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2000 Conference Proceedings (Vancouver, BC, Adult Education Research Conference Canada)

Adult Development: Capturing New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course

Rosemary S. Caffarella University of Northern Colorado, USA

M. Carolyn Clark Texas A & M University, USA (Co-Chairs)

Florence Guido-DiBrito University of Northern Colorado, USA

Sharan B. Merriam University of Georgia, USA

Marsha Rossiter University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, USA

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Recommended Citation Caffarella, Rosemary S.; Clark, M. Carolyn; Guido-DiBrito, Florence; Merriam, Sharan B.; Rossiter, Marsha; Taylor, Kathleen; and Tisdell, Elizabeth J. (2000). "Adult Development: Capturing New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course," Adult Education Research Conference. https://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2000/ symposia/1

This is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at New Prairie Press. It has been accepted for inclusion in Adult Education Research Conference by an authorized administrator of New Prairie Press. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Author Information Rosemary S. Caffarella, M. Carolyn Clark, Florence Guido-DiBrito, Sharan B. Merriam, Marsha Rossiter, Kathleen Taylor, and Elizabeth J. Tisdell

This is available at New Prairie Press: https://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2000/symposia/1 Adult Development: Capturing New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course

Rosemary S. Caffarella, University of Northern Colorado, USA and M. Carolyn Clark, Texas A & M University, USA (Co-Chairs) Florence Guido-DiBrito, University of Northern Colorado, USA Sharan B. Merriam, University of Georgia, USA Marsha Rossiter, University of Wisconsin – Oshkosh, USA Kathleen Taylor, Saint Mary’s College, USA and Elizabeth J. Tisdell, National Louis University, USA

Abstract: We outline first a brief overview of a four-fold typology of developmental theory (biologi- cal, psychological, sociocultural an integrative models). We then discuss work that illustrates two of these frames: the sociocultural, which includes racial and ethnic, and relational aspects of develop- ment; and the integrative, focusing on time, development as narrative, and spiritual development. We close with a commentary on the current developmental literature and how this literature challenges our practice as adult educators.

Introduction and Overview ciocultural, and integrative models. We focus here The whole point of theory–any theory–is to help on the sociocultural and the integrative frames be- us understand something better. This symposium cause they capture some of the most innovative examines the theories that have been constructed work being done in developmental theory today. about adult development, and the “something” We address the work on racial and ethnic devel- that all these theories are trying to help us under- opment, a body of literature that is of increasing stand better is the life course–how it unfolds, and importance as we struggle to embrace diversity in the meaning that can be given to various aspects our society. The notions of separation and con- and dimensions of that unfolding. A particular nection, pointing to the work of theorists who ar- theory or family of theories serves as a kind of gue for a complex and changing balance between lens through which we view the life course; that these fundamental drives, is examined. We dis- lens illuminates certain elements and tells a par- cuss how the various conceptualizations of time ticular story about adult life. Multiple lenses give provide a new way of understanding change and us many different ways of illuminating different development. We look at development as narra- aspects of that life course. The purpose of this tive, an approach which derives from the storied symposium is three-fold. First, we provide a brief nature of our lives and which places the adults overview of a four-fold framework, offered by themselves in the role of interpreter. Finally, we Merriam and Caffarella (1999), for categorizing describe spiritual development, suggesting that the theories of adult development. Second, we discuss ultimate meaning adults give to their lives pro- work illustrating two specific dimensions of that vides yet another way to understand the develop- framework, the sociocultural and the integrated. mental process. And finally, we provide a commentary on the cur- The typology offered by Merriam and Caf- rent developmental literature and how this litera- farella (1999) is useful in several ways. When we ture challenges our practice as adult educators. consider the latest work in this area, across all Building on the work of Perlmutter and Hall four categories of this framework, we noticed that (1985), Bee (1996), and others, Merriam and Caf- we seem to be beyond the crafting of grand theo- farella (1999) have developed a schema consisting ries of development, like those offered by Erikson of four dimensions: biological, psychological, so- or Levinson. In addition, there has been a shift in the literature on adult development towards regardless of race or identity, benefit from the de- thinking about development in a more integrative velopment of a conscious ethnic identity. way, and it is in this frame that we believe the Racial and ethnic identity have been misun- most significant and promising work is being derstood and, although some believe them to be done today. This trend toward integration and biologically based (Spickard, 1992), are consid- multiplicity of thought is two-dimensional. First, ered to be socially constructed (Waters, 1990). many scholars, even within the biological and Several racial identity models (e.g., Cross, 1991), psychological frames, are acknowledging the im- including white identity (e.g., Helms, 1995), dis- portance of taking into account elements from at cussed what could be described as an intersection least one other frame and often more than one, between racial perceptions of others (i.e., racism) therefore arguing for a more holistic view of de- and racial perceptions of self (i.e., racial develop- velopment. The second dimension relates to alter- ment). Although our perceptions of others are im- native ways of thinking about how development portant and can act as triggers for development unfolds in adulthood, such as those offered by dif- and consciousness, there is great value in the con- ferent concepts of time and by the notion of de- sideration of racial/ethnic identity for oneself and velopment as narrative. groups of individuals. A related concept, ethnic As adult educators we are prodded to hear identity is developed from shared culture, religion, what was formerly unspoken. We can no longer geography and language of individuals who are ignore or take for granted issues of Otherness–- often connected by strong loyalty and kinship as gender, race and ethnicity, class, sexual orienta- well as proximity (Torres, 1999). Many models of tion, spiritual commitment, social status... the list identity appear in the literature for different ethnic has no end. We also are being asked to think more groups (e.g., Garrett & Walking Stick Garrett, creatively about the impact of development on 1994; Padilla, 1995). These models typically out- learners and how we design programs. line commonalties likely within a particular ethnic group. References A multidimensional understanding of racial Bee, H.L. (1996). Journey of adulthood (3rd ed.). and ethnic identity assists us in understanding the Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. many possibilities inherent in working with adult Merriam, S.B., & Caffarella, R.S. (1999). Learn- learners. Attention to racial and ethnic identity is ing in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San critical in the learning environment in numerous Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ways. For example, learning environments must Perlmutter, & Hall, E. (1985). Adult development be inclusive of multicultural ways of doing, dif- and aging. New York: John Wiley. ferent knowledge bases, and styles of teaching and learning. Additionally, the creation and mainte- Racial and Ethnic Identity nance of a strong learning community that honors, and Development supports, and challenges each learner, regardless Florence Guido-DiBrito of race and ethnicity, is essential. Educators working with adults at all levels can benefit these Racial and ethnic identities are critical compo- learners by creating environments that balance nents of the overall framework of individual and different cultural norms, such as designing col- collective identity. For some, especially visible laborative and individual learning activities, en- legally defined United States minority popula- couraging in class reflection and discussion, and tions, racial and ethnic identity is manifested in using visual, written, kinesthetic, relational and very conscious positive and negative ways. Oth- other types of learning. Creating positive mult i- ers, especially U.S. white/European populations, cultural learning communities requires educators manifest ethnic and racial identity in mostly un- to model authenticity, relational and self-sharing conscious ways through their behaviors, values, ways, by supporting nonjudgmental processing of beliefs, and assumptions often viewed as “sta n- multiple perspectives and by facilitating a respect- dard American culture.” However, all individuals, ful community of learners. References apparently opposing drives. Peck (1986), the Cross, W.E., Jr. (1995). The psychology of ni- scholars at the Stone Center at Wellesley College grescence: Revising the Cross model. In J. G. (Jordan, Kaplan, Miller, Stiver & Surrey, 1991; Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Miller & Stiver, 1997; Bergman & Surrey, 1997), Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural and Kegan (1994), attempt to describe ways in counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. which both separateness and meaningful connec- Garrett, J. T., & Walking Stick Garrett, M. (1994). tion are part of everyone's lifelong developmental The path of good medicine: Understanding and process. In this view, identity derives as much counseling Native American Indians. Journal from connection with others as it does from es- of Multicultural Counseling and Development, tablishing one’s separateness. Separation no long 22, 134-144. precedes connection in forging a healthy sense of Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helms’ White self, and deep concern for other’s needs and feel- and people of color racial identity models. In J. ings does not signal inappropriate dependence. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & Beyond theory, however, is the lived experi- C.M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multi- ence of adult learners. Some learners put others’ cultural counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA: needs before their own in ways that threaten their Sage. educational success. They feel guilty about taking Padilla, A. M. (1995). On the nature of Latino up too much of the family’s resources (for exam- ethnicity. In A. S. Lopez (Ed.), Historical ple, of time and money). As a result, rather than themes and identity: Mestizaje and labels (pp. continue to endure the feeling that they are being 439-452). New York: Garland. selfish, they may drop out. Others manage to dif- Spickard, P. R. (1992). The illogic of American ferentiate between doing something for them- racial categories. In Maria P. P. Root (Ed.), selves and being selfish; they realize that they Racially mixed people in America (pp. 12-23). need not respond with feelings of guilt when oth- Newbury, CA: Sage. ers are displeased. Analyzing these experiences Torres, V. (1999). Validation of a bicultural or i- through a developmental lens offers educators a entation model for Hispanic students. Journal way to better understand some of the challenges of College Student Development, 40(3), 285- other than academic content that adult learners 298. face as they negotiate educational programs. Waters, M. C. (1990). Ethnic options: Choosing Finally, how can educational environments identities in America. Berkeley, CA: Univer- support adults’ developmental growth toward a sity of California Press. construction of self in which connection and sepa- ration are in balance, rather than tipped in one di- Relational Aspects of rection or the other? Some of the literature speaks Adult Deve lopment Theory in terms of transformative and emancipatory Kathleen Taylor learning or critical thinking. Recent research (Taylor, Marienau & Fiddler, 2000) describes Most early developmental theorists, such as Erik- teaching with “developmental intentions.” These son and Kohlberg, who drew on the experiences support learners in engaging with the world of of men and boys, called for individuation and ideas and learning from experience, in examining separation as prerequisites to identity develo p- and challenging assumptions (their own and oth- ment. More recently, however, researchers who ers’), in arriving at thoughtfully-held commit- have explored women’s experiences have de- ments, and in connecting with others from a place scribed an equally compelling role for connection of mutual enhancement rather than the need to and relationship. On one hand, both men and feel complete. women need to separate from others, constructing Such approaches to teaching and learning may an identity that is clearly their own. On the other, not only support a balance between connection both men and women need also to be connected to and separation, but may encourage a way of per- others, to see themselves in relation to them and ceiving and knowing that leads to a deepened un- as part of a larger whole. Several theorists explore derstanding of oneself, one’s responsibility, and the possibilities for balance between these two one’s capacity to act in the world. References to a developmental study of HIV positive men and Bergman, S. J., & Surrey, J. L. (1997). The women. woman-man relationship: Impasses and possi- Historical time is defined as “long-term proc- bilities. In J.V. Jordan (Ed.), Women's growth esses, such as industrialization and urbanization,” in diversity. New York: Guilford. and “economic, political, and social events that Jordan, J. V., Kaplan, A. G., Miller, J. B., Stiver, directly influence the life course of the individuals I. P., & Surrey, J. L. (1991). Women’s growth who experience those events” (Neugarten & Da- in connection. New York: Guilford. tan, 1973, p. 58). The impact of particular histor i- Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental cal processes or events on development depends demands of modern life. Cambridge: Harvard on the age or life stage of the individual at the University Press. time of the occurrence. Witness the relative com- Miller, J. B., & Stiver, I. P. (1997). The healing fort children have with computers compared to connection. Boston: Beacon Press. older adults. Peck, T.A. (1986). Women’s self-definition: From The AIDS epidemic is an example of a histor i- a different model? Psychology of Women cal event that has impacted not only the lives of Quarterly, 10, 274-284. those infected, but the whole of society as well. Taylor, K., Marienau, C., & Fiddler, M. (2000). Further, recent advances in the treatment of AIDS Developing adult learners: Strategies for in the form of protease inhibitors – also a function teachers and trainers. San Fransciso: Jossey- of historical time – has had a dramatic impact on Bass. the lives of HIV-positive men and women. Par- ticipants in our study spoke of having to prepare Time as the Integrative Factor to live, rather than die, as a result of new treat- Sharan B. Merriam ments (Courtenay, Merriam, Reeves & Baumgart- ner, in press). A developmental perspective on the life course is Life time is simply the number of years one about documenting change over time, or change has lived since birth, the passage of time meas- with the passage of time. Time, therefore, is a key ured in days, months, and years. Life time or variable in studying development and in under- chronological age is probably most useful when standing the nature, if not the causes of change. used in reference to biological changes, especially But development is not simply a function of the for earlier stages in the life cycle. In research on ticking of the clock and the passage of years. Ex- adult development, chronological age serves as a cept for certain physiological changes such as the proxy for other biological or psychosocial factors. graying of hair or menopause, just getting older is Age in and of itself does not cause changes to take too simple an explanation to account for changes place; rather, human behavior is affected by expe- in behavior, attitude, values, or self-perception. riences that occur with the passage of time, not by Intertwined with the mere passage of time is the time itself. The HIV-positive adults in our study historical context in which one lives as well as the whose health had dramatically improved with social expectations of a particular culture at a par- protease inhibitors, were cautiously optimistic ticular point in time. Time thus has three connota- about living a normal life span. Life time, or tions when applied to development: the passage of chronological age and its links to the physical time marked by chronological age; historical time, body was again a meaningful concept in their or the particular period in history in which one lives and their deve lopment. lives; and social time, a culturally-dependent Social time is the transformation of calendar timetable outlining appropriate behavior at vari- time into periods of the life cycle during which ous stages in the life cycle. As a multidimensional certain behaviors are expected and certain rights, concept incorporating biological, sociocultural responsibilities and statuses characterize individ- and historical dimensions, time can indeed func- ual behavior in that stage of life. As Neugarten tion as an integrative mechanism in the study of (1976, p. 16) explains, social time is “a socially adult development. How time functions as an in- prescribed timetable for the ordering of major life tegrative concept will be illustrated with reference events.” This timetable reflects the social norms and expectations of a culture at a particular time in history. One can be “on-time” or “off-time” meaning making takes a narrative form–that peo- with regard to this social clock. For our partic i- ple understand the changes over the course of pants, once life time was no longer suspended, so- their own lives narratively – we can appreciate the cial time began to play a role. Participants value of the narrative orientation to understanding struggled with how to fit back into a context of human development. It is an approach that at- socially prescribed norms and values—a context tempts to describe development from the “inside” that had seemed irrelevant when faced with death. as it is lived, rather than from the outside as it is In summary, the construct of time becomes a observed. The focus is on subjective meaning – window through which we can better understand how people make sense of the events of their lives the changes people go through in terms of their through the life course. Developmental change is behaviors, attitudes, values and meaning-making. experienced through a constructed personal narra- While the parcelling out of historical time, life tive that is revised and enlarged over time to ac- time and social time give us an even clearer pic- commodate new insights, unanticipated events, ture of how time impacts development, in reality and transformed perspectives. of course, it is the interaction of these three di- A view of adult development as narrative is: mensions of time that affect development. 1. Contextual. Development as narrative is shaped by context – both internal and external. References: Coherence and plot define the internal context. Courtenay, B. C., Merriam, S. B., Reeves, P. M., Just as any character’s action in a story can only & Baumgartner, L. M. (in press). Perspective be understood in reference to the plot of the story transformation over time: A two-year follow- in which the character is acting, so it is with hu- up study of HIV-positive adults. Adult Educa- man development–events of one’s life mean tion Quarterly . something in relation to other events and in rela- Neugarten, B. L. (1976). Adaptation and the life tion to the valued ends toward which one is striv- cycle. The Counseling Psychologist, 6(1), 16- ing. Externally, the narrative orientation is 20. sensitive to the larger cultural narratives within Neugarten, B. L., & Datan, N. (1973). Sociologi- which the individual life narrative is constructed. cal perspectives on the life cycle. In P.B. Bal- Every person’s life narrative is in important ways tes & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Life-span shaped – constrained, enriched, influenced – by developmental psychology: Personality and the larger sociocultural meaning systems within socialization. New York: Academic Press. which it is situated. 2. Interpretive. A story is not a collection of Understanding Adult facts, a logical argument, or a scientific propos i- Development as Narrative tion; it is, rather, an account of events emplotted Marsha Rossiter according to human values, intentions, and pur- poses. As such it calls for interpretation. In under- To understand development as narrative is to con- standing development as narrative, the sider the storied nature of the life course. This ori- interpretation that is privileged is that of the per- entation is based on the assumption that narrative son whose development is in question. This self- is a central structure through which humans or- interpretation is ever evolving – meanings are re- ganize and make meaning of their experience interpreted through the course of one’s life. The (e.g., Polkinghorne, 1988). Meaning is con- life narrative at any given time is that subjective structed, expressed, and understood in story form. interpretation of experiences that represents the If we reflect for a moment on our everyday com- most satisfactory account (Cohler, 1982). munication with colleagues, students, and family, 3. Retrospective. Narrative, in a sense, is his- we hear ourselves in the act of telling the stories tory–the telling of what has gone before. To un- of our experience. Although our conversational derstand development narratively is to take a stories may be fragmentary, the centrality of nar- backward-looking, retrospective stance. A narra- rative in our meaning making is clear. tive perspective does not focus on predicting a When we understand that the process of particular pattern of development in a forward movement toward some endpoint. Instead, narra- tive attends to that which can be understood about The more limited discussion specifically of spir i- a developmental trajectory through the review and tual development tends to rely on Fowler's (1981) telling of it. As Freeman (1991) puts it, “It is only study, which resulted in a stage theory (of 6 after one has arrived at what is arguably or de- stages) of faith development, based on 97% white, monstrably a better psychological place than Judeo-Christian sample. Not surprisingly, Fow- where one has been before that development can ler’s theory is framed largely from a psychologi- be said to have occurred” (p. 99). cal perspective, with little attention to how the 4. Temporal. Narrative suggests movement socio-cultural context affects spiritual develop- through time. Applied to development, narrative ment. Nevertheless, it is a landmark study in the highlights this temporal flow in its attention to area of faith (as opposed to spiritual) develop- formation over form, to processes over states of ment, and contributes to our understanding of how being, to meaning making over pre-determined people construct knowledge through image and checkpoints along the life course. Narrative as- symbol. sumes a dynamic interrelationship between time Developmental theorists have often overlooked and meaning in which an understanding of the the socio-cultural context, which inadvertently past and future is continually unfolding in the pre- tends to propagate a view of development based sent. on the dominant culture-white, Judeo-Christian, For adult educators, an understanding of de- and middle-class. Given the roles of image and velopment as narrative calls our attention to the symbol (which are often culturally-bound) in the interconnectedness of learning with the construc- construction of knowledge, it is particularly im- tion of the life narrative, and the transformative portant to consider how culture informs spiritual potential of autobiographical learning activities. development. There are a number of writers from specific cultural groups who discuss how cultural References image and symbol from within their culture in- Cohler, B.J. (1982). Personal narrative and the life form spiritual knowledge construction and mean- course. In P.B. Baltes & O.G. Brim Jr. (Eds.), ing- making, ways of living in community, and Life-span development and behavior (pp. 205- working for justice in the world (Anzaldua, 1987; 241). New York: Academic Press. Hill Collins, 1999, Gunn Allen, 1992, hooks, Freeman, M. (1991). Rewriting the self: Devel- 1994). While these writers cited are not writing opment as moral practice. In M.B. Tappan & about spiritual development (as change over M.J. Packer (Eds.), Narrative and storytelling: time), they are considering ways members of their Implications for understanding moral devel- cultural groups draw on the spiritual symbols and opment (pp. 83-101). New Directions for Child traditions of their own cultures to affirm their Development, no.54. San Francisco: Jossey- cultural and gender identity, and to guide their Bass. moral action in the world. This may suggest a Polkinghorne, D.E. (1988). Narrative knowing more evolved and culturally grounded spirituality and the human sciences. Albany, N.Y.: State Attention to spiritual development in its socio- University of New York. cultural context offers some practical application for adult educators. First, adult educators might Spiritual Development in a want to note that a search for, and/or an acknow- Socio-Cultural Context ledgement of the spiritual in the lives of adult Elizabeth J. Tisdell learners is connected to the forces of meaning that give their lives coherence. Second, spirituality is Spiritual development (as change over time) has about how people construct knowledge through been given relatively little attention in mainstream conscious and unconscious processes of the academic adult education. There is some very meanings attached to image and symbol, which limited broader discussion of spirituality in gen- are often both cultural and emanate from the eral, that focuses on how spirituality affects deepest core of our being and can be manifested teaching and learning (Dirkx, 1997), or emanci- and/or accessed in the form of art, music, or other patory education efforts (Hart & Holten, 1993). aspects of creative work. They often manifest our passions, inspire how we act in the world in advo- cating for ourselves, and/or in working for justice References on behalf of ourselves and others. Adult educators Anzaldua, G. (1987). Borerderlands/La frontera: who encourage adult learners to work with image The new mestiza. San Francisco, CA: Aunt and symbol, and to critically reflect on the mean- Lute. ings and power such images hold, as Dirkx (1997) Dirkx, J. (1997). Nurturing soul in adult learning. suggests, may be encouraging and facilitating In New Directions for Adult and Continuing spiritual development as adult learners continue to Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. negotiate new knowledge and new meaning in the Fowler, J. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology world- in their relationships, and in their acting in of human development and the quest for the world with conviction. As Walters & Manioc meaning. San Francisco: Harper and Row. (1996) note, in considering the role of spirituality Gunn Allen, P. (1992). The Sacred Hoop. Boston: in social justice education, “it is a theme that is Beacon Press. increasingly significant in popular education Hart, M., & Holton, D. (1993): Beyond God the practice as culturally distinct groups, women re- father and mother: Adult education and spir i- covering “womanist” traditions and ethnic colle c- tuality. In P. Jarvis & N. Walters, Adult edu- tives, draw on cultural and spiritual symbols in cation and theological interpretations (pp. healing and transformative education” (p. 13). If 237-258). Malabar, FL: Krieger. one thinks of education and work for social justice Hill Collins, P. (1998). Fighting words: Black as an aspect of spiritual development, it may be women and the search for justice. Minneapo- that attention to spirituality can offer new insight lis: University of Minnesota Press. to the connection between individual and social hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress. New transformation. It is time that adult educators pay York: Routledge. attention to its importance. Walters, S., & Manicom, L, (Eds.). (1996). Gen- der in popular education. London: Zed.