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The New Face of Terrorism – Legal Challenges the Evolution of French Legislation on Terrorism and Its Implementation

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The New Face of Terrorism – Legal Challenges the Evolution of French Legislation on Terrorism and Its Implementation The new face of terrorism – legal challenges The evolution of French legislation on terrorism and its implementation C. S. M. RENAUDON Master thesis – Victimology and Criminal Justice Author: C.S.M. Renaudon ANR: 159065 Educational Program: Victimology and Criminal Justice Educational Institution: Tilburg University Date: April 2018 Supervisor: A.M.H.M. Bax 2nd Reader: K. Banteka 2 Table of contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 6 1.1. History of terrorism in France 7 1.2. Various definitions of “terrorism” 10 1.3. Purpose of the study 11 1.4. Research Question 12 1.5. Methodology 12 1.6. Outline 13 2. Terrorism: a legal framework .........................................................................................14 2.1. Evolution of regulations regarding terrorism from 1994 to 2014 14 2.2. Intervention of EU and international law 19 3. Victims’ needs ...............................................................................................................26 3.1. Different victims of terrorism 26 3.2. Needs of primary and secondary victims of the Paris attack 28 3.3. Needs of vicarious victims 34 4. Measures after the November 2015 attacks: an evaluation ...........................................36 4.1. The fight against terrorism in France since 2015 36 4.2. An evaluation of the measures in place to fight terrorism 39 4.3. Discussion 45 5. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................51 6. Appendices ...................................................................................................................53 6.1. Appendix 1 – Interview with S. 53 6.2. Appendix 2 – Maslow’s pyramid of basic needs 56 6.3. Appendix 3 – Examples of European compensation funds 57 7. Bibliography ..................................................................................................................58 3 Abstract David Rapoport has acknowledged the existence of four Waves of terrorism that occurred between the 19th century and the end of the 20th century. He also found that although there was no legal universal definition of terrorism, a lexical one has evolved throughout time following the waves of terrorism occurring in the world. For instance, France began drafting its terrorism legislation in 1893, in 1986 and finally in the 2010s following new attacks. The present thesis deals with a literature review of French, European and international legislation regarding terrorism which was found on the French, European and United Nations databases. Many instruments deal with terrorism, its offences, the prevention, and the fight against terrorism which this thesis has compiled, focusing on instruments regarding Islamist terrorism which peaked in 1986 and in the following years in France. A consensus definition from French, European and international legal instruments was used to define terrorism as a criminal act targeting civilians or natural persons, meant to induce fear in the population and which also has the additional motive of undermining the workings of government. With this definition, this thesis acknowledges that terrorism causes more victims than the ones directly affected by an attack. Furthermore, organized networks have emerged and are crossing borders to commit their crimes, distancing themselves from the previous modus operandi of lone wolves used in the 1980s and 1990s. Even the crimes in Western societies have evolved, and different modus operandi are being used such as mass shootings and cars driven into crowds. Due to the mass victimization caused by terrorist attacks, victims’ needs cannot be overlooked and should not be limited to those directly affected by attacks. The aim of terrorism is to terrorize an entire population, and a significant part of the community is bound to be impacted psychologically. However, coping mechanisms depend on one’s personality and resilience. To make sure that France is sufficiently prepared to face terrorism, parliamentary reports are published to show what can be improved and what has worked to face the effects of terrorism. These reports allow French officials to adopt measures to improve the situation and facilitate care for victims. The analysis concludes that, although terrorism induces fear and shock in a population, proper governmental reactions to the attack and solidarity among individuals will help a population boost its resilience and manage to return to as normal a life as possible. 4 List of Abbreviations 1ère Civ. 1ère Chambre Civile Art. Article C. assises Cour d’Assises Cass. Cour de Cassation Const. Constitution Crim Chambre criminelle CoE Council of Europe Cons. Const. Conseil Constitutionnel ECtHR European Court on Human Rights ECHR European Convention on Human Rights EU European Union FENVAC Fédération Nationale des Victimes d’Attentats et d’Accidents Collectifs FGTI Fonds de garantie des victimes des actes de terrorisme et d’autres infractions HRWR Human Rights Watch Report IO International Organization ISIS Islamic State in Iraq and Syria LUV Liste unique des victimes QPC Question prioritaire de Constitutionnalité RAA Recueil des Actes Administratifs TA Tribunal Administratif UN United Nations UNGA United Nation General Assembly UNODOC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNSC United Nation Security Council 5 1. Introduction He remembers that for my birthday party I insisted on people still coming, to show that the terrorists ‘had not won’. He thought that it was a good idea to come, his family was stressed out, but he reassured them he was not taking any risk, ‘I know where I’m going’, we’re not going out. We stayed at a friend’s house where I had my party, we talked, drank, we had a good time. By talking with the others, it could be noticed that everyone had their own ideas and had lived it differently from the others. […] On his own victimization: S. answers in two parts. He does not consider himself a victim, it did not concern him, closely or from afar. But as a young French citizen, he does consider himself a victim: they were ‘targeted attacks against our culture’, we go out to bars, go to football games, concerts, it’s our way of life that was attacked, not me directly. 1 This quote is from the narrative of a young Parisian about his experience of the Paris attacks on November 13th, 2015. He was at home that night and no one in his inner circle was killed or injured in the attacks. However, he did express having been affected by them. His feelings reflect the Parisian motto: fluctuat nec mergitur (battered by waves but not sunk) which became a slogan after the November 2015 attacks. Most people could identify with this phrase after the horror of that night and the fact that they would not stop leading a normal social life even though the country could be under attack at any time, hence mobilizing Parisians’ resiliency. However, France’s victimization as a target of terrorism is not new. Calauzènes and Rapoport both identified the start of terrorism in France with the 18th century Reign of Terror.2 During the 19th century, terrorism against the State became terrorism by one political group, the anarchists. A century later, two new faces of terrorism emerged: terrorism aimed at publicizing a will to become an independent State – for instance for French Algeria in the 1950s and 1960s – and religious terrorism in the 1990s.3 Terrorism in France in the 21st century presents a mix of religious and political ideologies. In addition, France has been increasingly targeted since 2012, with a peak in 2015 and 2016, namely with the 7, 8, and 9 January 2015 (Charlie Hebdo and Hypercacher) attacks, the 13 November 2015 (Bataclan) attacks as well as the 14 July 2016 attacks in Nice (see chapter 1.1).4 They caused 17, 130 and 84 deaths respectively.5 As terrorism, faced by France and other states, has evolved over the years, so has the 1 See Annex I for the transcript and translation of the interview of S., 21-year-old man, student. He does not know anyone deceased or injured during the Paris attacks. 2 Jérôme Calauzènes (French history professor), Le terrorisme depuis 1945 (Groupe ISP, 2012), 1; David Rapoport (political theorist), Terrorism: Critical Concepts in Political Science (1st ed. Routledge, 2006) 47. 3 Ibid. 4 Sébastien Pietrasanta (French politician for the Socialist Party and ombudsman), Rapport fait au nom de la commission d’enquête relative aux moyens mis en œuvre par l’État pour lutter contre le terrorisme depuis le 7 janvier 2015, (5 July 2016), II 51. 5 Ibid, I 41, 61; Ministry of Homeland Security, Attentat du 14 juillet 2016 à Nice. 6 definition itself and it varies from one author to another. Thus, international, regional, and national laws, as well as scholars have their own definition for terrorism. This introduction will focus on four definitions in chapter 1.2: Schmid’s consensus academic definition,6 a UN definition,7 the European definition,8 and the French definition.9 Although these four definitions come from various sources, they have several criteria in common which will be used to provide a definition of terrorism for this paper. 1.1. History of terrorism in France According to Calauzènes and Rapoport, the word ‘terror’ was defined for the first time in a French dictionary in 1794 during the Reign of Terror era.10 However, the authors differ in the approach they use to tackle the history of terrorism. Calauzènes cites all the phases
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