Basic Psychology Theories of Development by the End of This

Theories of Development

By the end of this lesson students will be able to:

 Evaluate the importance of understanding theories of human development.  Identify influential theorists in human-development theory.  Compare Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development with Carl Jung’s stages-of-life theory.  Identify Erik Erikson’s eight stages of life development and explain his psychosocial life- span development theory.  Analyze the components of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the theory’s weaknesses and strengths.  Compare contemporary theories of adult development, and describe the role of contemporary life-span development theories in the counseling profession today.  Discuss the trend toward an integrated theory of development in counseling today.

In addition to the fundamentals of behavior, cognition, and emotion, psychologists are interested in how people develop skills, abilities, and habits over their lifetime. The field of developmental psychology is vast, spanning infancy to adulthood. Human development is a lifelong process. Many theories of human development focus almost exclusively on childhood, although more modern theories account for the entire life span. The purpose of this lesson is to outline classic and contemporary theories of human development, all of which attempt to explain how people become who they are and why they share so many qualities while simultaneously expressing distinctive, unique personalities.

Most developmental theories are expressed in terms of stages. Such stage theories are based on the idea that people move through a systematic, progressive set of Depiction of Stage Theory stages as they grow and develop over time. These stages are based on specific, age-related characteristics, such as childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, mid-life, and late life. The sections below describe classic stage theories that psychologists use to explain normal human development and how people develop psychological problems as a result of abnormal or disrupted development.

Sigmund Freud proposed one of the earliest theories of human development. Given his clinical observations, he proposed a psychosexual theory of development. The premise of the theory was that personality, psychological problems, and interpersonal style emerge from a sexual conflict and/or the quest for sexual gratification. Accordingly, his developmental stages focused on the erogenous zones that are of interest to children of various ages. Freud believed that children cannot proceed through a stage until they have resolved a conflict they are facing. Children who cannot resolve conflict are fixated at a given stage; these fixations are associated with specific personality problems.

An unusual focus on childhood sexuality and a failure to account for continued development are considered the major weaknesses of Freud’s theory. Note also that Freud views development as ending in adolescence. Freud’s five psychosexual stages (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2003) are discussed below:

1. Oral stage (0 to 1 year). During this state, which begins at birth, children receive most of their gratification from their mouths. Children nurse and receive bodily

Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 2 of 13 nourishment while creating an emotional connection to their mothers. Children who are cared for, nurtured, and properly weaned during this phase will be able to proceed to the next stage. However, children whose mothers refuse to nurse their children or whose mothers wean their children too early will remain fixated at this stage. Orally fixated individuals, according to Freud, grow to be pessimistic, suspicious, and sarcastic. Children who are overindulged during the oral stage (i.e., were nursed too often or for too long) grow up to be overly optimistic, gullible, and full of excessive admiration for others.

2. Anal stage (1 to 3 years). As children reach the toilet-training years, they become more focused on the anus, being fascinated with the retention and expulsion of feces. Here there is a conflict between the id, which receives gratification from this bodily function, and the superego, which strives to control defecation as a matter of social propriety. To resolve this conflict, children may refuse to defecate, resulting in the development of anal-retentive characteristics (e.g., being overly neat, orderly, or stingy; obstinate; or passive-aggressive). Conversely, children may choose to overindulge the id, excrete at inappropriate times, and thereby frustrate their parents. This results in the development of anal-expulsive characteristics (e.g., being messy, careless, defiant, or disorganized). Parents’ ability to prevent their children from being so extreme in their behavior determines whether the children will progress to the next stage.

3. Phallic stage (3 to 6 years). The phallic stage is perhaps Freud’s most detailed, yet difficult to appreciate, stage. This stage is considered to be critical to the development of a healthy adult because it involves intrapsychic conflict and conflict with parents. During this stage, children become more interested in their own and others’ genitals. According to Freud, male children, who harbor a natural love for their mother, become sexually interested in their mother during this stage. However, male children notice that their father is their mother’s primary sex interest. Therefore, male children become envious of and hostile toward their father. At the same time, male children fear their father because he is much more powerful than they are. This conflict is known as the Oedipus complex, for the Greek character who fell in love with his mother and killed his father. Male children fear that their father can castrate them (as the father must have castrated the mother, who has no penis). Rather than fight their father, male children chooses to become like him, thereby developing his masculinity.

Freud was much more vague when it came to females during the genital phase. The Electra complex is the complement to the Oedipus complex. It is a period during which female children fall in love with their father, wanting to be more like him physically and otherwise. Female children blame their mother for castrating them. To resolve this conflict, female children, like their male counterparts, choose to identify with their mother rather than fight her.

People who remain fixated at the phallic stage are said to be reckless, too self- assured, and narcissistic. Vanity and pride also are phallic characteristics. Unresolved conflict in this stage can leave people afraid or incapable of love.

4. Latency stage (6 years up to puberty). The latency period is not considered a psychosexual stage, but it does mark the period during which libido lies dormant while children are school-age and developing socially. Freud believed that the

Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 3 of 13 latency period ends when puberty begins; that is, when children again become obsessed with their sexual urges and genitalia.

5. Genital stage (puberty). During this stage, teenage children regain their focus on their genitals and seek to engage in romantic heterosexual relationships. If children have successfully navigated the previous psychosexual stages, they will have the energy and emotional stamina needed to develop healthy relationships.

If children remain fixated at any of the five stages—especially the phallic stage—they will find it quite difficult to establish effective relationships and will continue to struggle with a host of psychological problems.

Whereas Freud focused on childhood sexual urges in his theory of human development, Carl Jung emphasized the development of the complete self throughout the entire life span of the individual. In further contrast, Jung paid much more attention to the later half of life than to childhood. The four stages in Jung’s stages-of-life theory (Lachman, 2001) are discussed below:

1. Childhood. During childhood, mothers and fathers are critically important. The quality of children’s relationships with their mother determines the children’s ability to be sensual, comforting, and caring. Both female and male children learn how to be feminine based on their experiences with their mother. Likewise, children’s relationships with their father determine the children’s ability to be productive, competent, and aware of their environment. Both female and male children learn how to be masculine based on their interpretation of their experiences with their father. During this stage, children also develop play habits that will translate to vocational habits later on in life. Children who have positive experiences with their parents will be able to develop more fully and productively during the next developmental stages. Those children who do not have good role models or attachments to their parents may struggle throughout the rest of their development.

2. Adolescence/early adulthood. Because children depended so fully on their parents for their personality development, children begin to seek independence from their family in terms of their interests and their pursuit of other interpersonal influences, especially romantic relationships. This stage continues throughout middle adulthood.

3. Middle adulthood. During this stage, adults begin to question whether the identity they have created for themselves is their true identity. They experience a great deal of anxiety regarding who they are, and they seek to discover new meaning to their lives. People who are ready for growth, maturity, and entrance into old age are more likely to exit this developmental stage better emotionally adjusted.

Adolescence/Early Adulthood Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 4 of 13 Those who cling to their youthful values will find it quite difficult to navigate this part of their life and be unable to realize their full potential or find their ultimate meaning to life, experiencing what commonly is referred to as a mid-life crisis.

4. Late adulthood. For Jung, the end of life comes with a focus on wisdom and the awareness of impending death. People focus on their understanding of the world, imparting truths (or wisdoms) that sum up their experience of life. People have nothing left to prove and instead revel in their experiences and note whether their potential was reached. With limited time left in the world, people in late adulthood can be quite fearless and open to many more life experiences than they could have been in early or middle adulthood.

Erik Erickson studied the work of Freud and focused heavily on the development of the ego, or the personal self (as opposed to the social self). Rather than base his theory on instinctual urges, cognitive capabilities, or one’s personal experience of life, Erikson valued the self in the context of the social environment. His theory of human development was based on the simultaneous influence of the body, the mind, and the cultural environment. Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development reflect this intricate relationship and represent the fundamental conflicts people experience at different age groups (Sugarman, 2005). Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development are discussed below:

1. Trust vs. mistrust (0 to 18 months). During this stage, children are completely dependent on their parents, needing them for nourishment, safety, and support. This reliance helps children to develop a sense of trust in others if the parents are themselves trustworthy, or a sense of mistrust if the parents are unreliable. Eventually, this sense of trust (or mistrust) colors children’s view of the world, leading to comfort in, or constant conflict with, their environment.

2. Autonomy vs. shame (18 months to 3 years). During this stage, children wrestle with becoming independently functioning individuals and self-doubt. This period coincides with toilet training when children must learn how to balance their need to be socially appropriate with respect to their bodily functions while at the same time remaining true to themselves. During this stage, children learn right from wrong, develop a sense of self, and come to understand how to assert their own will. Constant self-assessment, however, can make children vulnerable to self-doubt and low self-esteem.

3. Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5 years). Within the family culture, children try new experiences, learn to be creative (especially with play and storytelling), and engage in adult behaviors (e.g., sitting still in a restaurant). Children in this age range try to emulate their parents. Female children begin to take on traits of the mother, while male children take on traits of the Initiative vs. Guilt Stage

Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 5 of 13 father. Children do so while trying to maintain their sense of independence. If children become frustrated with this process, guilt is a likely outcome.

4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years). During this stage, children and adolescents gain knowledge, skills, and abilities that will sustain them throughout adulthood. At the same time, however, children and adolescents are constantly comparing their abilities to the abilities of their peers, thus creating either fleeting or sustained feelings of inferiority. Parents remain important during this stage, but peers and the school environment are the prevailing influences.

5. Identity vs. role confusion (13 to 18 years). At this stage, teenagers attempt to use the skills and knowledge they have developed to form their own identity. It is during these years that teenagers begin to understand who they are and try to convey that identity to the world. However, this phase also may be associated with role confusion or an inability of teenagers to fully understand themselves. Those who were not provided with appropriate emotional and cognitive resources during childhood often struggle with these identity issues.

6. Intimacy vs. isolation (18 to 35 years). In early adulthood, people seek to develop meaningful relationships in the form of friendships and romances and work to develop a peer-support network. People often begin their own families during this stage, thus leading to feelings of intimacy. However, those who flounder during this stage find themselves unable to connect with others, which can lead to social isolation and a host of emotional problems that result from isolation.

7. Generativity vs. stagnation (35 to 65 years). During this stage, adults are more concerned about guiding and mentoring younger generations (e.g., children and/or grandchildren) than themselves. People at this stage of life also seek to be more involved in the community, thus extending their influence beyond the family. Some experience a mid-life crisis and try to find new personal meaning rather than impart meaning to others, thereby becoming stagnant Generativity vs. stagnation or self-absorbed.

8. Integrity vs. despair (66 years and older). Senior adults reflect their lives and either see numerous accomplishments and successes that enable them to navigate this end-of-life stage effectively and productively, or they see failures and missed opportunities and spend their last days in regret or despair over what might have been.

Like Freud, Jean Piaget focused more on the beginning of life than on adulthood for his theory of human development. However, like Jung, Piaget focused more on how people develop as a consequence of their environment and knowledge gleaned simply as a result of living rather than through a series of urges. Piaget believed that humans are predisposed to learn, that people constantly compare what they are learning with what they already know, and that people decide which beliefs concur with their way of thinking and which of their beliefs need to be adjusted to account for new information. For Piaget, the brain was constantly expanding; as people develop, so too does their capacity to understand the world in a more sophisticated manner. Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2003) are discussed below:

1. Sensorimotor stage (0 to 2 years). During this stage, children learn about their environment through their ability to touch, see, hear, and move. Children eventually learn to move with purpose, realizing that they are able to affect the world through their actions. At the end of this stage, children develop an understanding that even though something cannot be seen or heard, it does exist (e.g., children know that when their mother is not present, she still exists and will come back to them). This knowing but not seeing is referred to as object permanence.

2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years). In this stage, children learn not to rely on concrete, tangible information to learn about the world in which they live. They learn to use symbolism, imagery, and their memory to explore their world. Children at this stage develop schemas for objects (e.g., the word dog represents most kinds of dogs and possibly other animals with similar characteristics; the word car represents different models of cars and possibly other forms of transportation). However, children Example of information learned at the continue to understand the world through their Preoperational Stage. own eyes only and continue to be egocentric.

3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years). Around age 7, children begin to develop the ability to think abstractly and make judgments based on reason and logic. However, children during this time continue to rely on concrete tools (e.g., visual reminders, auditory clues) to make those judgments and realizations. Children at this stage live and think in the present moment and need guidance and information to solve problems.

4. Formal operations stage (adolescence). Adolescents begin to understand the world in more abstract terms and no longer rely on concrete cues to understand the world. They are capable of hypothetical thinking and deductive reasoning. Adolescents can predict how a situation will turn out based on previous experiences, probabilities, and educated guesses. Adolescents also are able to view a scenario from multiple viewpoints simultaneously and to contemplate the nature of thought itself.

In addition to hypothesizing how people develop cognitive skills, language, and personality styles, some developmental psychologists also focus on how people acquire an internal sense of morality, personal ethics, and the distinction between right and wrong. Two of the more prominent-moral development theorists are Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg.

Piaget proposed a three-stage theory of moral development. Each stage is discussed below:

1. Premoral judgment stage (0 to 5 years). In the first stage, children have no sense of morality because their understanding of the world is purely egocentric.

2. Moral realism stage (6 to 9 years). During the second stage, children develop a sense of right and wrong based on the presence of rules. They have not yet begun to interpret those rules themselves, but they obey the rules simply because the rules exist.

3. Moral relativity stage (10 years and older). During this stage, children begin to understand that rules are not fixed. They learn that rules are created when two people agree about how something should be said or done and that rules can be changed if enough people agree to the change. Children also begin to develop their own sense of morality and start judging others (and themselves) based on the other person’s intentions rather than on the person’s behavior (Green, 1999).

Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s work, proposing a three-tier, six-stage theory that extended throughout the life span. He based this theory on observations and conversations with children in various age groups. Each group of children was given a moral dilemma and asked to solve it. They also were asked to describe how they arrived at their decision. One of the more popular moral dilemmas he gave to the children is known as the “Heinz Steals a Drug” dilemma:

A woman lay dying from a rare form of cancer. There was a drug known to cure her cancer derived from the element radium. There was a pharmacist in town who sold the drug, but charged a great deal for it. This pharmacist made a huge profit off of this medication: He would buy a significant portion of it for $200 and then sell very small vials of it for $2,000 a piece. The woman’s husband, Heinz, tried his best to earn the money and asked everyone he knew for help. He ended up with $1,000. He took his $1,000 to the pharmacist and asked if he could pay him half now, take the medicine, and pay him half later. The pharmacist refused this offer. Desperate, Heinz broke into the pharmacy that night and stole the medication. Should Heinz have done that? (Adapted from Kohlberg, 1963).

Based on the children’s responses and rationale to the dilemma presented to them, Kohlberg developed his three stages of moral development (Green, 1999):

1. Pre-conventional morality. The first stage has two parts: obedience and punishment and individualism and exchange. With obedience and punishment, children view

Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 8 of 13 rules as fixed and absolute. This is akin to Piaget’s moral realism stage. For children in this stage, obeying rules is a means of avoiding punishment. With individualism and exchange, children begin to understand that people can use rules to suit their own needs, if those needs are justified by the outcome (i.e. one can break the rules if it helps one avoid harm or danger).

2. Conventional morality. The second stage has two parts: interpersonal relationships and maintaining social order. When it comes to interpersonal relationships, children try to meet societal standards and behave accordingly. When it comes to maintaining social order as children become young adults, they begin to consider the greater good when making moral decisions. People at this stage follow rules as a way of maintaining the integrity of the social system.

3. Post-conventional morality. The third stage has two parts: social contract and individual rights and universal principles. Social contract and individual rights affects people as they age. People begin to show compassion and understanding for the beliefs, values, and morals of other people. They continue to believe that rules are important, but they realize that all people should have a say about the nature of the rules. The application of universal principles occurs near the end stage of moral development when people develop an inner sense of justice and morality that may often contradict or supersede the rules or laws they are expected to follow.

Kohlberg’s theory has been praised for its empirical roots and its ability to explain moral development across the life span. However, his theory is often criticized for being culturally biased. Although Kohlberg cites evidence of the cross-cultural nature of his theory (i.e., he found similar results in Turkey, Mexico, and Kenya), evidence suggests that industrialized countries develop differently and at a different rate than non-industrialized countries. Also, other studies have shown that some children are capable of adult stages of moral reasoning and that some adults never progress beyond the conventional morality stage (Cardwell & Flanagan, 2003).

Freud, Jung, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are regarded as the pioneers of human- development theory. Their work set the stage for contemporary theorists to explore further this area of psychology and attempt to address the questions that earlier stage theories left unanswered. Three contemporary theories are discussed here.

Daniel Levinson focused on adult development, emphasizing the conflict people experience as they transition between developmental stages. Levinson’s theory is titled “The Seasons of Man.” It has six stages (Lachman, 2001):

1. Early adult transition (17 to 22 years). During this stage, young adults must leave behind the angst and dependency of adolescence and begin making choices that will affect their adult lives.

Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 9 of 13 2. Entering the adult world (22 to 28 years). Between these ages, adults experiment their adult decision-making capabilities, especially with respect to love, work, friends, and lifestyle.

3. Age 30 transition (29 to 32 years). While they have started living life as adults, turning 30 serves as a concrete reminder that adolescence is in the past. Many people at this stage experience some type of crisis, which leads to a concrete change in their life structure.

4. Settling down (33 to 40 years). Between these ages, adults have carved out a niche for themselves and become comfortable with it. They have established their careers and their families.

5. Mid-life transition (40 to 45 years). During this stage, adults may become frustrated with their niche in life, prompting them to explore alternate ways of expressing themselves. They may appear to behave more immaturely or become fixated on Mother and Daughter leaving a legacy.

6. Entering middle adulthood (45 to 50 years). The trials of early adulthood and mid-life are coming to a close, with children leaving the home and career paths changing. Adults at this stage are faced with making a new set of life choices and a commitment to those choices.

Roger Gould proposed a theory of human development that focuses on four false life assumptions that adults must overcome and/or cope with in order to develop a healthy view of themselves and the world (Baumgartner, 2001). According to Gould, people must be able to challenge and successfully reject the following assumptions at various points in their life (Sugarman, 2005):

1. “I will always belong to my parents and see the world as they do” (16 to 22 years). Rejection of this assumption is associated with identity development.

2. “Doing things my parents’ way with willpower and perseverance will bring results” (22 to 28 years). Rejection of this assumption is associated with developing one’s own way of interacting in the world and achieving success.

3. “Life is simple and controllable” (28 to 34 years). Adults finally accept that their struggles are valid and that they have ultimate power over how their lives develop.

4. “There is no evil or death in the world” (35 to 45 years). As adults are confronted with death and disappointment, they begin to find a more realistic sense of the world and their role in it.

Robert Havighurst’s model emphasizes developmental tasks that are associated with each phase of development. According to Havighurst, a developmental task is one that must be completed and/or mastered at each level of development. The successful accomplishment of these tasks allows people to progress through life more effectively and healthily. The inability to conquer a developmental task is associated with future failures, social rejection, and overall dissatisfaction. Havighurst found three types of developmental tasks that involve physical maturation, personal sources, and society (Sugarman, 2005):

1. Tasks associated with physical maturation include walking, talking, behaving appropriately in public, and adjusting to bodily changes in old age.

2. Tasks stemming from personal sources include taking the initiative to learn the skills necessary for one’s vocation and developing compassion for others.

3. Tasks that society demands include learning to read and obeying traffic laws.

According to Havighurst’s theory, each stage of life is associated with the completion of one or more of these types of tasks. For example, from infancy to age 6, children must learn how to walk, communicate their needs, be modest with respect to their sexual organs, and use the toilet. Adults 18 to 30 years old must find a mate, learn to live with a partner, and begin Depiction of the first task their careers. Elderly individuals must adapt to physical described by Havighurst disability, adjust to the death of their spouse, and maintain social connections (Sugarman, 2005).

When psychologists use developmental theories to guide their research or clinical work, they typically do not adhere to one developmental model. Many theories exist, each one addressing the others’ shortcomings. Still, some questions remain unanswered. Theories of human development are comprehensive. To develop the one correct framework is virtually impossible, especially given the influence of culture, generation, and sex differences. However, both pioneering and contemporary theories have done much to explain human behavior, the origin of psychological distress, and personality development. Armed with this knowledge, many psychologists have developed an eclectic view of human development. An integrated model that borrows ideas from multiple theories helps researchers and clinicians to see their patients or research participants as unique individuals.

Baumgartner, L. (2001). Four adult development theories and their implications for practice. Focus on Basics: Connecting Research & Practice, 5(B). Retrieved November 19, 2009, from http://www.ncsall.net/?id=268

Cardwell, M., & Flanagan, C. (2003). Psychology A2: The complete companion. Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes.

Green, R. (1999). Human behavior theory and social work practice. New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Hockenbury, D., & Hockenbury, S. (2003). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.

Kohlberg, I. (1963). The development of children's orientations toward a moral order. l: Sequence in the development of human thought. Vita Humana, 6, 11-33.

Lachman, M. (2001). Handbook of midlife development. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Sugarman, L. (2005). Life-span development: Frameworks, accounts, and strategies. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Developmental task: An action people must complete in order to progress from one stage of development to the next. Typically, multiple tasks must be completed at each stage of development. Accomplishment of these tasks allows people to progress through life more effectively and healthily. The inability to master a developmental task is associated with failure, social rejection, and overall dissatisfaction in the future.

Ego: One’s personal self (as opposed to one’s social self). The ego is part of both Freud’s and Erikson’s developmental theories.

Egocentric: Being focused on oneself, unable to consider the thoughts and feelings of others.

Erickson’s psychosocial stages of development: A theory of human development that is based on the simultaneous influence of the body, the mind, and one’s cultural environment.

Psychosexual theory of development: Freud’s perception of development. The theory holds that personality, psychological problems, and interpersonal style emerge from a sexual conflict and/or the quest for sexual gratification. Freud’s developmental stages focused on the erogenous zones that interest people as they progress through childhood and adolescence.

Jung’s stages-of-life theory: A four-stage process of development that emphasizes the growth of the complete self throughout the entire life span. The theory focuses on adulthood more than on childhood.

Copyright © 2009 The Learning House, Inc. Theories of Development Page 12 of 13 Id: A Freudian term used to describe the part of one’s personality that is focused on primal instincts, such as pleasure and self-gratification.

Kohlberg’s three stages of moral development: A theory of moral development based on responses to moral dilemmas. The theory covers the entire life span but does not necessarily represent people of all cultures.

Object permanence: The understanding that an object or person exists even when that object or person cannot be seen.

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development: An early developmental theory that focuses on how people developed as a consequence of their environment and the knowledge gleaned through living their lives.

Piaget’s three-stage theory of moral development: One of the first concepts of how children develop their moral code.

Schemas: Mental representations of objects.

Stage theory: The idea that people move through a systematic, progressive set of stages over time. These stages are based on specific characteristics, most often specific age groups (i.e., childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, mid-life, and late life).

Superego: A Freudian term used to describe the part of one’s personality that seeks to satisfy social expectations.