and police did not allow the dead bodies to be taken by the relatives. Then dead bodies were then burned by petrol nearby rivers where they became ashes. Many were wounded and 21 many were killed in different ways . On the places where meetings were held, the police went with civil dress there and made confusion or atrocities. In few places without any information, the police entered and shot the people. At Mankad, a man named Devasahayam was shot dead. Besides, two persons were wounded and taken to hospital. At 22 Painkulam shot out. Chellian was killed and many others were wounded .

Devikulam Day The people made complaints about the incidents and the atrocities of the police ofDevikulam, Peermedu to the government, but the government did not take care of them. So the Travancore Tamil th Nadu Congress Committee held a discussion on 30 June 1954 in which they decided to celebrate 23 Devikulam Day . In almost all Taluks of Tamil Nadu celebrated that day and conducted many meetings. th On 4 July 1954, Nesamony decided to go to Devikulam and wanted to get permission to conduct th meetings. But, the police declared 144 from 29 June to one month and not to take part any meetings and 24 other atrocities . th On 7 July 1954, Action Council took final decision about their rebellions (strikes) at Panakudy. As a th result, on 9 July 1954, Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress conducted Satyagraha, processions, strikes in a peaceful manner. It was going on till 29 July and they went to Munar to participate Satyagraha and continuous strikes and violated the preventive measures for the sake of this movement. Communist of Tamil Arasu Party came forwarded to support it. Then the Chief Minister of Kerala, Pattam Thanu Pillai 25 was ready to suppress the rebels .

The Incidents at Marthandam th On 11 August 1954, there was a general meeting held at Thoduvetti in the morning and the members started struggle for freedom. On that day, the procession was led by ThanulingamNadar. He was garlanded by the people and they proceeded through food-path of river across Thamirabarani and 26 reached the taluk office and the Court Maidan . At about 11 a.m. this procession reached at Kuzhithurai. They shouted sologans such as, "Pattam Thanu Pillai's Rule Wash out" and "Police Rule Wash out" and "Struggle will be proceeded until the forming of union of Tamilagam or IlakkiaTamilagam", in the procession they wrote, "Porattam Started" on the boards. The crowd increased from 5000 to 10000 at the gate of Court, without any information. Police started lathi-charge and the police arrested many 27 'people. Hundreds of people were wounded . But, the leaders, ThanulingamNadar escaped from there 28 and reached Karugnal at 3 p.m. and then they went to Nagercoi1 . A part of the people from the

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The Incident AtPuthkadai th On 11 August 1954, strike was held at Puthukadainear the Sub-Registrar Office, according to the plan But there was no incident happened because police did not come there, 'Striking people dispersed peacefully. On that day, at 3.30 p.m. they decided.to conduct a meetingat Puthukadai under the 30 leadership of Kunjan Nadar . But opposed rowdies ofTamilians decided to beat KunjanNadar. But the students of Amsi School and Munchirai government school decided to take revenge against the rowdies. So Kunjan Nadar did not come in this meeting and Advocate C.Gopalakrishnan took the charge of Chairperson. Thousands of people had already gathered there. Within a few hours the police arrestedthe leaders such as Advocate C. Gopalakrishnan and Mathiazhagan. Due to fear people were ran away. But the police shoot out the running people. There were 28 shot guns made. Many were arrested. According to Sankaran Commission four persons were killed and were wounded31. Many were arrested and sent to Trivandrum. Those who were arrested would be produced before the Magistrate within 24 hours. That was the rule of1aw. Advocate C. Gopalakrishnann was arrested on th th 26 AV 1954. He was jailed where about till they day. Later he produced on 26 August 1954 before Sub- 32 Division Magistrate and again he was punished and jailed .

State Reorganisation Commission For the sake of reforming States Faisal Ali Commission completed its work and put up th announcement on 10 October 1955. The Commission gave first importance to solve the problems of the 33 Southern States . Problems and declared its announcement. Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress wanted to annex 9 taluks such as Vilavancode, Kalkulam la Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Neyyatinkarai, Devikulam,Peermedu, ChenkottaiChithoor. But the Commission recommended that among 9 Taluks, only 4 taluks such Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Agastheeswaram, Thovalai, shencottaishould be annexed. Then the Commission recommended that hill regions such as Peermedu, Devikulam to be annexed to Travancore- Cochin because of economic conditions of Travancore. 86% of the people of Neyyatirikara taluk spoke Malayalam, at that time and it should be annexed to Travancre-Cochin Malabar and at the same time, majority of the people spoke Malayalam it should be annexed to, Malabar the Commission recommended: At the same time, Nesamony arranged that Neyyantinkara, Devikulam, Peermedu, Chithoor should be annexed.to Tamil Nadu, but finished to do so. According to Fasil Ali's Recommendation, the taluks ofVilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai and Agasteeswaram were annexed to 34 Tamil Nadu .

Birth of Kanyakumari District st Act of 1956 Reorganization of States according to Reformist Bill, which announced on 1 November 1956, came into force. According to this Act, the Eastern region of Shencottai was annexed to Tirunelveli District. The Southern taluks namely Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Agastheeswaram, Thovalai were formed as st 35 Kanyakumari District. Thus on 1 November 1956, Kanyakumari District was born .

References 1. M. Gopalakrishnan, Kanyakumari District Gazetteer, Madras, 1995, p.91. st 2. Dinamalar, (Tamil Newspaper), dated on 1 November 2006,p-14. 3. P.S.Moni, Tamilariyakkam in Travancore , Vol-I, Nagercoil, 1956, p.6. 4. Ivy Peter, Nair ArasuAttuliyangalum, NadarMakkalViduthalaum, Vol-II, Nagercoil, 2010, p.11.

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5. R.Velautha Perumal, Early Stage facts of Travancore Tamil Organization , 1961, Nagercoil, p.7. 6. B.Yogeeswaran, History of the Struggles of Tamils in Travancore, Vol-I, Chennai-2011,p.18. 7. Ivy Peter, Op.cit, p.12. 8. D.Daniel, Struggle for Identity in Travancore Tamils , 1938 – 1956, Vol-I, Madurai, 1992,p.116. 9. File No. D,Dis, 424/1947, C.S. English Records, Kerala State Archives, Trivandrum. 10. A.AbdulRazak, Nesamony oruCharithraThiruppam (Tamil), Nagercoil, 1998, p.96. st 11. United State of Travancore and Cochin, Gazette Extraordinary, 1 July 1949. 12. B. Maria John, Linguistic Reorganizationof Madras Presidency , 27. Nagercoil, 1994, p.73. 13. A.Abdul Razak, op.cit., p.111 14. Dinamalar, op.cit. p.14. 15. T. Muthukrishnan, KadalThamarai (Tamil), Chennai, 1996, p.115. 16. A.AbdulRazak, op. cit., p. 111. st 17. K. Sankaran Commission Report, Gazetteer No. 51, dated 21 December 1954, Part 1, p.6. 18. B. Maria John , op.cit., p.128. 19. S. Thankamoni, Kanyakumari MavattamArasial Varalaru , (Tamil), 1954,, p73. 20. G Isaaac Arul Dhas, ThenellaiKavalan Nesamony (Tamil), Nagercoil, 2005, p.66. 21. D.Peter, Malayali AthikkamumTamilarViduthalaum , Nagercoil, 2002,p.91. 22. A.AbdulRazak , op. cit., p. 69. 23. File No :R.Dis 19088/54,K.S.A Trivandram. 24. B.Yogeeswaran, op.cit. ,p.184. 25. K. Sankaran Commission Report, p. 11. 26. A.AbdulRazak, op. cit., p. 232. 27. K. Sankaran Commission Report, p. 211 28. A.AbdulRazak, op. cit., p. 233. 29. Ibid., p. 236. 30. K. Pachaimal, Kumari MaavattamPiranthaVaralaaru (Tamil), Swamithoppu, 2001, p.140. 31. K. Sankaran Commission Report, p. 40. 32. A.AbdulRazak, op. cit., p. 238. 33. Ma.Po. Sivagnanam, YanduPorattam (Tamil), Madras, p. 145 34. D.Peter, op.cit., pp-161-162. 35. Notification SRO No. 2529/1, March 1956, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi.

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EARLY LIFE OF THE ANCIENT TAMILS-A STUDY

Dr.V.Natchathira Selvakumari Assistant Professor in History, Department of History V.V.V College for Women, Virudhunagar

The main source to know about the life of the early tamils.The archaeological discoveries and the records of the foreigners also help to ascertain the details we get from literary sources.Many scholars have brought tolimelight various aspects of sangamculture.Some significant features of the home life of the tamils such as shelter, food, clothing, occupation, amusements of the Tamils and position of women were quite interesting.

Shelter The housing of the Tamils depended on their economic status. It differed from group to groupi.e. people living in Mullai,Marutampepole lived in comfortableand bigger house compared to that of Kurinji and Neital people .The reason for the same may be that the Kurinji and Neital people had to live in the hilly tracks and near the sea-shore respectively.henceAkananuru describes that the neital and Kurinji people lived in Huts. The day to day problems to be faced by the Mullai and Marutam people were less than that of the Neital and KurinjiPeople.Hence the former led a more settled and comfortable life.The rich built their houses with burnt bricks andMud. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung.It is realy strange to note a reference in Manimekalai to the smearing with sandal paste. The rich people had houses with porticoes and open terraces and many storeys. The inner walls of the house were decorated with flowers and paintings. Though there are more than one opinion regarding the existence of caste system during the Sangam age, scholars unanimously agree to the view that there were occupational grops. Especially in big cities to the view that there occupational groupswere located separately. References to the ceris of washermen, oilmongers, wine sellers, carpenters, blacksmiths, sculptors, goldsmiths, tailors, jewelers, potters, musicians, Brahmins, actresses, cobblers etc. are foundliterature.It was viewed that the separate residence of people of different castes and occupations was due to the growing ideas of cleanliness and purity.If this view is taken it is made sure that there existed caste system in the sangamage.It can be presumed that the allotment of separate ceri for each occupational group may be tolocate the respective group without any difficulty which perhaps later led to caste distinction among the Tamils. The rich houses were equipped with furniture.Cots were very much in use. The wealthy people had luxurious beds decked with swans feathers and flowers.The common people had beds woven with the straw of maize.The poorest section used beds made of grass or hay.Parched bides and skins of animals were also used.

Clothing Beautiful and nice variety of dresses were used by the rich people according to their status.Cotton and silk clothes of high quality find a reference in sangamworks.Men wore only two pieces one around the waist and the other the upper Cloth, thrown over the shoulders.As in the present time the poorer people wore only one piece of cloth around the waist.Though silk was not commonly used,it was donated to the poets by the rich. People living in hilly and deserted areas wore dressesmade of foliage and

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 168 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X flowers.It is stated that the Braminswased their cloths daily and wore the same. This may be due to the fact that were assigned priestly duties and performed rituals. They were expected to be cleaner and neater than the other occupationists.Moreover other occupational groups like peasants,smithsetc.,had to manual work and they went to their respective work spots early in the morning and returned late in the evening and they went to their respective work spots early in the morning and retuned late in the evening and they felt comfortable only after having had their bath after their return.

Cosmetics To cooldown the head and provide some fragrance,women applied a kind of clay like cream to their hair. Women were fond of flowers and there are references to men and children wearing flowers in the Sangamage.Unmarried and married women except widows wore colourful and beautiful tilakam on their foreheads. They also used collyrium to beautify their eyelids and brows.

Footwear Soldiers, hunters and vendors wore footwears. It is not known why women were not given this comfort. Women were not confined to their home alone. They visiting the temples, marketplaces, gardens, rivers, tanks etc. But ins pite of that there is not even a single reference to women wearing footwear’s.

Jewellery Rich people adorned themselves with various kinds of jewellery made of pearl.preciousstone,gold and silver.Floralornaments also find place in sangamliteraryworks.Like women men also wore earrings,bracelets,armlets and anklets.The children were also decorated with strings of coral beads around waist,kinkini or anklet,bangles,Aimbadaitalietc.As the poor could not afford to have their jewellery of gold and precious stones,they resorted to conch shells and beads.

Food Though rice was the main food of the SangamTamils,maize and millet were also used.The poor had very simple food. Sometimes they had to satisfy themselves with greens even without salt. Paratavar(fishermen) used fish very much,whereas the Mullai people had large quantities of milk products. Similarly the kurinji people took to meat obtained by hunting.Various kinds of grains were also used by these people in many forms. Rice flakes were eaten with milk,honey,ghee and jiggery. For preparing the food deliciously,theSangam Tamils made use of Salt,tamarind pepper etc.Ghee was used by rich people. Vegetable and fruits were part of their meals. Meat eating was common. People ate flesh of rams,deer,hare,fowl,porcupines,pigs and boars.Fresh and dried fish was cooked.Though the Brahmins ofSangam age ate meat,they abstained from it due to Jain and Buddhist influence.

Daily Life The SangamTamils woke up in the morning and had their bath in the nearby river or tank.While bathing both men and women used sweet smelling powers. All occupatiponalgroup took to their daily routine and returned home in the evening.It was the duty of the man to earn for his whole family. The wife was called illal and she was the light of the house.Both the husband and wife entertained the guests, learned, Brahmins and ascetics. But if a husband had gone on duty or discarded his wife,she never cared for the above mentioned people.This in turn shows the shows the importance a wife had given to her husband during the Sangam age and how her life was nothing without her husband.

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Birth of son was welcomed by the early Tamils as the son was only eligible to perform the obsequies. Another view was that the girls were considered inferior because they had to go to another house after their marriage. The son only succeeded the father as the head of the family. Though the daughters were given jewels and vessels during their marriage,they had no right to claim a share in the property. Disputes regarding property and relationship were settled by the elders of the locality.

Marriage Marriage was anaccepted institution during the Sangam age. Though various forms were known, Karpu and Kalavu forms were common. Kalavu was the sort of relationship were twelve and sixteen. Girls were kept under Seclusion after attaining puberty,and the loveaffairs started soon after that. Men married for the second time even when their first wife was alive. Men married even Parathaiyar and accepted her as second wife. Loyal harlots were even fond of the children born of the first wife and treated them with love. There is no reference to widowremarriage in the Sangam literature. The condition of widows was pathetic.

Amusements Music, dancing, vattadal, Varippantadal, Kalankadutal, swinging were some of the amusements of girls and women. Men took to hunting, playing with silambam or kali, boating bullfight etc. Children played with toys and tiny carts. Ram fight and cock fights were common during festivals. Pattinappalai gives a beautiful account of the enjoyment of fishermen and women on fullmoon days.

Festivals The early tamils celebrated Karthigai, Tiruvonam, Kaman festival and IndraVizha. Karthigaideepam was otherwise known as Peruvila and was celebrated in the Tamil month of Karthigai every year. Though Tiruvonam is very grandly celebrated by Keralites in modern times, during the Sangamperiod, it was a festival of the Tamils celebrated in the month of Avani to denote the birthday of Mayon or Tirumal.The Kaman festival was rejoiced in the spring season.During that festival men and women dressed up well and participated in dancing. Indravizha included the performance of Vedic sacrifices, festivals to various Gods and ganas, musical recitals and dancing. Among all these festivals Karthigai is the one celebrated all over Tamilnadu; Onam is restricted to Keralites; and Kaman festival and Indravizha do not find a place at all in Tamil country modern times. Some of the significant aspects of the home life of the early Tamils reveal interesting features only. It was not a Home to retire and regain physical, moral and spiritual strength, but also a The Sweet Home to be admired, appreciated, emulated and entertained by the people of the modern age. At the same time, certain defects could not be over looked.

Referances 1. Akananur 12.1.9 2. Perumpanarruppadai, 298. 3. Manimekalai XIX.115 4. Purananuru,196.1.12 5. K.K.Pillai,A social History of the Tamils pp.280-281 6. Akam 167,289 7. Puram 317 8. Kalithokai 18.1.10 9. Mullaippattu 37.

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10. Kuruntokai 113,1.5 11. Paripadal 12,1.23 12. Silappatikaram IV.50 13. Puram 127 14. Puram 159 15. Maduraikanchi 604-610

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CUSTOMS AND FESTIVALS OF FISHERMEN AT MUTTOM– A STUDY

Dr.S.Mailammal Assistant Professor of History Aringar Anna College, Aralvaymoli, Kanyakumari District

The present paper entitled Customs and Festivals of Fishermen at Muttom - A View brings out the customs of the fishermen and celebrated festivals in every year. Muttom village is located in Kanyakumari revenue distict. This revenue district endowed with a sixty eight km long sea-shore of the Arabian sea. The people of village are occupied in their sole occupation of fishing. Customs and festivals, life style and social set up differ from that of the people; of village.

Customs The fishermen have to work incredibly hard. Their occupation is to fight against the tides over the ocean and current them under water. As a result they possess a burly physique with a fairly black colour complex. Most of the grants and ladies mainly the fisher folk at Muttom utilize the dress of dark colours such as red, blue and green along with yellow. Women wear gold ornaments such as Kammal (a type of ornaments used in the ear), ear-rings of Kundalam (a type of jewel hung from the ear) and around the neck they were, necklace and chain. To the leg they wear Thandai and Anklets. Consequently spend more amounts in their clothes and ornaments. In the Stone Age man ate what he hunted. But as and when the change came to enlist in the form of transformation he accepts the changes. He also had the exchange system where he exchanged his merchandise. In this method he adjusted with the society in which he lived. It is routine for the fisherman to eat good fishes and the rest they advertise it for their livelihood. It is interesting to know that in the midst of items, fish ultimately takes the main concern overall the dishes they prepare. They involved in gaming like card play during their leisure hours. They used to play with two groups including four members. In case any group fails, they wear ear rings made up of green leaves or coconut tissue. The youth of fisheries at Muttom are playing different games like kabaadi, football, basketball and cricket. Girls demonstrate their interest in dancing and surveillance movies. The barely recreation for the children is playing, such as hide and seek. They used to repair their fishing nets while leisure hours. It is frequently done by both the female and male. Dogs and cats are the pet animals of the fisheries. Pigs and hens are mostly seen in their houses. They are largely while getting their mainly required food from the area brings cash to the fisher society to meet their expense. The fisheries society of Muttom organizes up their houses on the sandy shore. Three houses are usually called as huts and cooperatively termed as a hamlet. The rarely establish wealthy among them build houses in their own land located away from the sea-shore and such houses are strong to with stand storm and other natural calamities. Those who are employed in government service go away from their parental villages and settle down and cities. But others as the children of the sea live on the shore. The fishermen have strong faith in their gods. Prior to starting their daily routine work, they worship their god with strong hopes and beliefs. They attach to the principles that worship god first and do the occupation next. The huge risk in fishing and absence of protection in the sea bed enable them to entrust

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 172 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X themselves in the hands if god. While engaged in fishing to forget the commotion and stress they sing Tamil folk songs. Fisheries of people used to go for fishing to boats like Yatchas (thoni) and Kattumaram (a boat of four pieces of long and thin wood). During the season of shark fish they may have to stay there in the profound sea and hence they may affected by the storm. Throughout such seasons the family members of fishermen who are pure in heart used to escort them. They have a strong belief that if any disagreeable occurrence took place in the sea, it was because of the misbehaviour of his family members. Similarly they believe that the type of fish they catch of Choorai as the symbol of more income and marriages are to be held if they catch the fish. “Vella” and worries may be leaving at once if they get the fish “Vankadai”. Presume if any one does not get the fish for long time, they believed that a neighbour has performed manthra or witch craft against them. The merely return and dry their fishnets on the sun light. After that they scattered the laban powder to the net and then spray the diluted cowdung on the net and on the Kattumaram, to feel that all impurities and curse are removed. When going for fishing, suppose if a bird drongo produce typical sound, sing across their way they believe that they won’t get enough fish on that day and return back. They used to look at the sky and look for for the particular star for the particular type of fish. If it was found on the sky them they would get the fish plentifully. The work method of every section differs from one and another. For their work in the fisher community has to stay two or three days in the deep sea. They used different kinds of nets such as Karai valai, Thaazthuvalai, Peruvalai, Chalavalai, Koruvalai and Nanduvalai . Habitually they avoid fishing on Sunday’s to observe that day as Sabath. At the leisure times, they worn to make and repair the fish nets, Kattumarams make the fishing staff and hook. Usually from September to March they used to catch fishes individually with the help of Kattumaram. These people start their work early in the morning and return to the land in the evening. Another set of people used to go to the deep sea with a group of four to five persons with machine boats and Kattumarams . Such people have to work for a period of five months. These groups used to carry rice, water tapioca, chilli, jiggery and others for those days they have to stay in the deep sea to catch fishes like shark and kola. During times of troubles in the deep sea they sing songs to forget the hunger and thirst. While engaged in deep sea misfortunes like entanglement of two or more nets may occur due to ocean current. Hence damages took place on the nets and confrontation starts among the owners of nets to be settled by the villager heads. During the times fishing at night the fisherman analyses the location and time with the help of various stars. Generally the stars are called as Amavelli, Arammeenvelli, Chottuvelli, Kanniavelli Kappalvelli, Kurusuvelli, Malaimeenvelli, Muzhakkuvelli, Vidivelli, and others. Amavelli is a group of stars appears in the shape of Tortoise (Amai) and set in the sea itself shut to the southern horizon. It appears in the Ani of Tamil month. It rises at the early morning around 5.00 a.m. Arammeenvelli is a cluster of six stars in a cluster form. It is visible at the Vaikasi (Taurus) of Tamil month. It rises at midnight from north and sets in the east. Chottuvelli is a single star rises at 7.00 p.m in the night from the west and sets at 9 p.m. It appears the time of night meals to that is called as Chottuvelli. It appears too in the Karthigai of Tamil month (Scorpio). Kanniyavelli is a single star that rises in the evening at 7.00 p.m. it appears on all the days of a year. It is a stable one and it is not moving anywhere else. This star only is seen in the same place. The light of the star is reasonable. It rises in the evening and sets in the morning. It is an important star and helps the fishermen throughout the light. Kappalvelli is a much useful for the fishermen during the time of fishing. It shows the way of the north. It is a group of nine stars in the safe of a ship with anchor. It appears in the Karthigai (Scorpio) of Tamil month. It rises at midnight around 2.00 a.m from the north and sets in the east.

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Kurusuvelli is a cluster of four stars to keep the shape of cross. Astronomers called it as “Southern Cross”, because it rises at the early morning from the south. Malaimeenvelli is a single star that rises at midnight from the sea shore and sets in the profound sea. It is visible at the time of Christmas particularly in the Tamil month of Markazhi (Sagittarius) so that it is called as Yesunakshatram. Muzhakkuvelli alias Muzhakkavelli is a cluster of three stars more or less in a straight line appearing like a measuring rod known as Muzhakkal and hence it is called muzhakkalvelli. It is visible in the Tamil month of Chittirai (Aries). Vidivelli is the single star rises every morning so that is called as Vidivelli. It is otherwise called as Kannanvelli. It is visible every day throughout the year and it appears in the eastern direction. These stars are much helpful to the fishermen of the coastal area during the time of fishing. At night these stars act as a guiding angel to them to know proper time and guidance. Besides these natural guidance people of Muttom and its neighbouring villages are gifted with the valuable flashlight of the light house located at Muttom. Another technical method of fishing called as Mattu. It is used in the deep sea and surface level. Usually people take five hundred to thousand hooks in a chain. They put specific numbers in the hooks like twelve, fourteen, ten and nine depends upon the size of the hooks for fishing. They bind bites foods of fishes on both sides in this chain. An anchor was used to fix the stability of the fishnets in a particular place. The fishermen avoid fishing on convince favourable occasions like Independence day, Good Friday, Easter, Christmas, all saints day, all souls day and rainy seasons too. Fisher women are occupied in taking the fish by sale and partition it separately according to the size and send it to various markets for selling. In that way they earn money and support the family. They too help in making fish nets and their repairing. The fishermen are often met with so numerous sufferings while occupied in fishing mainly they have to face the harms posed by wind. Occasionally they may reach wrong direction. Tools of them may be spoiled by heavy storm and reckoned on the rocks. From time to time they lose their lives. While going for fishing a fisherman has to give auctioneers commission to the auctioneers. If he takes the boat for hire, he has to give a share of income from the catch. Another share may be given to the row men. At last a share reaches the poor fisherman who did the whole employment. The unsold fish in the market is dried by the fishermen and women applying salt on them to avoid decay. They dried fishes may be stored and sold in the neighbouring villages this is mostly done by the women of the society.

Festivals Festivals appearance is the part of social life to provide happiness and original life to people. All division of people irrespective of their religion, race and languages examine festivals which are communal biased as well as based on belief. In fact social life of the fisher folk of Tamilnadu appears typical and the same may be understood from their observance of the following festivals. The Vibhooti festival is held in the month of March. The already used palm leaves are burnt to ashes on that day. Further the ashes are applied on the forehead of the people by cross mark. It is called as Vibhooti festival. The priest applies the ash in the forehead of all of them at the Holy Mass as a figurative of man return to earth without fail. Palm Sunday is another important festival in that area. This day is to memorize the procession complete to announce Jesus as the ruler by moving olive branches and singing the song Hosannah. The people of Muttom scrutinized this occasion carrying palm leaves and going the nearby shrines in procession.

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Good Friday is a day of mourning in commemoration of Christ’s Sufferings on the cross. It is comes in the month of April. The proceedings of crucification quoted in the New Testament are read in the evening mass and it was to conclude on night. The public of Muttom practice too that celebration with sore feast. Subsequently Easter is the day of Christ’s revivification from the tomb on the early morning of Holy Sunday. This function commences from previous day mid-night in the church. The people of the Church used to candles light in the hands. Statue with flag of Christ is exposed, as an identification of victory. At the meantime the church bell rings endlessly and the song Hallelujah is sung by the people. The priest sprays Holy water after the rituals. There has been a extensively acknowledged believes that if the people receive what they have sought from their god they arranged extraordinary gratitude giving mass known as Nerthi kadan among the fishing community. It is satisfying swear towards god. It indeed is a out of the ordinary way of giving gratitude in the name of the lord. This has been in practice for decades and been done if the childless parents get children and getting good bride or bridegroom. Further them receiving recovery from a protracted illness and so on. This kind of beliefs and practices are preformed for the children of both genders aged towards 1 to 5. Wearing a cross on the children’s ear is too an act performed on the basis of the faith. It is furthermore a kind of Nerthi Kadan. In case, a kid becomes ill the parents go to any of the Mother Mary’s church and promised that they would make their children wear cross made of gold or any other metals. Children are asked to wear the cross for the predetermined period. After that the cross will be obtainable to the church by the parents of the child. Festivals during winter seasons are connected to births like the birth of Sun God in Egypt and the birth of Mithra in Persia. The advent of God in man into this world is Christmas to be celebrated on 25 December. It is of birth if not confirmed, but the birth of Sun in Western European countries is celebrated as Christmas, as he is the light of the world. The fisher folk celebrated the Christmas on 24 December in Muttom. On next day, First Holy Mass held at midnight is followed by the next 7.00 a.m. The participants used to pay esteem to the infant Jesus with extraordinary offerings. Consequently every Catholic Church has its own shield. Hence All Saints have been hailed as the shield of Muttom. The annual festival of the church regularly held for ten days is being conducted by the Parish Council headed by parish priest. The expenses planned by a committee with a hygienic budget generally met from the church fund collection from the parish people and the festival tax on the members. The flag hoisting held at 6.30 p.m in a celebrative temper with drum beats, chime of the church and the claps of the children marks the ceremonial beginning of the festival. Mass is conducted with a small sermon. Sermons are given daily on the exact topic with other religious activities till the eighth day. Unusual Masses were conducted on the ninth day morning and evening. After that the chariot march is th held at night on the 10 day preceded by the impressive celebration of the anniversary of Catechism classes in the evening. Customs and festivals are the two pages of society. The customs and festivals of the fishermen in the coastal area of Muttom is a typical one. Customs are creating the festivals. Festivals are the tool of joint together of people. The society is organised the people. Fishermen and women are obey the professional ethics in the Muttom area.

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HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENTS OF MANDAPAS IN THIRUPPARANKUNRAM TEMPLE

Mrs.N.Indira Priyatharshni Ph.D. Research Scholar, School of Historical Studies Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai

Dr.K.Thangapandian

Assistant Professor, Deptartment of History ArignarAnnaCollege (Arts & Science) , Krishnagiri

Thirupparankundram is a small town, known for its sacred granite hills. The temple of Subrahmanya is situated on the northern portion of the hillock which is known by different names such as Tirupparangiri, Kandamadanam paramkunram, and Satyagiri . Tirupparankunram is architecturally the most notable of temples in Tamilnadu with both the indigenous (Pandyan) style and the features of Pallava architecture harmoniously blended. It is very difficult to say when the temple was built some very difficult to say when the temple was built some scholars believe that it was built in the Sangam age. It is regarded as one of the six abodes of Lord subrahmanya or Padaiveedu of Lord Muruga. Saint Nakkirar and Arunagirinathar and many other devotes have been blessed in this thalam . This,early cave temple was built by one Sathanaganpati , Minister of Nedunjalayan Parantaka . Its innermost shrine is cut out of a solid rock. This, temple has heavy pillars flanked by pilasters with three cells facing the Mandapa and the two side cells facing each other. This, almost resembles the early cave each other. This almost resembles the early cave temples of the Pallavas. There are the images of Vishnu (as Pavalakanivay Perumal ) and ‘ Sivalinga ’ (as Sathyagirisvarar ). In other three cells are Muruga, Durga, and Ganesa. These, five separate shrines, carved out of the solid rock, together constitute the ‘ ardhamandapa ’ as well as the main shrine of the temple structure. This, temple cut into a rock is a high type shrine is cut of solid rock. In front of this area series of Mantapas ( Halls) built of different levels. The existence of many mandapa s such as Ardhamandapam, mahamandpa, Astanamandapa, Thiruvathci mandapa, vasantha mandapa and Kambathadi mandapam are the special features of the temple. Beautiful, sculptures depicting the sport of Siva are depicted in the pillars of the mandapas . The images of Nataraja, Arthanareesswara, Meenakshi, Patanjali, Uyagrapda , Urdhavar and kali could be found, everywhere. A statue of queen mangammal is found in the pudumandapa . This, temple th th th architecture seems to belong to the 7 century some of them belong to 13 or even 14 centuries.

Ardha Mandapa All images of this mandapa have been covered by lime and plaster. The figures are heavy oil deposit as they are under regular worship. The niche openings between the Dvarapalakas and the panels of both Vishnu and Siva shrines. The position of the deities in the ‘ ardhamandapa ’. Two panels depicting the cosmic dance of Siva are found on the outside of the cell containing the lingam. The Somaskanda figure is almost a pivot on which all saiva are of the Pallava period rests. From this way a great favourite and is repeated in almost every Pallava shrine behind the Siva linga. The Pandyas continued their architectural work much in line with the Pallavas and this temple at Thirupparankundaram with Somaskanda panel , pronounces Pallava influence.

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Mahamandapam This, mandapa is situated next to the ardhamandapa, just bellows the floor level of this “mahamandapa ” and almost in line with entrance to the sanctum are two big relief of seated figures who are called Andarabharanar and Vgramurth i. The treatment of eyes and nose reveals that these particular carvings may belong to later period than the carvings in the cave chambers. Probably these two figures are Dvarapalagas . To the west of this mandapa , is a sanctum where we can find the image of govardhanambikai . There, are also separate sanctum for Sri Arulmigu, Anjaneya and Lord Saneeswara towards the eastern end. Idols of sixty three nayanmaras are found in an enclosure, at the side saneeswara . Festive idols are place only in this mandapa .

Subramanya Swami Temple Under Nayaks The present temple belongs to the Nayak period. The Nayak rulers, continued the chain of developments from where it was left by the later Pandyas, after their eclipse by the brief muslim rule at Madurai, have come in for a larger share of further elaboration of existing temples. The Nayaks of Madurai, as of Vijayanagar introduced the architecture peculiar to the exquisite though extravagant productions of Vijayanagar and added their own local innovations making the Thirupparankunram temple a fairly complex phenomenon. The gopura and the madil i.e., the compound wall of the main temple are stated to have been constructed by Virappa Nayaka, son of Krishnappa Nayaka. Thirupparankunram temple’s development ranges from the eight century to late Nayak family only the main shrine is an early cave temple, whereas the other structures are of comparatively recent origin, belonging to the late Nayak period. The ‘ mandapas ’ are attributed to the Madurai or Nayak style. Tirupparankunram temple consists of a ‘mandapa ’ with one or more shrine calls cut at the rear, and also shrines excavated into the side walls of the ‘ mandapa ’. The massive pillars on the facades, essentially square in the section at the base and top, with an octagonal middle section, carrying heavy ‘ potikas ’ or corbels , usually with a straight level resulting in an angular profile. Such as corbels of the fourteenth century type with development ‘Pushpabodigai’ are at the entrance to the kambattadi mandapa . Two corbels of the late fourteenth century type with ‘Pushpabodigai’ . Just developing are at the entrance to mahamandapa and also some of other type of pillars and corbels with a curved profile and ‘Taranga’ moulding. This, cave temple also locks a well defined ‘Kapota’ this architrave over the ‘Mandapa’ facades as in the mahendra style cave temple .

Asthana Mandapa This asthana mandapa , a very impressive building is the entrance to the temple. The mandapa carried a heavy cornice with gaily painted parapet ornamentation above it. The roof is made of great stone slabs and is supported by 48 pillars with artistic carvings which are from 20 to 24 feet high. The entrance mandapa has typical Nayak period pillars with horse and yali riders, while portraits of Nayak rules are carved on the columns. These, mantapams are said to have been built by Thirumala Nayak, and statue of him stands at the side of the shrine. ‘Peacocks hall’ a mandapa at the cross roads led to the asthana mandapa from outside. We reach the entrance which is towered by magnificent seven-tier gopuram about 150 feet height and it was constructed during the Nayaks period.

Thiruvatchi Mandapam This, mandapa , otherwise called ‘ Kalyana mandapa ’ often becomes the venue for music concerts, lectures and other activities on festive occasions. To the east of this mandpam is the sacred tank called Lakshimi theertham , form the kalyana mandapam . The entrance steps of this mandapa have beautifully

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 177 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X carved horse balustrades with wheels behind the animals. Probably these originally belonged to some older structures and might have been put in here at the most convenient place other wise one cannot account for the wheels occupying so high position. A magnificent seven tier ‘ gopura ’ about 150 feet high, is in front of the Tiruvisai mandapa . ‘The gopura ’ base which is in stone is two storied and is a typical Vijayanagar specimen its ‘ kutas’, ‘panjarams’ and ‘salais ’ stand out well from the wall surface. The wall surfaces have wall pilasters and short pilastered wall niches without niche openings. The same order is adopted in the storey above. The gopura and the ‘wall ( Tirumadil ) were built by Krishnappa Nayaka, the grandson of Visvanatha Nayaka.

Vasantha Mandapa ‘Vasantha Mandapa ’ contains four figures of ‘ ashtasaktis ’ the other four images are missing. Here, are two finely carved identifiable figures of which one is stated to be that of Muttambula Mudaliar , and wooden images of some deities in the temple, made at the time of the temple renovation. They, are carved from ‘ Kallati ’ (Fioustomentosa) a tree which abounds two ‘ Dwarapalas ’ and seated Subrahmanya which is placed on a high pedestal.

Kambathadi Mandapa This, mandapa which follow the maha mandapa , has two unidentified Nayak figures. But the two most interesting sculpture are those of Parasar and Vedavyasa, the sculpturing is that of a master hand, with remarkable characteristics and the features have very little conventionalism. The dvjasthamba is found only in this mandapa and the ‘Balipitam’ (the seat of sacrifice), and the ‘ Nandhi ’ ( the vehicle), are also found in the kambattadi mandapa of this temple, at Thirupparankunram . The innermost shrine belonging to a fairly high type of architecture is cut out of the solid rock in front of which is a series of mandapas built at different levels. The lowest of these mandapas, the horse court of the temple is the best specimens of Nayak architecture.

References 1. DevaKunjari, D., Madurai through the Ages (From the Earliest Times to 1801A.D.), Madras, 1957. 2. Nambiar, P.K., and Narayana Karup, K.C., Census of India, 1961, vol.IX, Temples of Madras State, Madurai and Ramanathapuram, 1961 . 3. Sivaramamurti, C., Kalugumalai and Early Pandyan Rock Cut Shrines , Bombay, 1961. th th th 4. South Indian History Congress Souvenir, First Session , Madurai 15 , 16 & 17 Feb, 1980. 5. Mangalamurugesan N.K., Pandiyar Varalaru, Mullai Nilayam, Chennai, 1998. 6. Arulmigu Subramanya Swamy Thirukkoil Thalavaralaru, Thirupparankundram , Temple Executives, Madurai, 1994. 7. Srinivasan, K.R., Temples of South India New Delhi, 1971 . 8. Baliga B.S., Madras District Gazetteer – Madurai , Chennai, 1960. 9. Thiagarajan K., the Madurai Temple . Madurai, 1963. 10. Soundararajan K.V., Rock-Cut Temple Styles – Early Pandyan Art and Ellora Shrines , Somaiya Publications, Mumbai, 1988. 11. Manivannan, Tamizhaha Koyirkalai Varazharu, (Tamil) J.J Publications, Madurai, 2008. 12. P.K.Nambiar, and K.C.Narayana Karup , Census of India, 1961, vol.IX, Temples of Madras State, Madurai and Ramanathapuram, 1961. 13. Joseph Vedacherry, A Study of a Fishing Community in Kerala” Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Delhi, 1982, p.93. 14. Rev, Fr. Antony Muthu, Kanniyam (Tamil), Kottar Diocese, Nagarcoil, 1999, p.32.

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15. Somaley, Kanyakumari District (Tamil), Nagarcoil, 1961, p.37. 16. N.Stephen Sam, Folklore of Fisherman in Kanyakumari District – A Study, , Kallukootom, 1994, p.125. 17. Nalini Nayak, Continuity and Change in Artisanal fishing Communities – A Study Report, Trivandrum, 1993, p.43. 18. Joseph Valacherry, Op.cit., p.70. 19. Ibid., p. 81. 20. Interview with Samraj, Common Fisherman, dated 11.12.2014. 21. Interview with Selvin, Fisherman, datd 12.12.2014. 22. Antony Muthu, Op.cit., p.41. 23. Ibid., p.33. 24. Ibid., p.16. 25. Interview with Solomon, Fisherman, dated 14.07.2015. 26. Interview with Simon, Fisherman, dated 18.07.2015. 27. N.Stephen Sam, Op.cit., p. 36. 28. Idem. 29. Interview with John Paul, dated 22.09.2015. 30. Interview with Jayanthan, fisherman, dated 26.10.2013. 31. //N.Stephen Sam, Op.cit., p. 54. 32. P.T.Mathew, We Dare the Waters, Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Madras, Chennai, 2001, pp. 72-73. 33. K.V.Parasuraman, Meenpidi muraigal (Tamil), Madras, 1986, pp. 69 -70. 34. P.T.Mathew, Op.cit., pp. 72-73. 35. Ibid., pp. 53- 55. 36. N.Stephen Sam, Op.cit., p.54. 37. P.T.Mathew, Op.cit., pp. 73-74. 38. K,V.Parasuraman, Op.cit., p.70. 39. Interview with Julie, dtd. 19.07.2014. 40. SN.Stephen Sam, Op.cit., pp.37 – 63. 41. Interview with Paul, Muttom dated 11.12.2014. 42. A.P.E., Nan Virumbum Vizha (Tamil), Madurai, 1980, p.76. 43. Ibid., p. 62. 44. New Testament, Dhidee Vanam, Chapter II, Mark, 1991, 7th Edition, Verses 1 – 15. 45. Personal interview with Joseph, Priest at Nagarcoil, dated 11 February 2016. 46. Urave Valu (Tamil), Hand Book on Holy Communion, Thindivanam, 1990, p.37. 47. N.Stephen Sham, Op.cit., p. 121. 48. Interview with Fernandess, Common man of Muttom, dated 22 May 2012.. 49. Interview with Louis, Legion of St. Mary, dated 16 July 2013. 50. S.Padmanabhan, Kalaikalanchiam (Tamil), Nagarcoil, 2001, p.418. 51. K.Sebastian, Thiruvilaipadu (Tamil), Nagarcoil, \1990, p.128. 52. New Testament, Op.cit., Mathew, verses 1 -13. 53. Interview with Vesta, Common Christian Woman of Muttom, dated 14 February 2014. 54. High Mass prove containing Rosary Songs, New Testament reading, Intercession Lord’s Prayers and others available in the Church

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REFORMERS' PERCEPTIONS OF WOMEN'S EMANCIPATION

M.P.Kumaresan Assistant Professor of History Vivekananda College, Thiruvedakamwest, Sholavandan

The reserch on women's emancipation originated largely from a general anxiety of the social reformers on the existing decadence of the Indian society. Women’s liberation or deliverance from outmoded and barbaric practices had been a prelude to the uplift of society. As a matter offact, India's emphasis has always been on society rather than on a particular group, gender or an individual. "Its goal was peace, mutual accommodation and universalwellbeing."' Under the guise of the concept of social wellbeing and mutual accommodation, society, which was guided by patriarchal norms, trampled upon women's self. It demanded immense sacrifice from women byimposing a number of meaningless customs of inhuman nature. Since women provided the space for the preservation of the traditional norms of the society, any change in the existing state of women would naturally bring strong repercussions in favor of and against it. The attempt, made in the nineteenth century, to redefine the prevailing condition of women had produced anunusually enthusiastic and lively discourse on the issue. The imposition of inhuman practices and restrictions like widow burning, enforced widowhood, child marriage and absolute illiteracy on Indian women has been the means by. Which men maintained their domination insociety.Ironically.these intimidated totem were considered as the custodiansof societal virtues and “an index of the tradition i t self.”Thus, any issue of women's emancipation had posed a challenge to male domination and wascapable of affecting the peace and harmony in society, as was clear from theacrimony and anxiety that the Indian public showed in the discourse regardingthe prohibition of sati. The women who were burnt were neither subjects noreven the prima9 objects of concern in the debate. They were, according to LataManirather the ground for a complex and competing set of struggles overIndian society and definitions of Hindu tradition.' Sati, a practice by which widows’ were burnt alive with the funeral pyre of their dead husbands, was the first major issue, which triggered off a series of debates concerning women. Long before the coming of the British, sati was apart of the cultural set up of India. With the establishment of the colonial state, the British assumed judicial powers that enabled them to contemplate intervening in the practice of sati. Verysoon, the British found that it was woman easy task to implant their legal and social institutions on a country likeIndia. Has already possessed recognizable institutions and compromises. The helplessness of the British in arbitrating in the fate of sati made it a site upon which a charged battle was waged between colonial and counter colonial discourses. Though the heated debate was on an issue related to women, the bodice of women was not heard from the entire commotion. This spanned over half a century from 1768 to 1833.Theissue was discussed and settled by men for women. Despite the fact that women were marginalized in the entire debate on sati, a discussion on the stance of male participants both indigenous and foreign may be relevant in revealing the real motives behind the unusual enthusiasm showed in the women related issues. The stage for the intense arguments for or against sati was Bengal. Notonly the custom was practiced widely in Bengal, but also it acted as the seat of the Government whose attitude towards sati made it an issue to be contested in public platforms. It became a sensational public issue with the publication of a pamphlet. Entitled 'Conference between an Advocate for and Against: An Opponent of the Practice of Burning Widows Alive' in 18 18.

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The author of the pamphlet was none other than Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) who is said to have been shocked at seeing his own sister-in-law who had voluntarily wished to be co-cremated with her dead husband: shrieking to jump out of the pyre,lichen felt.Ram Mohan Roy's name was intimately associated with his crusade against sati, andhe came to be hailed as a champion of women's emancipation. It turned him into the most controversial figure in Calcutta.Idolized by some, ridiculed by many.' None can claim the Lofty place that this reformer from Birdmanenjoyed among the Bengali reformers of nineteenth century in persuading theBritish to discourage the inhuman practice.The Supreme Court.had published a tract on sati in 1817, it was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who built up for the first time an organized movement of resistance against sati.' He applied both reason and deep knowledge of sastras in opposing the views of the advocates of sati and illuminating the British on the different interpretations of the contents of scriptures. In the pamphlet entitled 'Conference between an Advocate for and Against: An Opponent of the Practice of Burning Widows Alive' he provoked the advocates of sati by raising doubts about their reliance on the sastra and had showed the courage to proclaim the custom as a suicide. Through hiswritings.he tried to untried the pseudo-sanctity and the cruelty involved in thecustom. Hepointsout'the widow should voluntarily quit life, ascending theflaming pile of her husband. On the contrary, you first bind down the widow along n ith the corpse of her husband. And then heap over her such a quantity of mood hall she cannot rise. At the time of setting fire to the pile, you press her down with large bamboos. He asks the advocates of sati, do you find authority for binding the women according to your practice."His passionate arguments for the weaker sex especially against sati were not the only preoccupation in his life. He workman wrote about a wide range of topics from morality to the revenue administration in Bengal. Thus, the most interesting part of Ram Mohan's life and work was not the movement to abolish sati, nor the struggle to establish modern education. Nor the foundation of the BrahmoSamaj, or the passionate plea for the freedom of the press, but the sum total of all these." From his multifarious public life. One can assume that he wanted to free the people from the restraints of meaningless traditions and customs. He was at best a social engineer who intended to reconstruct the society and wanted to establish a social order that would enable individuals to maximize their abilities and bring prosperity to the whole community.Considering these factors.Rain Mohan's.crusade against sati can be viewed asan attempt to build an egalitarian society devoid of vices like sati, polygamy and women's oppression in general. Emancipation of women was not his sole concern, rather he was basically a social reformer who stood for the a11 round progress of society. The crusading spirit that he showed in the public debate on sati installed him as the champion of women's rights and this may not encourage a person to probe more into his vieivs regarding women's, emancipation. In fact, a close analysis of his writings about women's issues revealed that he tried to interpret their position based on the existing notion in society. The discourse on sati was not a debate based on a new conception of individual rights' of women, it was rather a contest to decide the legitimacy of sati expounded in different law books. In order to oppose the views of the advocates of sati, opponents (of sati) while trying to oppose the present form of sati took refuge in the interpretations given in the sastras. For instance, Ram Mohan Roy in his pamphlet entitled. 'A Second Conference between an Advocate for and Against: An Opponent of the Practice of Burning Widows Alive' opened the argument of the opponent of sati by fixing the entire debate on the true interpretation of sastra. He writes, "those who have no reliance in the sastras, and those who take delight in the self destruction of women may well wonder that we should oppose that suicide which is forbiddenby all sastras and by every race of men."" Throughout the trainings about sati, Ram Mohan refuted the advocate's argurnents h j quoting hoy books.which gave women the option of widow hood. He quoted the mores of Manu. "Let her emaciate her body, by living voluntarily on pure flower. roots and fruits - but let her not, when her lord is deceased.

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Even pronounce the name of another man." The opponent added that was the Veda declares whatever Manu has said is wholesome and pirhaspati has certified that whatever is contrary to the law of Manu is not commendable." Though the arguments and counter arguments were about women, they were not treated as individuals having a self of their own; they were not even a party to the discourse. On the contrary women became the center on which tradition was debated and reformulated. In fact, as Lata Mani argued "that was at stake was not women but tradition. ‘Ram Mohan extolled the virtue of women's endurance of hardships in exempting women from committing sati. He laments, "Seeing the women thus dependent and exposed to every misery, you feel for them no compassion that might exempt them from being tied down and burnt to death." This indicated that women have to be virtuous in order not to deserve sati. Right at tile time of the debate on sati'. decisions in the British Bengali courtsignored the distinctii e and established Bengali law and followed the teachings.Which affected Ram Mohan's claim over his ancestral property.The Dayabagha systern of law in fact had helped his claim on his ancestral property. So it is to be assumed that Ram Mohan should oppose any change in the legal system of inheritance and proprietorship in Bengal. Moreover.his ambiguity towards the Government's decision to put anend to the practice of sati made one doubtful about his crusading spirit against sati. Bentinck who banned sari found Ram Mohan's attitude to the question disappointing .The Indian, somewhat doubtful of the wisdom of an outright ban, demurred." As opined by Donald H.Bishop, Ram Mohan Roy's concern for moral dimension of religion more than his concern on women's emancipation led him to write, speak out and organize a movement to abolish the practice.'"Thus, Ram Mohan's idea of the new femininity grew out of his somewhatpaternalistic View of society. In other mores, women can aspire for their right to dignityand self-respect as far as men stood for it.

References 1. TapanRaychaudhuri, Perceptions, Emotions, Sensibilities. Essays onIndia's Colonial and Post-Colonial Experiences (New Delhi: OUP, 1999) 8. 2. KumkurnSangari and SudeshVaid, eds. Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial History (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1989) 118. 3. LataMani, Contentious Traditions. The Debate on Sati in Colonial in India (New Delhi: OUP, 1998) 0.2. 4. John Stratton Kawley, ed., Sati. The Blessing and the Curse.The Burning of Wives in lndia (New York: OW, 1994) 41. 5. Janaki Nair. Women and Law irzColonial India.A Social History (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1996) 20. 6. Mulk RajAnand, ed. Sati. Dialogues by Ram Mohan Roy (New Delhi: B.R. Publishing Company, 1989) 2. 7. BruceCarlise Robertson, Raja Ran? Mohan Roy. The Fathev&Modem India !Calcutta: OUP, 1995) 11. 8. SaumyendranathTagore, Ram Mohan Roy. His Role in Indian Renaissance (Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1975) 89. 9. Publications Division, Selected Work of Raja Ram Mohan Roy (New Delhi: Publications Division, Delhi: 1971) 123. 10. S.N.Mukherjee, Citizen Historians: Explorations in Historiography (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996) 16. 11. Publications Division, Selected Works of Raja Ram Mohan Roy (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1971) 11 12. KamaladeviChattopadhyay, Indian Women's Battle for Freedom. (New Delhi: Dherav Publications, 1983) 52.

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13. Cited in J.K. Majumdar, ed. Raj Ram 12/roi?an Roy and Progressive Movement in India: A Selection from Records 1775- 1845 (Calcutta: 194 1) 182-7. 14. Iqbal Singh, Rarn Mohan Roy. A Biographical Inquiry into the Making of Modern India, Vo1.2 (New Delhi: Asia Publishing House, 1983) 225. 15. Donald.H.Bishop, Thinkers of the Indian Renaissance (New Delhi:1982) 20. 16. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Dr.BimanbihaviMajumdar Lecture on Ram Mohan Roy (Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1984) 42. 17. Cited in NemaiSadhan Bose, Indian Awakening and Bengal (Calcutta: Firma klm, 1990) 43.

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DR.AMBEDKAR’S STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

Dr.M.Shyla Kumari S.T.Hindu College, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu

Abstract Born as an untouchable, Dr.Ambedkar had to face social ostracism and isolation. He realised that a large section of his countrymen were denied their legitimate rights by oppressive social customs. He began the task of reconstructing the Hindu society simultaneously by offering devastating criticism and suggestions for its reorganization. He believed that the establishment of a democratic society in India would be possible only when the untouchable and other weaker sections of society would be given the opportunity to enjoy basic human rights. Ambedkar ceaselessly stove to make the untouchables conscious of their rights, self-respect and the need for self-elevation.

For centuries together, people belonging to the lowest caste of India, have continued to be uncard and unloved. These people were not only despised, ostracized and looked down upon, but also 1. humiliated by the caste Hindus, being treated by them as ‘untouchables’ 2 Thus, for hundreds of years, the ‘untouchables’ lived a life of poverty, illiteracy, backbreaking 3 hardships and untold suffering. Into one such ‘untouchable’ Marathi-speaking, ‘Mahar’ family BhimraoAmbedkarDr.BhimraoAmbedkar was born on April 14, 1981. He realized the severity of the curse of untouchability and decided to try his almost to free millions of brethren from the yoke of social slavery. Determined to achieve his objectives, he devoted himself more seriously to his studies. For a person born in the most despised community to acquire the highest educational degrees from foreign universities was indeed a miracle. Having achieved that, Dr.Ambedkar turned to the missionof his life to break the shackles of the untouchables of India. Born as an untouchable, Dr.Ambedkar had to face social ostracism and isolation. He realized that a large section of his countrymen were denied their legitimate rights by the oppressive social customs. He began the task of reconstructing the Hindu society simultaneously by offering devastating criticism and suggestions for its reorganization. He believed that the establishment of a democratic society in India would be possible only when the untouchable and other weaker sections of society would be given the 4 opportunity to enjoy basic human rights. Dr.Ambedkar pointed out that the untouchables were treated as slaves because they never dreamed of trying to improve their lot, by forcing the other classes to treat them with common respect. Nothing would ever persuade them that men are all made of the same clay, or that they have the right to insist on better treatment than that meted out to them. Ambedkar’s slogan “Tell the slave that he is slave and he will revolt against his slavery. For this purpose, he set up the BahishkrutHitakariniSabha, in July 1924. The organization aimed at uplifting the people of the downtrodden classes and making them socially and politically equal to others in the Indian society. There were already a few other institutions and organizations working for the betterment of the downtrodden people. Their work was upliftment whereas Dr.Ambedkar’s Bahishkrut Hitakarini Sabha wanted the entire caste system to be scrapped from the Hindu religion. To strike at a system in existence for over two thousand years was an uphill task indeed. Giving first priority to education, the BahishkrutHitakariniSabha started free schools for the young as well as the old. It also ran reading rooms and libraries. Dr.Ambedkar took the grievances of the ‘untouchables’ to the courts and won them justice. Soon he became a father-figure to the poor and the

Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 184 Vol. 5 Special Issue 2 November 2017 ISSN: 2321-788X depressed. They began to call him ‘Baba’ and more respectfully, as ‘Babasaheb’. Dr.BhimRaoAmbedkarhad popularly become Dr.BabasahebAmbedkar. In 1929, the Government nominated Dr.BabasahebAmbedkar to the Bombay Legislative Council to represent the interests of the depressed classes. Earlier, in 1923, at the instance of a social worker, RaobahadurSitaram Bole, the Bombay Legislative council had passed a resolution to keep public places open to all irrespective of religion, caste or creed. However, this resolution was not implemented. The ‘untouchables’ were too meek to assert themselves to use public places. For instance, they continued to stay away from the ‘ChavdarTaley’, the ‘Sweet-water Tank’, in Mahad in Kulaba district. Dr.BabasahebAmbedkar decided to act. A conference of the depressed classes was held at Mahad on March 19-20, 1927. About ten thousand delegates, workers and leaders, attended. Babasaheb made a 5 moving speech . Referring to the British Government’s banning the recruitment of ‘untouchables’ into the military, he said, “The military offered us unique opportunities of raising our standard of life and proving our merit and intellect, courage and brilliance as army officers. ‘Untouchables’ could also be headmasters of military schools and compulsory primary education in the military camps was very effective and wholesome. The conference decided to assert its right to the water of ChavdarTaley. On the second day, led by Babasaheb, the delegates walked to the nearby tank and tasted its water. The infuriated caste Hindus attacked them. Later the caste Hindus performed rituals to ‘purify’ the defiled sweet-water tank. Babasaheb took this as an insult to the people of the other castes. He declared that he would offer as satyagraha and re- establish his people’s right over the tank water. Accordingly, on December 25, 1927, thousands of ‘untouchables’ arrived from various places to offer satyagraha, at the end of the conference, a copy of Manusmruti, the age-old code of the Hindus which gave rise to the caste system, was burnt ceremoniously. In a thundering voice, Babasaheb demanded in 6 its place a new smruti. A that would be new smruti that would be devoid of socially unjust laws . The burning of Manusmruti sent shock waves throughout the nation. Babasaheb had become a force to reckon with. Babasaheb struggled to secure for the ‘untouchables’ the right to use a public tank or well or entry into temples because it would indicted that the depressed classes had become acceptable to the caste 7 Hindus. In the history of the constitutional development of India, Dr.Ambedkar was the first to demand abolition of untouchability. The precondition for the full enjoyment of the rights of citizenship was the 8 abolition of untouchability . Inorder to ensure the unfettered enjoyment of fundamental Human Rights by the downtrodden segment of Indian society, Ambedkar, sought to introduce radical and revolutionary changes through constitutional means. The charter of fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of 9 State Policy as enunciated in the constitution of India promulgated in the year 1950 are virtually reformulated versions of the ideas contained in the memoranda submitted by Dr.Ambedkar to various committees on different occasions. As a result of the thoughtful provisions, introduced by Dr.Ambedkar, it has been possible for the members of scheduled Castes and Tribes to register some advancement in the sphere of public services.

Conclusion Ambedkar did a lot to safeguard the rights of the Depressed classes and he achieved much. Today all temples public wells and public places are open to the depressed classes and the practice of

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References 1. R.M. Pal, G.S. Bhargava (ed), Human Rights of Dalits social violation, New Delhi, pp. 9-11. 2. S.M.Michael, Dalits in Modern India, Vision and Values, New Delhi, 2007, p.235. 3. P.B. Rathod Women and Human Rights, Jaipur, P. 17. 4. C.K. Mathivanan, NaanIndhualla, (Tamil) p.5-17. 5. MamtaYadav, Dalits in India Past and Present, New Delhi 2010, p.3 6. W.R. Mujawar, Social and Political Thought of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, vol.2, Delhi, 2011, p.342. 7. B.G. Varma and R.AshishBagchiRemembering our leaders, vol. VI, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 101 – 102. 8. B.P.Singhsehgal, Human Rights in India, Problems and perspectives, New Delhi, 2008, p.313. 9. K.P.Anuradha, Human rights Issues in India New Delhi, 2010, p.3.

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