A CITY TRANSFORMED: WAR, DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE AND PROFITEERING IN KAYSERI (1915-1920) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY OYA GÖZEL DURMAZ IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY JUNE 2014 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Meliha Altunışık Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Ömer Turan Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ferdan Ergut Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Recep Boztemur (METU, HIST) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ferdan Ergut (METU, HIST) Assist. Prof. Dr. Oktay Özel (Bilkent, HIST) Assist. Prof. Dr. E. Attila Aytekin (METU, Pol. Scie.) Assist. Prof. Dr. Selçuk Dursun (METU, HIST) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Oya Gözel Durmaz Signature : iii ABSTRACT A CITY TRANSFORMED: WAR, DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE AND PROFITEERING IN KAYSERI (1915-1920) Gözel Durmaz, Oya Ph.D., Department of History Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ferdan Ergut June 2014, 294 pages One of the foundational origins of the Turkish Republic was the drastic change in the demographic composition of Anatolia following the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 and World War I. This change was a result of factors such as the deportation of Armenians, the exchange of populations between Turkey and Greece and the high number of deaths in successive wars. All of them greatly altered the composition of the population. The change in the demographic composition of Turkey corresponded to a significant era in Turkish history: the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Turkish Republic as a nation state. Thus, this process of demographic transformation became significant in the socio-economic foundation of the new Republic. The present study aims to analyze the socio-economic impacts of this demographic change, especially Armenian deportation, on the sanjak of Kayseri. In this respect, it starts with an assumption that the characteristics of the local forces had a decisive role in the development of the process in the localities. The basic questions that this dissertation addresses are: How were the population policies of the Ottoman government, especially Armenian deportation, implemented in Kayseri? To what extent the local dynamics and factors, like the social and economic features of the city, and the character of the governors, shaped the execution of these policies? Finally what were the iv implications of this demographic transformation on the social and economic life of the inhabitants of Kayseri? Keywords: The Armenian Deportation, Abandoned Properties, Kayseri, Conversion to Islam v ÖZ BİR KENTİN DÖNÜŞÜMÜ: KAYSERİ’DE SAVAŞ, DEMOGRAFİK DEĞİŞİM VE VURGUNCULUK (1915-1920) Gözel Durmaz, Oya Doktora, Tarih Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Doç Dr. Ferdan Ergut Haziran 2014, 294 sayfa Balkan Savaşları ve Birinci Dünya Savaşı süresince yaşanan demografik dönüşüm Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin kurucu temellerinden biri olmuştur. Söz konusu dönüşüm Ermeni tehciri, Türkiye ve Yunanistan arasında gerçekleştirilen nüfus mübadelesi ve birbirini izleyen savaşlar dizisi boyunca yaşanan ölümler gibi nedenlerden kaynaklanmıştır. Bu süreçte bugünkü Türkiye topraklarında yaşayan nüfusun yapısında çok ciddi değişimler meydana gelmiştir. Nüfus kompozisyonunda yaşanan bu köklü dönüşüm siyasi açıdan Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun yıkıldığı ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin kurulduğu çok önemli bir döneme denk gelmiştir. Dolayısıyla yaşanan demografik dönüşüm süreci, yeni kurulan Cumhuriyetin sosyo-ekonomik temelleri üzerinde de çok önemli etkilerde bulunmuştur. Bu çalışma yaşanan demografik değişimin, özellikle de Ermeni tehcirinin, Kayseri sancağı üzerindeki sosyo-ekonomik etkilerini analiz etmeyi hedeflemektedir. Bu bağlamda da, sürecin yerelliklerde şekillenmesinde yerel güçlerin özelliklerinin belirleyici bir role sahip olduğu varsayımı üzerinden hareket edilmiştir. Bu tez şu soruları cevaplaya çalışmıştır: Osmanlı hükümetinin nüfus politikaları, özellikle de Ermeni tehciri, Kayseri’de nasıl uygulandı? Şehrin toplumsal ve iktisadi özellikleri ile yerel yöneticilerin karakteri gibi yerel dinamikler ve faktörler bu politikaların uygulanmasını ne vi dereceye kadar şekillendirdi? Son olarak da, bu demografik değişimin Kayseri sancağında yaşayan insanların toplumsal ve iktisadi hayatları üzerinde ne gibi etkileri oldu? Anahtar Kelimeler: Ermeni Tehciri, Emval-i Metruke, Kayseri, İhtida vii To the beautiful children of June, Ethem, Mehmet, Abdocan, Medeni, Ali İsmail, Hasan Ferit, Ahmet and Berkin viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Ferdan Ergut who accepted to become my supervisor and encouraged me to begin this dissertation. I would also want to thank Oktay Özel, E. Attila Aytekin, Recep Boztemur and Selçuk Dursun who kindly accepted to be members of the dissertation committee, and read the draft and made valuable comments, criticisms and suggestions which had vastly improved the work. The contributions of Oktay Özel and E. Attila Aytekin were particularly crucial in the development of this study. They were always ready to read the drafts and made constructive criticisms during the dissertation writing process. I am especially grateful to Oktay Özel for his encouragement and guidance throughout my research. Without his support and trust to me, this work would not come to an end. I would also want to thank Hilmar Kaiser who was very kindly directed me to research in the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives. Without his encouragement, I could not begin a thesis based on archival research. He spent much time to improve my knowledge regarding the literature and never hesitated to answer my questions. He read the draft and made constructive criticisms to my study. I am also grateful to Kaan Durukan who read the draft and contributed greatly to the improvement of this dissertation with his comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank Bedross der Matossian, Talha Çiçek and Simon Payasliyan who have generously sent a copy of their studies to me. I wish to express my gratitude to The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) for supporting me with scholarship for five years. The Middle East Technical University also funded my research projects and thus I could conduct research in the American and British Archives. ix I also wish to thank my friends Özden Erdoğan, Deniz Dölek Sever, Erinç Erdal, Gözde Somel, Çağdaş Sümer and Sibel İmren for their solidarity, encouragement and motivation during this process. Finally, I would like to thank to my family for their deep and infinite love. They have always supported me both emotionally and financially in every field of my life. I have to express my deepest thanks especially to my beloved, Orkun Saip Durmaz, for his belief in me. He has always motivated me with his love, patience and positive energy. His existence enriched me and increased my belief for the coming beautiful days. x TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM………………………………………………………………...iii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………...iv ÖZ……………………………………………………………………………...vi DEDICATION……………………………………………………………….viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………..ix TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………xi LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………….....xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………..xvi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 2. THE ECONOMY OF KAYSERI UNTIL 1915 ................................... 20 2.1 Kayseri as a Commercial Center .................................................... 20 2.2 Armenians in the Economy of Kayseri ......................................... 34 2.2.1 Economic Life of the Armenian Villages ............................ 34 2.2.2 The Armenian Merchants..................................................... 37 3. THE ROAD TO THE ARMENIAN DEPORTATIONS ..................... 43 3.1 The Armenian Constitution of 1860 ............................................... 44 3.2 The Internationalization of the Armenian Question ....................... 46 3.2.1 The Settlement of the Muhacirs ........................................... 47 3.3 The Armenian Political Organizations ........................................... 51 3.4 The Hamidiye Cavalry Regiments ................................................. 54 3.4.1 The Land Issue .................................................................... 57 3.4.2 The 1894-1896 Armenian Massacres ................................. 59 3.4.3 The Second Constitutional Regime and the Land Issue ...... 62 xi 3.5 The Balkan Wars (1912-1913) ....................................................... 65 3.6 The Deportation Decision of the Ottoman Government ................ 68 4. THE DEPORTATION OF THE KAYSERI ARMENIANS ................ 76 4.1 The Implementation of the Deportation Order in Kayseri ............ 76 4.2 The Conversion to Islam: An Area of Struggle among Different Actors ..........................................................................................