ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION IN THE FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY ADMINISTRATION (FCTA), ABUJA
BY APEH PAULINA ELEOJO REG.NO. 14597001
I
BEING A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA, FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
WNI �.;; U J 4 __ o �ar �
JUNE, 2019 DECLARATION
I, Apeh Paulina Eleojo do solemnly declare that this thesis was written by me and that it is a record of my own research work. It has not been presented in any previous application fo r a higher degree. All references used in this study have been duly acknowledged.
Candidat 's Signature
ii CERTIFFl CATION "An Assessment of the Impact of Manpower Development and This Thesis titled: Utilization in the Federal Capital Territory Administration (FCTA), Abuja" carried out by APEH, Paulina Eleojo (Reg. No. 14597001) has been read, corrected and approved as meeting the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree in Public Administration in the Department of Public Administration, University of Abuja.
(.../...... _fC.(.
PROFESSOR JAMES OJOBO A.
(SUPERVISOR) DATE
DR. PHILLIP A. OY ADIRAN
.. (HEAD OF DEPARTMENT) DATE
PROFESSOR PETER MAIDOKI (DEAN,_{2_ FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCI·NCES) DATE
PROFESSOR PATRICfb. OYIASUYI DATE (EXTERNAL EXAMINER)
PROFESSOR C. D. CHUP DATE
(DEAN, POSTGRADUATE SCI-fOOL)
... DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to Almighty God who IS the g1ver of wisdom and knowledge and who is my strength and rock of refuge and to our Blessed Lady, the
Mother of our Lord Jesus Christ who is the seat of wisdom and my great intercessor.
I dedicate this work also to my loving and caring husband, Mr. Ayo Apeh who has always been supportive of me and who is always there fo r me. In short, he is one in a million.
I equally dedicate this work to the memory of my late sister Jacinta Ogwuche who laid my educational fo undation, She brought me up. May God grant her soul eternal rest. Amen
iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My profound appreciate goes to the Almighty God, the owner of the universe, who gave me the strength, wisdom, knowledge and good health needed to stati and complete the programme successfully. Father, take all the glory, all the honour and all the adoration forever and ever.
I sincerely thank my supervisor, Professor James Oj obo who despite his tight schedule found time to go through this work, made necessary corrections and offered useful suggestions. pray that the Almighty God bless and reward him I abundantly.
also express my appreciation to the Dean, Faculty of Management Sciences, I Prof. Peter Maidoki for his encouragement and support, the Head of Department
of Public Administration, Dr. Philip Oyadiran for his encouragement and all the
lecturers in the Department of Public Administration for their criticisms and
useful suggestions. In particular, thank; Prof. V.E. Ekhator, Prof Isaac Obasi, I Prof. U.G. Moti, Prof. Abdulhamid Ozohu-Suleiman, Dr. Philip Dahida, Dr.
Kasim Umar, Dr. Ahmed Tafida, Dr. Jeremiah Vambe who also doubles as
Ph.D/M.Sc Coordinator, Dr. Hassan Umar, Dr.Paul Chima, Dr. Adekeye Joseph
Adeshola, Dr. Okafor Joseph Ikechukwu and Mallam Usman Madugu.
I am also grateful to the staff and management of Federal Capital Territory
Administration for their audience and cooperation in filling the questiOnnaire and
v releasing some materials needed fo r the completion of this research. I especially
thank Mr Aj ayi Rotimi Babatunde, the Acting Deputy Director, Manpower
Planning and Development, Mr Chidi Ohaegbu, Isaiah lgbokwe of Manpower
Planning Unit and Dr (Mrs) Ahmadu Jumai of Information and Press Unit fo r
their cooperation.
My appreciation also goes to my brothers and sisters and my sisters-in-law,
Jacinta Ogwuche of blessed memory, Dr Adolphus Ogwuche, Virginia Ebute,
Emmanuel Ogwuche, Vincent Ogwuche , Clement Ogwuche, Cecilia Ogbolu,
Blessing Fidelis, Helen Apeh and the rest.
I appreciate my loving and caring husband and my children for their patience, understanding and endurance, bearing with me throughout the period of this for research work.
My dear Mother Mary, thank you for always interceding on my behalf.
.. --
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover page
Title page
Declaration 11
Certification 111
Dedication IV
Acknowledgement s v
Table of content VII
Abstract Xl
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1 . 2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study 8
1.4 Research Hypotheses 9
1.5 Significanceof the Study 9
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study 11
1.7 Operational Definitionof Terms 12
1.8 Organisation of the Study 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Conceptual Review 15
2.2 Types of Training 32
vii 2.3 Methods ofTraining 35
2.4 Importance of Training and Development in Organization 37
2.5 Aims and Objectives of Training and Development 42
2.6 Determination of Training and Development Needs 45
2.7 Evaluation ofTraining in Organization 48
2.8 Training and Worker's Performance in Organization 52
2.9 Problem of Training and Development in Organization 54
2.1 0 Prospects of Training and Development in Nigeria 59
2.11 Manpower Development and Utilization 61
2.1 2 Empirical Review 69
2.13 78 Theoretical framework
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design 90
3.2 Method of Data Collection 90
3.3 Population of the Study 91
3.4 Sample of the Population 95
3.5 Sampling Techniques 96
3.6 Administration of Questionnaire (Instrument) 97
3.7 Method of Data Analysis 97
viii CHAPTER FOUR: ORGANIZATIONAL SETTING OF FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY ADMINISTRATION (FCTA) 4.1 Historical Background of FCTA 99
4.2 Organizational Structure 103
4.3 Training and Development Policy 106
4.4 Depa11ment Training Activities 119
4.5 Training Divisions 121
4.6 Training Process 123
CHAPTER FIVE: OATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1 Data Presentation, Analysis 125
5.2 Test of Hypotheses 145
5.3 Discussion ofFindings 158
CHAPTER SIX : SUMMI..RY, CONCLUSION AND
R��OMMENDATIONS 6.1 Summary 163
6.2 Conclusion 165
6.3 Recommendations 166
References 168
Appendix 177
ix ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS
FCT A- Federal Capital TetTitmy Administration
MFCT- Ministty of the Federal Capital Territory
FCDA- Federal Capital Development Authority
D.T.O- Department Training Officers
GL - Grade Level
ASCON- Administrative Staff College of Nigeria
. ' ., . ' I Ct. I s.w · ·• -· l.·�·s·"r . �·�) .J 1 • �l .. .. 1 I ! ..J L ...i £ r . .• :: f ""' ' . � � ..: ".( .,_, '1' . , X I.J' ., - t;-."""!- . . •• ' . � . � iJW - '" ...... • .. l .._ . ·:...· ...... · � . .. : ...... ,...... ·-:::.. ABSTRACT
Th is study examines the nexus between manpower development and utilization in the Federal Capital Territory Administration (FCTA).Developing manpower is not an end in itself but a means to an end. It is on this note that the issue of manpower utilization becomes necessary. In light of this, the main objective of the study is to assess whether there is sign[ficant relationship between manpovver development and utilization in FCTA, to ascertain whether there is a conducive atmosphere fo r trained personnel to practise �vlwt they have acquire during training. To achieve the above objectives, the system approach was used as a theoretical underpinning fo r the study. Methodologically, survey research design is used fo r the purpose of data collection and analysis. The population of the study consist 24,900. Subsequently, sample size was selected through the use of multi stage 372 sampling. At the end of field survey, questionnaire were completed and 331 returned properly. The instntments used fo r hypotheses test is chi-square analysis. The findings of the study revealed that manpower development and utilization in FCTA is very encouraging. For instance, staff of the organization were 2,437 trained between However, lack of adequate equipment and fu nds has 2016-2018. hindered effective conduct of training programmes in the organization. Most staff who participated in training and development programmes were not given the right environment to utilize the knowledge acquired on-the-job. The study concludes that effective implementation of training policy can only be made possible when employees who attend training are optimally utilized by FCTA. It was therefo re recommended that trained personnel should be given the opportunity to practice what they have learned during training programme while adequate equipment and fu nding should be made available fo r regular conduct of training programmes.
y_
xi CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Manpower development and its corresponding utilization in the Nigerian
public service are important due to the growing complexity of the work
environment, the rapid changes in organizations and technological advancement.
The growth further necessitates the need fo r training and development of personnel
to meet current challenges. Manpower development helps to ensure that workers possess the knowledge and skills needed to perform their jobs effectively, take on
new responsibilities, and adapt to changing conditions. It is imperative to note that
manpower development and utilization constitute indispensable instruments fo r improving the quality of work performance, customer satisfaction, productivity, morale, management succession, business development and profitability.
The aim of manpower development is to equip employees with the requisite skills in order to cope with current challenges confronting the organization.
Organizations usually combine human and material resources in order to achieve their objectives. However, the availability of other resources without the development of human capital could be counterproductive. For instance; the
human resource act� as an active agent that tran..,form� other re'-'0urce" t0 meaningful results in order to achieve organizational goals and objectives. In this 1 regard, one of the indispensable tools fo r optimum utilization of human resource in any given organization is the effective implementation of training and development policy. This is so because an untrained staff is rather a liability than an asset to any organization. It is a common saying that a newly recruited employee needs on-the- job-training no matter the qualifications, exposure, experience and capability in other fields.
The development of human resources is an integral pati of any organization.
Therefore, any resource utilized fo r employee's capacity building is not an expense but an investment. However, fo r the Nigerian public service to effectively develop its workforce require effective training policy, conducive environment, identification of employee training needs, quality trainers and training programmes. Basically, Training policy represents the commitment of top management of a given organization to human resource development, it is expressed in the rules and procedures which govern or influence the standard and scope of training in the organization. It should be designed with the sole aim of attaining organizational performance.
It has also been observed that most organizations do not implement their training and development policies fo r their employees as provided in the training policy. Even when they do, participants of such programmes are not offered the opportunity to utilize the knowledge acquired while carrying the day-to-date
... -7::·��- 2 lft l '� , · ,J 1 �if.i) J �I�I �i · L jJI!L o.k Y ll NI �� !J � �� )lrE I. activities. This scenario has created a situation where most \vorkers are redundant.
Available information from the Federal Capital TetTitory Administration (FCT A)
indicated that most employees in the organization have suffered as a result of the
management's inability to consider manpower development and utilisation as
important (Nwanolue, 20 12).
In FCTA, most times, employees sent on trainings do not have any bearing
with their schedule of duties or training needs. This singular act has not in any way
encouraged optimum utilisation of employee potentials. FCTA has a training
Institute but it is yet to be fullyoperat ional. The non-functional training institution
for the organization has made it difficult fo r the employees to acquire relevant skills for the performance of their daily responsibilities.
Similarly, qualified personnel in a particular unit or department usually go for development programmes for fo ur ( 4) years in flagrant disregard to the approved two (2) years guidelines with an extension of one year. In light of this, some staff of the organization are not assigned to any task to be carried out while others do not even have personal office of their own.
Developing manpower is not an end in itself but a means to an end. It is on this note that the issue of manpower utilization becomes necessary. Basically, manpower utilization refers to the manner of usage of human resource in an organization. It is used to include how personnel are deployed to perform jobs that
3 are in tandem with training obtained. Utilization therefore is at the heart of any
development and training exercise and as such, both have implications fo r
productivity that depends generally on the relevance of human assets to needs and
their subsequent optimization through prudent utilization. Talking about Federal
Capital Territory Administration (FCTA), Abuja, her human resource utilization practices cannot improve outside the orbit of the prevailing system of human resource training and development characteristics. This is why it is important to note that human resource utilization policies and practices are usually based on certain human asset principles and as such, whether the over-riding issues will be that of optimum utilization or even none utilization as the case may be . In the light of the above, this study seeks to assess the nature of manpower development and utilization in FCT A.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The role of manpower development and utilization towards the enhancement of effective service delivery in any given organization cannot be over-emphasized.
However, it is either that an organization over-utilized or under-utilized its employees due to the inability to make accurate fo recast or projection of future staff requirement. Despite the available human capital, civil service in Nigeria has neither been properly managed nor the available human resources administered effectively and efficiently. Nwanolue {2U 12) opined that this ugly trend has fetched
4 the service a bad name over the years. In most cases, staff development is
neglected or overlooked entirely. This is usually due to the coiTuption m the service. Cases abound where funds ranging into millions and billions of naira, meant fo r staff development have been embezzled by individuals and groups in charge, without any serious actions taken to that effect. On the other hand, there have been situations where staff is never given the opportunity fo r years to undergo training at all. It is now a simple understanding that staff training in the public domain has become a matter of "face-looking" (Nwanolue, 20 12). Therefore, human resource practitioners are in dilemma on the best approach for ensuring optimum utilization of trained employees.
The challenges confronting human resource management in Nigeria is not lack of adequate personnel but absence of employees with requisite skills and knowledge who are ready to catTy out assigned responsibilities with zeal and commitment. Most public organizations in Nigeria, including FCTA hardly make optimum use of its workforce owing to a lot of loopholes in the system. For instance, employees who are assigned daily task are not fo rth coming while others may be completely absent without any genuine excuses. Similarly, the prevailing atmosphere in most public organizations in Nigeria including the FCTA are not conducive for employees to apply the knowledge acquired during training and development programmes due to lack of adequate facilities and equipment. This
5 has made it diffi cult fo r employees who went fo r training abroad to domesticate the
knowledge acquired in their respective organizations.
In the same vein, the selection of employees fo r training/development in the
Nigerian public service and FCTA pa11icular is not based on the training needs in of employees but political patronage has been the order of the day. This has made
it diffi cult fo r most organization to accommodate the training needs of their
employees. In most cases, employees are issued certificate of pm1icipation with
pay for training and development programmes which they never participated at all.
In the case of Federal Capital Territory Administration (FCTA), most times,
employees sent on trainings do not have any bearing with their schedule of duties.
This singular act has badly affected the optimum utilization of available manpower
in the organization. FCTA has a training centre but is yet to be fullyopera tional.
The nonfunctional training institution fo r the organization has made it difficult fo r
the employees of FCTA to acquire relevant skills fo r the performance of their daily
responsibilities.
Similarly, the untimely passage of budget also affects the regular conduct of training programmes in FCTA. Sometimes, money meant for training are
misappropriated or diverted fo r other use due to lack of transparency and accountability in financial management practice::.. Likewise, yualifieJ per::.onnd in
6 a particular unit or department usually go fo r development programme fo r fo ur 4) ( years in flagrant disregard to the approved two (2) years training guidelines with an extension of one year. In the same vein, secwing admission from unaccredited training institutions by some staff of the organization has lowered the standard of knowledge received from such exercise. Besides, some staff of the organization have no schedule of duties while others do not even have personal office of their own. In an effort to address the research problem, the fo llowing questions are considered fundamental to this study:
1. How adequate is the availability of personnel with suitable skills for
effective services delivery in FCTA?
11. To what extent is the present training and development policy in FCTA
good enough to accommodate the personnel needs of the organization?
111. To what extent is the prevailing atmosphere in FCT A conducive for
trained personnel to practise what they have learnt during training
programmes?
IV. How significant is the relationship between manpower development and
utilization in FCTA?
7 1.3 Aim and objectives of the study
The aim of this study is to assess the impact of manpower development and utilization in the Federal Capital TerritOty Administration (FCT A). However, the objectives are to:
1. investigate whether there is availability of personnel with suitable skills
for effective service delivety in FCTA
11. determine the extent to which the present training and development
arrangement in FCTA is good enough to accommodate the personnel
needs of the organization
ut. find out whether the prevailing atmosphere in FCTA is conducive for
trained personnel to practise what they have learnt during training
programmes
1v. examine whether there is significant relationship between manpower
development and utilization in FCTA
v. Proffer solution to the research problem of this study
8 1.4 Research Hypotheses
In order to achieve the objectives of this study, the fo llowing null hypotheses
were fo rmulated:
a. The availability of personnel with suitable skills fo r effective servtce
delivery in FCTA is significantly inadequate.
b. The present manpower training and development policy in FCTA is
significantly not good enough to accommodate the personnel needs of
the organization
c. The prevailing atmosphere in FCTA is significantly not conducive for
trained personnel to practice what they have learnt in training
programmes
d. There is no significant relationship between manpower development and
utilization in FCTA
1.5 Significance of the Study
The success or fa ilure of any organization (public or private) depends largely on the nature of human and material resources procured and utilized over a given period of time. However, the availability of other resources without the development of human capital could be counterproductive. This is so because human beings manage all other productive resources of the organization to attain its goals. Similarly, it is not enough to attract suitable employees to an organization
.·' ...... 9 , i...l II, -- ., : . .. I �:• , . 5 . ' a. • i : f I .I VIII · � ' "f
� l " f.i �N �. 'f :J •. - (1111·'' �N �·-···--. .·�� I- ··� · ··--=----- r r: ...... � •u._ !i .�� -=----- I but regular training must be conducted since new entrants hardly perform their jobs
satisfactorily without acquiring appropriate skills.
On the other hand, it is not enough to only encourage manpower development but it i more important to utilize the employees optimally. This is so because employees in any given organization may either be under-utilized or over utilized. In the light of this, managers both in public and private organizations are in dilemma on the best measures to be adopted towards the enhancement of employees' development and effective utilization. Thus, the findings of this study would be of immense benefit tothe fo llowing body of persons:
Foremost, policy makers and human resource department would be in the position to formulate and implement appropriate policies to enhance manpower development and the effective utilization in the organisation. Secondly, the Federal
Capital Territory Administration (FCTA) would be better equipped in ensuring effective implementation of manpower development polices with a view to enhancing optimum utilization of its employees. Thirdly, employees of Federal
Capital Territory Administration (FCTA) would be able to compete with their counterparts across the globe in terms of exposure, service delivery, skills, competency, and capability after going through the findings of the study. Lastly, researchers willing to conduct further studies in future would gain access to all necessary materials. It will also reveal further policy options on issues regarding
10 manpower development and utilization. While will serve as an addition to the it existing knowledge, it will also serve as a basis fo r fwther research.
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study is fo cused on the issue of manpower development and utilization
m Federal Capital TerTitory Administration (FCTA), from 2007 to 2017. This period fa lls within the administration of Aliyu Modibo, Adamu Aliero, BaJa
Abdulkadir Mohammed and Mohammed Bello who serve as Minister of FCT within the period under review.
The challenges to this study include the difficulty encountered in the process of sourcing information from FCTA. Foremost, the tight schedules of FCTA staff made it difficult to seek audience with most employees of the organization. The study equally encountered the challenge of obtaining all relevant secondary information due to lack of appropriate record keeping, periodic publication of activities in Human Resource Department of FCT A. However, the challenges highlighted above were surmounted through the use of personal persuasion and intimate rapport with some staff in the organization.
11 1.7 Operational Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the meaning of the fo llowing terms applies:
Human resource management: These are the processes involved in creating a conducive atmosphere for employee to perform assigned respon ibilities effectively with the sole aim of achieving organizational goals and objectives.
Such processes include; recruitment, induction, training and development, career development, compensation, integration, motivation and performance management.
Human resource development: This is the integration of individual, career and organization development roles in order to achieve maximum productivity in
FCTA.
Education: This is the process of acquiring knowledge by learners in schools and sometimes in an organizational setting. It is a systematic and continuous way of instructing individuals, so as to develop them physically, mentally and spiritually.
Education can be fo rmal or informal in nature.
Learning: This is a complex process of acquiring knowledge, understanding, skills and values in order to be able to adapt to the environment in which we live.
Organization: This is a social unit deliberately designed to attain specific goals and objectives. This term is used interchangeably with institution with which it is broadly synonymous.
12 Utilization: This involves the fo rmal engagement of employees In tasks
considered to be commensurate to their current positions and statues.
Manpower Development: This refers to the acquisition of skills and knowledge
by senior employees of FCTA for the purpose of occupying managerial positions
or carrying out assigned task in future.
Manpower Training: This refers to on-the-job knowledge and skills acquired by
junior employees in FCTA fo r the purpose of carrying out immediate task
effectively.
1.8 Organization of the Study
This study consists of six chapters. Chapter one which constitutes the
introductory aspect of the thesis fo cused on issues such as; the background to the
study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, scope and limitation,
definitionof term and organization ofthe study.
Chapter two focused on the review of related literatures and theoretical framework. Emphasis was laid on issues regarding manpower development and utilization in the Nigerian public service
Chapter three contained the research methodology. Chapter fo ur fo cused on
tt the organization se ing of fCTA. Issues such as the historical background, objectives, manpower development policy and utilization in FCTA were given due 13 consideration. Chapter fivefo cused on data presentation and analysis while chapter
SIX laid emphases on issues regarding; the conclusion, summary and
recommendations.
14 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This aspect of the study reviews the opinions and contributions of various scholars, authors and researchers who have made meaningful contributions to the subject matter of "manpower development and utilization". Therefore, attempt has been made to bridge the gaps discovered in similar studies conducted in the past.
Specifically, the literature gap is the inability of previous studies to establish whether there is correlation between manpower development and utilization in
FCTA. In the course of the research, some theoretical and empirical literatures were reviewed with a view to complimenting the efforts of other scholars. On the whole, issues such as: the conceptual clarifications and the nexus between manpower development and utilization were examined before adopting the system approach as a theoretical framework.
2.1 Conceptual Review
In line with academic tradition and in the conduct of a study of this nature, it is imperative to conceptualize some terms considered fundamental to the study in attempt to acquaint the reader with the subject matter of the study. Therefore, a critical analysis of the views of notable scholars on the following concepts is presented below:
15 a) Manpower Development
Manpower occupies an indispensable position in any establishment, be it an
industry, commercial or educational institution. This means that without manpower no establishment can fu nction. In essence, human effort is greatly desirable and crucial in achieving the goals and objectives of the organization. "Effective management" is used to mean the training of personnel to improve their application of knowledge, skill, behaviour or problem solving techniques which they acquire through previous education, training and experience (Conroy, 2000).
Hamlin (2004) examines different views and definitions of Manpower
Development and submits that it implies to any activity which deliberately attempts to improve a person's skill in a job. It also creates learning in the areas of knowledge, skill, experience and attitudes. This tends to suggest that the essence of manpower development goes beyond job skills but extends to personal development in terms of knowledge acquisition. In fa ct, it can be interpreted to mean a transformation of men. Furthermore, Conroy (2000) defined manpower development as a purposive effort intended to strengthen the library's capability to fu lfill its mission effectively and efficiently by encouraging and providing fo r the growth of its own human resources. He described manpower development as a factor that improves the competence of personnel through opportunities for
16 learning on the job. This implies that manpower development can be achieved
through training and education of staff.
However, the continual enrichment of staff with knowledge is fo r the mutual
benefit of the individual and the organization. McNamara 1999) views training as ( involving an expet1 working with learners to transfer to them ce11ain areas of knowledge or skills to improve job performance. However, manpower development is not a responsibility of just an individual; rather it is a combination of different factors. Biscoe (2002) sees manpower development as a two-way responsibility within the organization and individual. Sodipo (2005), investigated the effect of manpower development on productivity with the aim of determining the different factors that play impot1ant roles in any organizational set up for effective utilization of manpower resources available to it, its main fo cus is on different factors that play important roles in organizational set up. Such factors include; the styles of management, skill development, proper placement and position management.
Onasanya (2005) perceives manpower development as a fo rm of specialized education aimed at giving the trainee a particular or specialized knowledge, skill and attitude which he must possess to effectively perform in a given position.
Beard well and Helen (200 1) on their own part view manpower development as the process of becoming increasmgly complex, more elaborate and differentiated by
· 17 . � I 1 . . . '• $![�' ·u'"�:)J"I }j' � .. .. �. ' I. ' I t.�t ;:.. � ,c. �' . -� )' . I 'Y, , • : 'I •,· • I
()�� .. .q;-;� ---. . . ..f.,. I f,_ --...;;:::::::::_...- ... . � �· . ·--- 1 vitiue of learning and maturation. It is also seen as a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities (Osborne, 1996). Rouda
Kusy 1995) view manpower development as the 'acquisition of knowledge, & ( competencies and skills, and adopting behaviors that improve performance in curTent jobs, including: adult learning the01y and applications, instructional systems design, train-the-trainer programs, and instructional strategies and methods.
Gulvi (2011) explained that manpower development in an organization can be provided in two ways. An organization may decide to select the best outstanding performers or those within the can be trained and developed to firm bring out their full potentials. Once an individual is selected, he must undergo some training regardless of his qualification. To Gulvi (2011) therefore, the basic objectives of training and development for sustainable job performance are to alter the thinking and behavior of the employee, in the direction desired by the management. He noted that training that does not accomplished these goals may be worse than useless. It may actually damage the organization and that training programme must as a result be tailored to the needs of specific company fo r specificposition.
18 According to Dubin Manpower Development is a process of ( 1977) transmitting the securing information related problems solving. He fut1her maintain that manpower development implies a fo rmal commitment of time
between minutes or stx (6) months set aside to learn specific and directly applicable information to implore problem solving abilities. therefore, He separated manpower development into two major categories, traditional manpower development and human relation manpower development. While traditional is concerned with learning the oriental concept that can be applied to performing the mechanic of the job, human relation passes on skill dealing with the attitude and assumptions that people have about their jobs, about themselves and other people.
Samya ( 1999) noted that manpower development is to an organization what land and capital is to a builder; to manpower development demands fairness and equality, civil rights and labour laws, as well as minimum wage and pension regulations reflectinggovernment attempts to ensure fa ir treatment of employees.
As a result of the impm1ance of manpower development in an organization's overall existence, it informs the need fo r adequate manpower training, even before they are engaged and thereafter in the job. It usually suggests a board's view of knowledge and skills acquisition than training, it is less job oriented than career oriented.
19 Nwankwo 1988), summarized the problems associated with manpovver ( development as those related to the bureaucracy, the socioeconomic and technological environment of public administration in Nigeria. He also associated the problems with the institutional framework and management education. In spite of the emphasis on the need for manpower development, there is still poor awareness on the significance of manpower development among the political leadership and civil servants. This is reflected in the inability of the political leadership to either articulate the ideological component of the manpower development system in the country or to relate the government management training programmes closely to the development objectives of their various regimes. Consequently, public management development programmes in Nigeria have continued to experience the constraints of inadequate funding as well as comprehensive programming (Nwankwo, 1988).
Also, the middle level management cadres in the public sector have often perceived training or development programmes as an opportunity for going abroad on holiday or as a means of enhancing their prospects for organizational advancement. To Nwankwo ( 1988), rarely have public servants taken training seriously as a means of changing the behaviour of public organizations. This can be attributed to the inability of the parastatals to post administrators to jobs that are directly related to their training. Another problem of manpower development as
20 Onah (2003), noted is connected with the selection and release of _ taff fo r manpower development programmes.
The process of selecting trainees is affected by non-merit criteria such as political/ ethnic balancing and the geographical spread of training opportunities.
Thus, some officers selected may not cope with the demands of the administrative training course programmes. Writing on manpower development, Mutahba ( 1986) noted that there is the recognition that training and development in developed countries include all categories of public service from the most senior to the most junior but in developed countries; it has tended to be an exclusive concern of junior and middle level public service personnel. Senior and top executives have generally been left out especially in Africa (Hoyle, 1975).
Apart from this, Civil service training in African countries has a reputation for poor organization and management (Arrnicheal, 1986). In this direction, Hilgert and Towle ( 1978: 10) views human resource development as not only capable of reducing organizational or employees' conflict butalso of motivating staff in their work place. This is because "a well conceived training and development programme can contribute to a lessening or reconciliation of conflict. Thus a challenge and an opportunity are presented to every administrator/ manager to make each employee better able to serve the organization, while at the same time realizing greater satisfaction of individual needs and aspirations·· (Hilgert and
21 Towle, 1978: I 0). Thus, human resource development is also related to employee motivation as employees who know and understand their jobs and who feel that management values them enough to prepare them for future assignment are more likely to demonstrate higher morale and greater interest in the job.
Uchenna 1982) argues that the manpower challenges for Nigeria is not in ( finding the people; it is rather in findingthe people with the right types of skill at the right time and in the right places. He argues that specialized talents are fo und in wrong kinds of activity and highly capable people in fields, which offer little incentive or challenge. This situation according to him creates constraints, which sap labour morale, erode productivity and lead to low turnover. Thus, the issue of manpower and its utilization becomes uppermost in any effort to improve efficiency in service delivery and performance. Okoli (20 11) in his own perspective said that the discontentment of staff also poses a challenge.
Discontentment he says emanates from such issues as inadequate promotion and career enhancement opportunities as well as the dominant use of mediocrity in staff elevation. These factors lead to lack of commitment to duty on the part of civil service personnel and this lowers productivity and militates against effective human resources utilization (Okoli, 20 After all, it is only a contented staff I I). who will put in his/her best in discharging his/her duty .
. - - . ·: . '"f' i lfJJ s :1 I .. · . . lot • ' • . .. ;.. )hi.Jt"X 22 1 "', , . I, ' I ·\ ,4 ( (((.· , � : •• • ...4 " � rt ...... '{ y {1 " : ' • f! I , . • I ·I ltl · .... , • · ··-· �::·�·-·-- li\(f - :::::::---. b) Training Versus Development
Training and development are often used to close the gap between cutTent
performances and expected future performance. For the purpose of this study,
training refers to the acquisition of ski lis for the performance of current activities
while development fo cuses on equipping employees with requisite skills and
knowledge fo r the purpose of occupying managerial cadre or performing future
task. Training and development fa lls under human resource development fu nction
which has been argued to be an important function of HRM (Weil Woodall & 2005). Amongst the activities of this function is the identificationof the needs for
training and development and selecting methods and programmes suitable for these
needs, plan how to implement them and finally evaluating their outcome /results
(McCourt Eldridge 2003 ). & Zahradeen ( 1980) opines that training is the means and process of impacting specific skills, which equip individuals to perform specific jobs. It isa supplement to education. Reilly ( 1979) defines training as "the development of a person's knowledge, skills and attitudes for a vocational purpose". In his view, training is geared towards the acquisition of specific skills. Development on the other hand, is viewed by him as "a systematic development of the individual's career so that his interest and abilities are related to each other with the intention of realizing his
23 fu ll potentials" (Reilly, 1979). For him, development is wider than training which is geared specifically towards the acquisition of vocational skills.
Beach ( 1972) agrees with Reilly in his definitionof training as an organized procedure by which people gain knowledge and/or skill fo r a definite purpose.
Craig ( 1977: 15) provides a more detailed basis for differences between training and development by arguing that "development, unlike training is concerned with the growth of the whole man; the expansion of his knowledge and experience to the solution or resolution of new difficult situations". Coleman ( 1980) in consonance with Reilly and Craig believe that training is directed towards the acquisition of skills. He writes that it is "the activities that are undertaken in an organization to help individuals acquire the skills they need to master their jobs.
Believing strongly, that there is a difference between training and development, Sikula (1972:22) opines that "training is a short term educational process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge fo r general purpose". Hacket
( 1979: ll) is more specific in his definition of the term training and development.
To him training is "preparation for a particular job. It is concerned with job performance and the application of knowledge and skills to present works; and development is a course of action designed to enable the individual to realize his
24 potential fo r growth in the organization. It relates to future rather than present
job".
Mills 1969) defines training more broadly by stating that training helps (
people to acquire skills, attitudes, habits of thought, qualities of character that
enable them understand their job and perform efficiently, and with satisfaction. He
believes that training improves his reasoning and behaviour is improved. This is
based on his belief that training incorporates development, thereby canceling any
difference between them. Guest ( 1987) argues that policies are necessary to ensure
that employee performance is evaluated, which in tum ensures that the appropriate
training and development take place. With the help of the performance appraisal
reports and findings, the organization can be able to identify development needs.
However, individuals themselves can help to indicate the areas requiring
improvement as a result of the issues raised in the performance appraisal process
and their career path needs.
Gordon ( 1992) defines training as the planned and systematic modification
of behaviour through learning events, activities and programs which result in the
participants achieving the levels of knowledge, skills, competencies and abilities to
carry out their work effectively. It is worth nothing that, as researchers continue with their quest into the training research area, they also continue their arguments into its importance. Some of these researchers argue that the recognition of the
25 impottance of training 111 recent years has been heavily influenced by the
intensification of competition and the relative success of organizations where
investment in employee development is considerably emphasized (Beardwell et al.
2004 ). Related to the above, Beard well, Holden and Claydon (2004) add that
technological developments and organizational change have gradually led some
employers to the realization that success relies on the skills and abilities of their
employees, thus a need fo r considerable and continuous investment in training and
development.
The main purpose of training is to acquire and improve knowledge, skills
and attitudes towards work related tasks. It is one of the most important potential
motivators which can lead to both short-term and long-term benefitsfor individuals
and organizations. There are so many benefits associated with training. Cole
(200 1) enumerates them as:
1) High morale - employees who receive training have increased confidence and motivations;
2) Lower cost of production - training eliminates risks because trained personnel are able to make better and economtc use of material and equipment thereby reducing and avoiding waste;
3) Lower turnover - training brings a sense of security at the workplace which in
turn reduces labor turnoverand absenteeism ts avoided;
26 4) Change management - training helps to manage change by increasing the
understanding and involvement of employees m the change process and also provides the skills and abilities needed to adjust to new situations;
5) Provide recognition, enhanced responsibility and the possibility of increased pay and promotion;
6) Help to improve the availability and quality of staff.
According to Wognum (200 training and development needs may occur at I), three organizational levels namely; ( 1) strategic level where needs are determined by top management while considering organizations goals, mission, strategy and problems, which need to be resolved or fixed (2) tactical level where needs are determined with middle management while considering developments needs to the coordination and cooperation between organization units and (3) operational level where needs are detem1ined with lower executive management and other employees while considering problems related to operations such as performance problems of individual workers and departments. In order to enable an organization formulate human resource training and development goals that enable both formal and informal human resource training and development methods and programmes to create a workforce that enables effectiveness and competitiveness, it is worth giving consideration to providing proper coordination as well as proper incorporation of the needs within the three levels
27 The first issue is to identify the needs relevant to the organizations
objectives. According to Wognum (200 l) and Torrington. et a/. (2005), there are
three categories of identifying training and development needs. These include:
resolving problems, workers' performance, improving ce11ain working practices,
this fo cuses on improvement regardless of the performance problems and changing
or renewing the organization situation, which may arise because of innovations or
changes in strategy. It is worth putting noting that during the identification of
training needs, there is need to create, develop, maintain and improve any systems
relevant in contributing to the availability of people with the required skills.
Moreover, training programmes should be designed to carter for the different
needs. Further still, the training programme, content and the trainees' chosen
depend on the objectives of the training programme (Milkovic Bordereau 2003). & A number of approaches fo r identifying needs have been highlighted by
Edmond Noon (200 l) and Torrington et a!. (2005). These are the problem & centred (performance gap) and profile comparison (changes and skills) approaches.
Similarly, a number of approaches fo r analyzing training needs depending or either
new or current employees have been pointed out by Torrington et al. (2005). The
two most traditional approaches being the problem centered approach and the
profile comparison approach. The problem centred approach focuses on any performance difficulties and the corporation analyses if the problems are due to
28 insufficient skills, which then need to be developed if the problem is to be solved.
Profile comparison approach on the other hand fo cuses on matching the
competencies with the job filled, whether new position or existing position. Some
changes in strategy and technology may also bring the need fo r new or additional
skills.
c) Manpower Utilization
Manpower utilization refers to the manner of usage of manpower in an
organization. It is used to include how personnel are deployed to perform jobs that
are in tandem with training obtained. Utilization therefore is at the heart of any
development and training exercise and as such, both have implications for
productivity that depends generally on the relevance of human assets to needs and
their subsequent optimization through prudent utilization. Talking about Nigeria,
her human resource utilization practices cannot improve outside the orbit of the
prevailing system of human resource training and development characteristics.
This is why it is important to note that human resource utilization policies and practices are usually based on certain human asset principles and as such, whether the over-riding problem will be that of optimum utilization or even none utilization as the case may be depends on their relevance to national needs.
Ezeani and Onah (2002) posits that manpower utilization relates to the maximum use of competent statt: their deployment to strategic places, and the
29 creation of the enabling environment fo r the practice of acquired skills. Therefore,
the attainment of organizational goals is a factor that depends wholly on manpower
utilization. This explains why Harbison ( 1973) posits that the appropriate
utilization of manpower is essential fa ctor that can be inducing economic
development. In the words of Harbison ( 1973 ), deployment or utilization of human
resource in position where they have been properly trained encourages efficiency
and improved productivity (Mbat, 1992).
Deepening further the meaning of manpower utilization, Udo-Aka (1992)
sees it as a sequence in the relationship between the development and utilization of
organization's manpower, which emphasizes their relevance to the manpower
requirement and their actual deployment in their appropriate mix to meet national
needs. Therefore, the relevance of any manpower development effort is dictated by
the utilization strategies since we know that it is one thing to develop and another
bigger issue is to sustain the gains of such development efforts by deploying
accordingly such manpower in a manner that they can be properly utilized in
positions where they can bring their new found knowledge to bear on assigned duties. Egungwu (1992) argues that the issue of utilization should be seen from the point of view of systemized job assignment during working life, which in its bid, is a process of ensuring an improvement in the performance ability on the job.
30 Justifying the need for proper utilization of manpower 111 organizations,
Egungwu ( 1992:23) further notes:
Sy stemized manpower utilization schemes requires the placement of only employees in the right job, at righ t time and places irrespective of their origins: and adequate(v motivating them through app ropriate management techniques to make them productive. It ensures that every employees · talent are used to the fu llest benefits of the enterprise and of the employees by taking these steps. there is the avoidance of the talented employees ' display of disenchanted and disruptive work attitudes, which never augurs well fo r any enterprise.
Ezeh (20 13), points out that whenever employees are not well utilized by
placing them in the appropriate positions in line with their training , the fo llowings
are bound to occur;-
1. It can lead to discouragement
2. Leads to reduction in abilities
3. It may result in huge financial losses to the organization
4. Loss of confidenceon the part of the employees.
Nevertheless, the overall implication of the various opinions on the concept buttresses the fact that the bulk of organizational success does not just rely on development of manpower alone but ensuring an effective, efficient and judicious usage of the trained or developed manpower. This is done through transparent placement of the staff in order to achieve the optimum organizational goal.
31 2.2 Types of Training
Staff training and development is a continuous process in the working life of
employees. It is necessary for all categories of employees to undertake one fo rm
of training or the other. This is particularly important because employees are not
fixed on one grade or post fo r ever. They are expected to move to jobs with
different higher responsibilities, which require varying attitudes and decision
making techniques. In addition, even on a particular job, training is virtually
important fo r the improvement of the performance of the job holder. In any case,
both the present and future jobs may demand the acquisition of new techniques,
which will necessitate that the employee should be trained in a particular technique
or skill to keep him abreast with developments in the organization. The various
types of training employees receive include the fo llowing:
(a) Induction Training or Orientation
This training is specially designed fo r newly employed employees with the
aim of acquainting them with their organization, their place in it and the part they
are expected to play in it. Orientation is usually the first kind of training
employees receive. Under the programme, the employees are introduced to a new
or changed working environment in f0 1m of information upon procedures
(Torrington and Chappman 1983). This type of training provides the personnel background knowledge of the organization, its structure, policies, operations, rules
32 and regulations. The purpose of induction training is to introduce the newly
engaged employee to his environment (Nills and Standiny Ford, 1981 ). He fu rther
emphasizes that induction course should therefore be given to every new employee
no matter what his previous experience or training is.
(b) On-the-Job-Training
This type of training is also known as job training or job instruction. It is the
most widely used fo rm of staff training. This type is one where the employee is
shown, how to perform the job and allowed to do it under supervision. It is the
commonest type of training and involves the employees being told what to do, how
to do, how to do it and asked to perform the job, (Stone 1982). The steps are repeated where an error is made until the employee learnsthe correct behaviour.
(c) In-Service Training
In service training is the type of training given to an employee on his/her area of specialization. The trainee learns and improves on specific job area. It is under true working condition, with little or transfer of knowledge and the employee earns as he learns. It is an organization sponsored type of training
(Chappman 1983).
33 (d) Off-the Job Training
Training is not limited to on the job situation alone. Management trainees
usually receive a combination of classroom and on the job training. This is the
type of training which takes place outside the job environment. Most training
programmes include a significant element of "off-the-job training in classroom
situation. The training methods include lectures, demonstrations, discussions,
seminars etc.
(e) Apprenticeship Training
This type of training dates back to biblical times and is frequently used to
train personnel in skilled trades. The training fo llows a long period of learning
under the supervision of a craftsman skilled in the occupation. The most common
form of apprenticeship are miisans, carpenters, mechanics, electricians, masons,
tailors, etc.
(f)Vestibule Training
This is another type of training where a special place separate from the
normal work area is established for training with procedures and equipment similar
to those used in actual job situation (Bayers and Rue; 1984). The employee is
taught how to perform the job by a skilled person and is able to learn the job at his or her own rate.
34 (g) Decision Making/Problem Solving Training
This is a particular management type of training meant to impart decision
making and problem solving skills. It generally attempts to structure situations in
which the employee or trainee can improve his skills. It includes, case study, job
rotation, business games etc.
2.3 Methods of Training
Training methods refers to the techniques used in imparting knowledge
skills, values and attitudes to the trainee. There are different methods of training
and "it is futile to advocate any method as universally effective all have advantages
and disadvantages depending upon the people, the materials and the situation
which are applied". It is argued that, in training, the general approach involves a
combination of techniques (Chappman 1983). The fo llowing are among the
various training methods that may be applied:
(i) Job Instruction
This method of training involves an instructor or trainer with the
qualification, communication and social skills necessary fo r effective teaching and
guidance of the trainee. It is generally applied to semiskilled jobs or operator training and comprises a carefully designed programme.
35 (ii) Lecture Method
This is a training technique where the trainer verbally presents information
to a group which may range from small to very large size. It may involve the use
of visual aids such as blackboard or slides in conjunction with the lecture.
(iii) Programme Instruction
According to Stone ( 1982) "programme instruction (PI) presents information
in small blocs, either in book form or through teaching machine". After reading
each block of material, the learneror trainee must answer questions about it. In the
method, a feedback in form of correct answers provides in detail and in motion.
(iv) Films and Television:
As method of training, films are recorded on audio visual presentations of
materials to be learned. They can be shown on either movie screen or television
sets and is well suited to any kind of training. Films can be used repeatedly and in
different places to show objects and processes in detail and in motion.
( v) Case Study Method
This is the training technique in which the trainee analyses real or hypothetical situations and suggests not only what to do but also how to do it. It is one of the oldest methods of imparting knowledge on decision making and
36 problem solving skills. The object of this technique is to teach the trainee how to
analyse information, generate decision alternatives and evaluate them.
(vi) In-Basket Technique
This method of training involves simulation. The trainee is suddenly made to
play the role or take position of a manager. There and then, he/she receives
background information; receive letter, memos and phone calls and organizes the
information, take decisions and prepare responses to the calls, letters and memos to
handle the problems that present themselves.
(vii) Business Games
This is a training technique which requires the employee to make sequential
decisions. The most famous of this technique is the parker brother's monopoly.
(viii) Other Methods of Training such as conference, seminars, discussion, role
taking role-play, behaviour model, etc are used to teach inter-personal skills and
attitude change.
2.4 Importance of Training and Development in Organizations
The importance of human resource development and industrial training IS
self evident to most organizations. In fact, fo llowing the process of matching the needs of the organization with the needs of the employees through the employment
37 process, the next stage should be that of training and developing the employees' capacity to perform. In this regard, Flippo 1980: 17) is of the view that, "after the ( employee has been recruited, selected and inducted, he or she must be developed to better fit the job and the organisation. No one is a perfect tit at the time of hiring, and some training and education must take place. No organization has a choice of whether to develop employees or not, the choice is that of method".
Many organizations as a result have come to realize the importance of training and development so much so that some large corporations now operate training and educational facilities that are equal and in some cases, even superior to many small colleges and some departments of universities. In Nigeria such training facilities as the Petroleum Training Institute (PTI), the training schools of the various banks, the NEPA Training schools etc are good testimonies to the importance that is accorded to human resource training and development by such organizations.
Pigors and Myers ( 1981) have asserted that no organization can choose whether or not to train employees. All new employees regardless of their previous training, education and experience need to be shown how to perform specifictasks.
The impotiance ofhuman resource development and training has been highlighted by Singer and Ramsden ( 1978:45) who feel that training and development are
38 necessary fo r any organization to achieve efficiency. They put it this way: "the efficiencyof any organization depends directly on how well its staff are trained".
Mills ( 1969) points out that technology is dynamic bringing with it new processes, new materials and new machines. Mindful of this, he regards training as inevitable to an industry and not as a luxury to an industry, therefore he stated that training is not an expensive luxury but a reward fo r more able employees. It is, in this technological age that it is essential fo r the proper development of industry at all levels, and is an indispensable factor in the economics of industry.
Other experts like Sibson, Croft and Ordione have generally agreed that training and human resources development are necessary in organizations and that they serve as a means to an end. Sibson (1976) Croft (1979) and Ordione (1970) contend that human resource development is necessary as a strategy for productivity maintenance and as a tactic fo r productivity enhancement.
Schuster ( 1985) agreed with this view and added that training is given to benefit both the employee and the employer. These benefits, Halsey (I949) further noted, accrue to both the employee and management without taking away any thing from each other. Thus Feams (1980) and Beach (1975) have listed the fo llowing as the joint tangible benefits of training and development.
------� n!'�� '· . I � --- �:; � r-t. 1 1 �� ; l;"ISIU . , s.:.w _, . · , 39 ll �I. t � !.' ·. . " .t\ y , : ' . .. 1 · u � ' � � _ . . . s•• ...... i, _ r F. ....J 1. Increased productivity and output
11. Improvement in the quality of output
lll. Greater flexibility of skills of the employees
tv. Greater job-satisfaction
v. Reduced labour turnover
Vl. Improved employee morale
vii. Improved, promotion prospects for employees
vu1. Improved safety awareness.
While the above is true, other writers particularly those in administration and
development have opined that training and development lead to national
development, Smith, (1970) World Bank Report (1964) and United Nations Report
(1982) are all in agreement that training is the single most important variable in the
development equation, in that the wealth of a nation is created by the human
elements, their skills, knowledge and attitude within the system. To this end
Levenstein ( 1962) stated that the social and economic development of a nation
becomes possible when the percentage of the unskilled (untrained) grows smaller
in the total workforces and when the percentage of the skilled (trained manpower
increa ses).
Training is also an important tool for bridging the gap between the worker and the managements. It does this by marrying the interest of the two. On the one
40 hand, the average younger worker wants an opportunity fo r growth or
advancement while the old worker wants security, both categories of workers
wants to feel that their contributions are appreciated and useful and which they
expect rewards in the fo rm of incentives. On the other hand, management wants
increased productivity at lower costs. Employees who can easily understand and appreciate the limitations and problems of management are also wanted. Most of these lofty organizational goals can be achieved by an intelligently planned and skillfully executed staff training and development programmes. As Labbo (1986) put it, staff training "is a process of aligning workers to their working environment to make them realize their fullpotentials to the advantage of the individual and the organization. Training and motivation are principal actors in this regard.
The importance of human resource development and training can also be seen in the reports of the various commissions of inquiry set up by government.
The Udoji commission of (1974 and 1988 Civil Service Reforms of Nigeria are all unanimous in stressing the importance of staff training and development. In fact the 1974 Udoj i commission Report advocated a result oriented public service and to achieve this it recommended the training of all categories of public servants.
The 1988 civil service reforms recommended that the civil service be professionalized, while civil servants are to acquire the necessary expertise and experience through relevant specialized training.
41 According to Kelly and Donnelly ( 1976:67) "the importance of manpower training and development could be seen when one examines the benefits the organization derives from such a programme. Training and development not only help employees to improve their work performance but also enable the standard and quality of work required by the organization to be achieved and maintained.
Also labour turnover, absenteeism, industrial accidents and grievance rates if caused by ineffective learning and inadequate training, are most I ikely to be reduced when staff are trained and developed.
It is evident from the above that training and development are not ends in themselves, but necessary activities (means) that must be done to maintain and enhance productivity in an organization and at the same time bring about national development. Thus McGhee (1977) summed it up cogently that in understanding the nature of training and development, the first step is to relate it to organizational goals.
2.5 Aims and Objectives of Training and Development
The central aim of any training programme is to increase the effectiveness of the sponsoring organization. Halsey ( 1949) writing on the definition and scope of training, said that before an activity can be regarded as training, it must be dc::,igncd tu increa::,e the effedivcne::,s and efficiency wiLh which lhe fu ndiun::, uf
42 an organization are carried out through motivating and increasing the productive
capacity or the personnel of that organization. This means, that training must be a
purposive undertaking aimed at ensuring that the end result is worthwhile and
effective.
Some of the notable management problems which can be solved by systematic and planned training programmes are:
(1) Difficultyin getting experienced and skilled workers
(2) Low productivity owing to low morale
(3) Inability to meet prescribed quality standards
( 4) Customer/clientele complaints of poor services and losses as a result or
misuse of equipment (Onivehu 1985). These problems can be solved by first
endeavouring to arouse the interest of the employee in his job and secondly
by helping him acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to do that job
well. Both of these solutions are within the scope of a well organized and
effective staff training and development programme. The United Nations
( 1966), to this effect, has outlined six general purposes of training in the
public service which can be summarized as fo llows:
43 (i) Efficiency
(ii) Economy in learning
(iii) Elimination of fa ults
(iv) Morale building
(v) Career Development; and
(vi) Improvement of administration
Nwachukwu ( 1999) opined that the main objectives of training and development
include:
(a) Increased productivity
(b) Lower turnoverrate
(c) Higher morale
(d) Better coordination
(e) Motivation
Nmadu ( 1999) says that the major values of training are:
(i) [ncreased productivity
(ii) Heightened morale
(iii) Reduced supervision
(iv) Reduced accidents
44 (v) Increased organizational stability and flexibility
Cumming ( 1980) on his pati believe that the purpose of training is to give
employees at all level; sufficient instruction and guidance, to enable them perform
their job effectively and prepare themselves fo r promotion.
On the whole training and development reduce cost as they mcrease productivity, reduce employee turnover and promote goal congruency. Lack of training increases absenteeism rate, low output, poor quality and results in high unit cost.
2.6 Determination of Training and Development Needs
The most important factor on which the entire staff-training programme of an organization should be anchored is through determining the training needs of the employees. Cascio (1978) suggests fi ve methods of identifying these needs;
(a) Surveys and job analysis
(b) Critical incidents - a concrete piece of job behaviour that is considered
critical fo r either effective or ineffective performance.
(c) Learning agenda, which combines behaviourally based performance agenda
with individual learning agenda derived from self analysis,
(d) Manpower inventories
(e) OrganiLalional anal �i� y
45 Stoner ( equally outlines the fo llowing as the process fo r determining 1978) training needs;
( i) Performance appraisal
(ii) Analysis ofjob requirements;
(iii) Organizational analysis, that is by analyzing the effectiveness of the
organization and its success in meeting its goals so as to determine where
deficienciesexist, and
(iv) Personnel survey by which managers and workers are asked to describe
what problems they are experiencing in their work and what actions they
believe need to be taken to solve them.
Nmadu (1999) identified three ways of assessing training needs. These are:
(a) Organizational Analysis: Generally, training needs must be analyzed
against the backdrop of organizational objectives and strategies.
Analysis of the organization's external environment and internal climate
1s necessary. Trends in union activity, government intervention,
productivity, accidents, illness, turnover and absenteeism and on the job
employee behaviour all provide relevant info1111ation.
(b) Operational Analysis: This requires a careful analysis of the job to be
done after training. It involves:
(i) systematic collection of information on exactly how jobs are done;
46 (ii) standards of performance;
(iii) consists of standards necessaty fo r effective tasks performance;
(iv) combined job analysis, performance appraisals interviews and analysis of
operating problems all provide important inputs in analysis needs are the
diffe rence between desired performance and actual performance.
Nwachukwu ( 1999) argues that before any training programme is undertaken the need fo r training has to be identified. Therefore, training (according to him) increases with new technologies, new products, variety of new customers and other factors such as competitive strategy of competitors.
Gilbert ( 1967) in "Praxeonomy: A systematic Approach to identify Training
Needs" says that the best common sense approach to identify areas of training is to use the formula.
D = M-I
Where
D = Inefficiencyin the employee
M = Complete list of behaviours necessary for mastery of the job
I = For all the knowledge of behaviour necessary fo r the job
which the employee already possesses.
By identifying training needs before embarking on training is therefore very important because it is necessary to ensure that only required training is received
47 by workers thereby avoiding a situation whereby people get trained in skills that are totally irrelevant to their jobs, or for the wrong reasons.
2.7 Evaluation of Training in Organization
Most scholars in the field of training are of the vtew that training programmes should be evaluated. The reason fo r these is to enable them to determine whether or not the objectives have been achieved and how the programme can be improved. This is by comparing desired result with actual performance. At the same time, many analysis of organization education take the position that evaluation of training efforts has been very irregular and weak.
Newstrom ( l995) puts forward three stages of evaluation which are:
(i) Inputs (expense) that cost of training to be assessed in comparison
with other programmes or against budget figures.
(ii) Throughout - (Process of assessing the number of trainee's in a
given time period)
(iii) Output - response of trainee of programme and acquisition of
knowledge. This should include discussing with the trainee which
problems they faced in trying to implement new ideas on the job.
48 He states that output can be evaluated more effectively when assessed using one of the fo ur criteria, which is the same as Green law 1979) fo ur levels of ( evaluation discussed below:
Greenlaw 1979) states that evaluation of training effo rts may occur at fo ur ( levels. The attempts at measuring;
(i) Trainees reaction to the training
(ii) What they actually learned
(iii) How, if at all the learningaff ected their performance and
(iv) Whether the changed behaviour level is beneficial to the organization
with regards to attainment of its objective.
In addition, to be able to carryout evaluation at one or more of these four levels, evaluation should include discussing with trainees what they faced in trying to implement new ideas on the job. Another aspect of evaluation is to find out if training has moved from the intellectual to practical level, this involves proper placement and it's a sure way of making training meaningful. Therefore, if training programme must be worthwhile, trainee must feel free to apply what has been learntto the job to a certain extent. To be able to do this, the environment must be conducive to changes in behaviour, fo r if an employee learns what is contrary to the behavioural pattern of immediate or higher supervisors, the work environment will not tolerate the expression of what has been learnt. Evaluation,
49 which properly conducted, highlights such whereby the organization has been
ensure that training and development should be perceived as leading to the
achievement of need satisfying goals as well as to the accordance of ego-damaging
events, (French 1987;34).
Pigor and Meyers ( 1981) linked evaluation to training in determining the
selection of employees to be trained. That a systematic performance appraisal is
useful fo r checking, placement and training procedures. They agreed that informal
appraisal take place but for formal appraisal when planned and developed, should
be encouraged for it reduce the element of favouritism especially when based on
pooled judgment and is carried out at intervals. A progressive review of all these
assist in planning and determining of relevant type of training and retraining to be
carried out. Also, they view induction and training as significant procedures in
establishing an effective work team that will attain a high level of productivity,
competence with proper evaluation.
Flippo (1976) argues that though training is desirable in theory in a business
organization, its worth must be proved by evidence, hence training arguments
should shift from logic to factual evidence, therefore it becomes necessary to have a relatively good picture of the situation before and after training. For him, the basic measure of worth is that of productivity which primarily is production rate covering quantity and quality which are good indicators of the value due to
50 training. But he warned that observation should be used as a means of training evaluation and in cases where on - the job training is done, the supervisor's self analysis and appraisal can be quite accurate and objective, therefore useful as an evaluation method.
Strauses and Sayles ( 1972) discussion on the evaluation of training are similar to Flippo's in some aspects such as the difficulty of evaluating any fo rm of training especially when proven evidences has to be given. They also discussed the desirability of before and after evaluation. They noted that organizations are spending huge sum fo r training but a penny for training evaluation, therefore making training less effective.
At a point, one can say it is not enough for organization to go through the process of evaluating training. But that when evaluation is carried out, it should be taken seriously be looked into with a view to remedying the pitfalls and where necessary the indicators from evaluation should be put into place if the worth is to be felt.
It is evident from the above that vanous writers has been on the determinants, types, method and impact of training in organizations hence the need for evaluation. An important issue raised by some scholars is the growing relevance of training in organiL.alion::,. The most important reason put forwarJ i::,
51 the growing advancement of technology which makes training and retraining a
necessity, if employees are to master the equipment and new techniques needed to
accomplish their work effectively. Therefore, effective training in an organization
is a vital aspect of organizational success.
2.8 Training and workers' Performance in Organization
Productivity relates to output per unit of input, fo r instance, output per labour hour.
It is measured in terms of effectiveness and efficiency of an effort. The sources of productivity gains include (Schiller, 2002):
1) Higher skills- an increase in labor skills
2) More capital - an increase in the ratio of capital to labor
3) Improved management - better use of available resources in the production process
4) Technological advancement - the development and use of better capital equipment
The quality of employees and their development through training are major factors in determining long-term profitability and optimum performance of organizations.
To hire and keep quality employees, it is good a policy to invest in the development of their skills, knowledge and abilities so that individual and ultimately organizational productivity can increase. Traditionally, training is given to new employees only. This should not always be the case since on-going training
52 fo r existing employees helps them adjust rapidly to changing job requirements.
Organizations that are committed to quality invest in training and development of
its employees (Evans and Lindsay 1999). According to Evans and Lindsay (1999),
Xerox Business Products and Systems invest over $125 million in quality training.
Motorola Texas Instruments provide at least 40 hours of training to every & employee qua11erly. Training and development have become an essential
responsibility of human resource management departments in organizations
particularly as employees require new skills, knowledge and abilities, which
should not be cost-justified as most public sector organizations engage in.
Neo et a!. (2000) bemoaned the lack of training and development by employers in
the United States when they stated that statistics suggests that only 16% of United
States employees have never received any training from their employers. Now
organizations are beginning to realize the important role that training and
development play m enhancing performance and increasing productivity, and
ultimately stay in competition. They reiterated that as a result of this realization,
General Electric, Texas Instruments and Federal Express have all made substantial
investments in training. They now invest between 3% and 5% of their payroll in training.
In a study in America on the impact of human capital investments such as employer-provided training and development, Black and Lynch ( 1996) citing
53 Bishop ( 1994) indicated that employer-provided training and development raises
subjective productivity and performance measure by almost 16%. Again Black and
Lynch (1996) citing Bartel (1989) stated that returns on training and development
investments increase productivity by 16%.
2.9 Problems of Training and Development in Organization
The training problems are numerous, depending on how they are planned and
carried out. French ( 1978) identified four major problems in training and
development as:-
(i) How training needs can be identified and distinguished from organizational
needs that can be satisfied in other ways.
(ii) How people can be motivated to increase their capabilities?
(iii) What are the relative utilities of various training methods and devices?
(iv) The extent to which the objective of training have been achieved.
Other scholars such as Plett and Lester ( 1991 :48-49) include planning as another
major problem of training. They postulate that fo r the success of any training, planning must be properly put in place. This involves deciding on who to go on training, the type of training, duration of training and informing the employees who are to go fo r the training and when. This serves as preparing the employees
54 fo r training. They should also be informed of the financial commitment from the
organization and when they will receive them. All these lay a good fo undation fo r
training and with this, half o