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Scientific Classification

→ Scientific Bony Fishes Classification Scientific Classification

Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior Class - Osteichthyes Diet & Eating Habits

Reproduction 1. Class Osteichthyes includes all bony fishes. Like all fishes, Osteichthyes are cold-blooded vertebrates that breathe through gills and use fins for swimming. Bony fishes share several distinguishing features: Longevity & Causes of a skeleton of bone, scales, paired fins, one pair of gill openings, jaws, and paired nostrils. Death 2. Osteichthyes includes the largest number of living species of all scientific classes of vertebrates, more than 28,000 species. Conservation & Research 3. Osteichthyes account for about 96% of all fish species. Fishes not included in the Osteichthyes are the Chondrichthyes (sharks and their relatives), the Myxini (hagfishes), and the Cephalaspidomorphi Books for Young (lampreys). Readers

Bibliography Subclasses

1. Living Osteichthyes are divided into three subclasses: Dipnoi, Crossopterygii, and Actinopterygii.

The subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes) is characterized by an upper jaw fused to the braincase, fused teeth, and the presence of an air-breathing organ that opens to the esophagus. A lungfish's caudal fin is continuous with its dorsal and anal fins. Its pelvic and pectoral fins are long and tubular.

The subclass Crossopterygii (coelacanths) is characterized by a type of primitive scale called a cosmoid scale, two dorsal fins, and fleshy paired fins that contain skeletal elements. Scientists used to think that this entire subclass of fishes was extinct. Then in 1938, a living coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae) was discovered off the coast of Southeast Africa. Several specimens have since been collected.

The subclass Actinopterygii includes all other living bony fishes. Actinopterygians are characterized by fins that are supported by bony elements called rays.

Orders and Families

1. All orders of bony fishes end in the suffix "iformes".

2. While there is debate over how certain fishes should be classified, scientists recognize more than 500 different bony fish families. The names of bony fish families all end in the suffix "dae".

Genera and Species

1. More than 28,000 species of bony fishes have been documented. It's likely that many more, including some deep-sea species, have yet to be identified.

Fossil Record

1. Primitive fishes date back to the Cambrian period, about 550 million years ago. These jawless fishes lived relatively unchanged over the following 100 million years. 2. The Devonian period, about 360 to 400 million years ago, is known as the "Age of Fishes", because of the abundance and diversity of fishes that appeared during this period. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/scientific-classification/ 1/2 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/scientific-classification/

In the Devonian, fishes began to develop jaws and paired fins. All four living classes of fishes and the three subclasses of Osteichthyes were established by the mid-Devonian.

Many species of fish that lived during the Devonian are now extinct.

3. Bony fishes continued to evolve after the Devonian period.

Most modern orders of bony fishes probably evolved during the Triassic period, about 200 million years ago.

Today, the Actinoptergians are the dominant vertebrates in the oceans and in freshwater systems.

The most recently evolved orders of bony fishes include the Pleuronectiformes (flatfishes) and Tetraodontiformes (triggerfishes, pufferfishes, and molas).

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Habitat and Distribution

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Habitat & Distribution → Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior Distribution Diet & Eating Habits

Reproduction 1. Bony fishes inhabit almost every body of water. They are found in tropical, temperate, and polar seas as well as virtually all fresh water environments. Longevity & Causes of 2. Some species of bony fishes live as deep as 11 km (6.8 mi.) in the deep sea. Other species inhabit lakes Death as high as 5 km (3.1 mi.) above sea level. Conservation & 3. About 58% of all species of bony fishes (more than 13,000 species) live in marine environments. Research Although only 0.01% of the earth's water is fresh water, freshwater fishes make up about 42% of fish species (more than 9,000 species). Books for Young Readers Habitat Bibliography 1. Bony fishes live in fresh water, sea water, and brackish (a combination of fresh water and salt water) environments. The salinity of sea water is about 35 ppt (parts per thousand). Some species can tolerate higher-salinity environments. Some species of gobies can tolerate salinity levels as high as 60 ppt. 2. Fishes live in virtually all aquatic habitats. Different species of fish are adapted for different habitats: rocky shores, coral reefs, kelp forests, rivers and streams, lakes and ponds, under sea ice, the deep sea, and other environments of fresh, salt, and brackish water.

Some fish are pelagic: they live in the open ocean. For example, tunas (several species in the family Scombridae, subfamily Thunninae) are pelagic fishes.

Some species, such as the flatfishes (order Pleuronectiformes) are adapted for living along the bottom. Certain fishes, such as gobies (family Gobiidae) even burrow into the substrate or bury themselves in sand.

Ocean sunfish (family Molidae) are most often spotted at the ocean's surface.

Some lungfishes "hibernate" throughout a summer drought season, buried under the mud of a dried-up pond.

Several fish species live in freshwater habitats in the darkness of caves.

3. Depending on the species, bony fishes can live at various temperatures. Some live at extreme temperatures.

Some desert pupfish (Cyprinodon macularius) live in California hot springs that reach temperatures greater than 45°C (113°F).

At the opposite extreme, some species of bony fishes can survive freezing temperatures of the Arctic and Antarctic. Certain glycoprotein molecules present in the blood of these specially-adapted fishes lower the freezing point of the blood. The arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) can survive temperatures as low as -2°C (28°F). 4. In general, fishes rely on oxygen dissolved in water for respiration. 5. Some species of bony fishes require large amounts of dissolved oxygen. The brown trout (Salmo trutta) requires up to 11 mg of dissolved oxygen per liter (11 ppm, or parts per million). 6. Misgurnus fossillis, a type of loach, can survive in water with an oxygen concentration as low as 0.5 mg per liter (0.5 ppm). http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/habitat-and-distribution/ 1/2 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/habitat-and-distribution/ 7. Mudskippers (family Periophthalmidae) can carry a small amount of water in their gill cavities. They commonly spend time on land, returning to mud holes when their water supply begins to evaporate. 8. African lungfishes (subclass Dipnoi) gulp air into a "lung" for respiration. In fact, these fishes must have access to the water's surface or they will drown.

Migration

1. Most bony fishes have small home ranges. 2. Some species of bony fishes migrate great distances. Food and habitat availability, reproduction, environmental cycles and temperature change may be causes of migration for some species.

Almost all tuna species are migratory. Albacore (Thunnus alalunga) migrate across the Pacific Ocean from the coast of California to the coast of Japan, more than 8,500 km (5,270 mi.). Data from albacore tagging studies indicate that they travel an average of 26 km (16 mi.) per day. Tagged northern bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) have migrated 7,700 km (4,774 mi.) across the Atlantic Ocean in 119 days, about 65 km (40 mi.) per day.

Billfishes (family Istiophoridae) are highly migratory. A black marlin (Makaira indica) that was tagged and released off Cabo San Lucas, Mexico, was recovered off Norfolk Island in the South Pacific, more than 10,680 km (6,622 mi.) away. 3. Some bony fish species are diadromous: they migrate between fresh and marine environments.

Some fish are catadromous: they live in freshwater environments but migrate downriver to the ocean to spawn. The freshwater eels (family Anguillidae) develop in marine environments then move into freshwater rivers to live.

Anadromous fishes live most of their lives in the ocean, but migrate into freshwater environments to spawn. The sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) may travel more than 3,600 km (2,232 mi.) up the Yukon River to spawn.

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Physical Characteristics

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Physical Characteristics Habitat & Distribution

→ Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior Size Diet & Eating Habits

Reproduction 1. Thousands of species of bony fishes are less than a few centimeters long as adults. Among the smallest is the endangered dwarf pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea). Adult males reach just 15 mm (0.6 in.), and Longevity & Causes of adult females reach only about 9 mm (0.4 in.). Death 2. Some species can reach tremendous sizes - much larger than a human.

Conservation & The longest bony fish is the oarfish (Regalecus glesne), which can reach 11 m (36 ft.). Research

Books for Young Among the heaviest of the bony fishes is the common ocean sunfish (Mola mola), which lives Readers throughout warm and temperate seas worldwide. A large sunfish can reach 3.3 m (10.8 ft.) and 2,300 kg (5,071 lb.).

Bibliography Many sturgeons (family Acipenseridae) grow very large. The largest is the beluga sturgeon (Huso huso), which inhabits the Caspian, Black, and Adriatic Seas and can reach 5 m (16.4 ft.) and 2,000 kg (4,409 lb.).

Black marlin (Makaira indica) reach 4.7 m (15.4 ft.) and 750 kg (1,653 lb.).

The European wels catfish (Silurus glanis) reaches 5 m (16.4 ft.) and about 300 kg (661 lb.).

Body Shape

1. Bony fishes show great variety in body shape, but the "typical" fish body shape is roughly cylindrical and tapering at both ends. This characteristic fusiform shape is quite energy efficient for swimming. Compared to other body shapes, this body shape creates less drag (the opposing force an object generates as it travels through water).

2. Various species of fishes deviate from the fusiform body shape in three ways: compression, depression, and elongation.

A laterally compressed (flattened, side-to-side) body shape is common in bony fishes that live in dense cover or within coral reefs. Butterflyfishes (family Chaetodontidae) are an example of bony fishes with a laterally compressed body shape.

A depressed (flattened, top-to-bottom) body shape is common in bottom-dwelling fishes. Goosefishes (family Lophidae) and batfishes (family Ogcocephalidae) are examples of bony fishes with a depressed body shape.

The body shape of an eel (for example, the morays, family Muraenidae) is an extreme example of an elongated shape. 3. The body shape of some species differs from or combines features of these typical fish body forms. Examples include boxfishes (family Ostraciidae ), ocean sunfishes (family Molidae), seahorses (Hippocampus spp.), the weedy seadragon (Phyllopteryx taeniolatus), and the leafy seadragon (Phycodurus eques).

Coloration

1. Most fish species have pigmentation. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/ 1/5 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/

Pigment is mostly contained in cells called chromatophores. Most fishes can contract and expand their chromatophores to change colors.

Reflective cells called iridocytes can change color rapidly.

Because the different wavelengths of light are absorbed at various depths, fishes may appear a different color underwater than at the surface.

Some fish, such as the ghost glass catfish (Kryptopterus bicirrhis), lack pigmentation.

2. Coloration may camouflage a fish.

Most species of fishes are countershaded: the dorsal (top) surface is darker than the ventral (underneath) surface. When light comes from above, the animal appears inconspicuous. The dorsal side of a countershaded fish blends in with the dark ocean depths or ocean bottom when viewed from above. The ventral side blends in with the lighter surface of the sea when viewed from below. A countershaded fish is harder for predators and prey to spot.

Some fish are colored so that they blend in with their environment. Many bottom dwelling fishes match the substrate and even change color when they move to a new location. The northern pike's (Esox lucius) colors blend in with weedy areas where it lurks in wait for prey. 3. Some fishes show disruptive coloration. Their colors and pattern obscure the outline of the fish by contradicting the animal's body shape. 4. Highly distinctive elements may confuse predators. For example, some fish have a false eyespot that can fool a predator into striking in the wrong direction, allowing the fish to escape. 5. In some species, coloration serves as advertisement to other animals.

Some fishes rely on coloration for species recognition and sexual distinction. The stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride) female and male are completely different colors, although they are similar in shape and size. Some species of fishes become brighter in color during breeding season to attract potential mates.

In some species, coloration may trigger behavior. After establishing a territory, the male stickleback's (family Gasterosteidae) belly turns red. He then actively defends his territory only from other fish with red bellies, notably other male sticklebacks.

A garibaldi's (Hypsypops rubicundus) bright orange color warns other fishes that the garibaldi will defend its territory. 6. Some fish change color.

Some species change color and markings as they grow from juveniles to adults. Juvenile garibaldi (Hypsypops rubicundus), for example, are dark orange with bright blue spots; adults are bright orange.

Fish of some species can change sex, which is accompanied by color change. Examples include the angelfishes (Family Pomacanthidae) and most species of wrasses (Family Labridae).

Some color change may be rapid and temporary. Alarmed fish, for instance, often change color. Some bottom-dwelling fishes change color almost instantly to match the substrate.

7. Some fish bioluminate (emit light).

Certain pigments (called luciferins) emit light when oxidized.

Some fish produce light in luminescent organs or in cells called photophores. In some fish, it is light-producing bacteria that live in or on the fish that actually produce the light.

Depending on species, bioluminescence may attract mates, deter or confuse predators, attract prey, or act as "headlights" to help a fish see in the dark.

Fins

1. All fishes have fins. Bony fish families show various degrees of fin fusion and reduction. 2. Fins help stabilize or propel a fish in the water. 3. Except in the lungfishes and the coelacanth, fins lack bones. In Actinopterygians, fins are supported by structures called rays.

Some bony fishes have soft, flexible fin rays.

Other bony fishes have spiny, rigid fin rays at the leading edges of the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/ 2/5 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/

Both soft and spiny fin rays are modified scales.

The spiny fin rays of some species are associated with venom glands. Fishes in the family Scorpaenidae include the stonefish (Synanceja spp.), the lionfish (Pterois spp.), and the scorpionfish (Scorpaena spp.) - some of the most venomous fishes in the world. Glands in the dorsal, anal, and pelvic spines produce venom that is intensely painful and occasionally fatal to humans. 4. Fishes have two kinds of fins: paired fins (pectoral and pelvic) and median fins (dorsal, caudal, and anal).

Typically, the paired pectoral fins help a fish turn. In some fishes, pectoral fins are adapted for other functions.

Some bony fishes, such as the hawkfishes (Cirrhitichthys spp.) use their pectoral fins to help them "perch" at the bottom and on reef areas. Mudskippers (family Periophthalmidae) support themselves on land with their pectoral fins.

The pectoral fins of flying fishes (family Exocoetidae) are extremely long, an adaptation that allows flying fish to glide over water as far as 150 m (492 ft.) and remain airborne as long as 20 seconds.

Some bottom-dwelling fishes such as threadfins (family Polynemidae) have taste buds and touch receptors on their pectoral fins to locate food.

For some fishes, such as wrasses (family Labridae), pectoral fins are the main source of power for swimming.

Paired pelvic fins add stability, and some fishes use them for slowing. In the clingfishes (family Gobiesocidae), the pelvic fins are adapted as a sucking appendage, which helps a fish hold on to stationary objects on the ocean bottom.

The dorsal fin may be a single fin or separated into several fins. In most bony fishes, the dorsal fin is used for sudden direction changes and acts as a "keel", keeping the fish stable in the water. In some fishes, the dorsal fin is adapted for other functions.

In the anglerfishes (order Lophiiformes), the dorsal fin is a lure that attracts prey.

The dorsal fin of remoras (family Echeneidae) is modified into a sucking disc. Remoras cling to large fishes and mammals with this dorsal disc and are carried along as hitchhikers.

An African knifefish (Gymnarchus niloticus) undulates its dorsal fin to move forward or backward.

The caudal fin, or tail, is responsible for propulsion in most bony fishes. Caudal fins come in many shapes. Many continuously swimming fishes have forked caudal fins. Fishes with lunate caudal fins, such as tunas, tend to be fast swimmers that can maintain rapid speed for long durations.

The anal fin adds stability. In some fishes, the anal fin is adapted for other functions.

The black ghost knifefish (Apteronotus albifrons) undulates its anal fin as a means of propulsion.

In some bony fishes, the anal fin plays a role in reproduction. The anal fin may fan sperm over eggs, or may concentrate sperm into a particular area.

5. Some species of bony fishes have reduced or absent fins. For example, morays (family Muraenidae) lack pectoral fins and pelvic fins. Several species lack an anal fin.

Head

1. Eye size and position vary depending on the habitat and behavior of the species.

Some species have eyes positioned for a field of vision below or above their bodies. The South American catfish (family Hypophthalmidae) has eyes directed downward. Many species, including the sand divers (family Dactyloscopidae) have eyes directed toward the surface.

In flatfishes in the order Pleuronectiformes, one eye migrates across the top of their skull during development. Very young juveniles are free-swimming and have an eye on each side of the head. Adults live on the sea bottom, lying and swimming on one side. The eye that would typically be on that side of the body is on the dorsal (top) of the fish, adjacent to the other eye. 2. In most species, the gills are protected by a flexible plate called an operculum. Most bony fishes have a single pair of gill openings. Some bony fishes such as eels (family Anguillidae) have a pair of gill holes http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/ 3/5 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/ or pores that aren't covered by an operculum. 3. The nostrils of most bony fishes have no connection with the mouth or gills. In some bony fishes (such as eels), the nostrils' incurrent and excurrent openings are widely separated. 4. Mouth shape and size are good indications of bony fish's feeding habits.

Most bony fishes have mouths at the front end of the head.

Some bottom-feeding species have mouths on the underside of the snout, angled toward the bottom.

Some surface-feeding species have mouths that angle upwards.

Butterflyfishes (family Chaetodontidae) have thin snouts and small mouths that are useful in reaching food located in crevices and cracks.

Some species of bony fishes, like the goatfishes (family Mulidae), have fleshy barbels that fringe the mouth. These barbels can detect food.

Scales

1. Most species of bony fishes are covered with and protected by a layer of plates called scales. 2. There are four different kinds of bony fish scales: cosmoid, ganoid, cycloid, and ctenoid.

True cosmoid scales are found only on extinct Crossopterygians. The inner layer of a cosmoid scale is compact bone. On top of this bone layer lays a spongy layer and then a layer of cosmine (a type of dentin). The upper surface is enamel. The living coelacanth has modified cosmoid scales, which are thinner than true cosmoid scales.

Gars (family Lepisosteidae), bichirs, and reedfishes (family Polypteridae) have ganoid scales. They are similar to cosmoid scales, but a layer of ganoin (a hard, enamel-like substance) lies over the cosmine layer and under the enamel. Ganoid scales are diamond-shaped, shiny, and hard.

Most bony fishes have cycloid or ctenoid scales. Both cycloid and ctenoid scales consist of an outer layer of calcium and an inner layer of connective tissue.

Cycloid scales overlap from head to tail, an arrangement that helps reduce drag as a fish swims.

Cycloid scales are circular and smooth. They are most common on fishes with soft fin rays.

Ctenoid scales have a characteristic toothed edge. They are most common on fishes with spiny fin rays.

As a fish grows, cycloid and ctenoid scales add concentric layers.

3. Some bony fishes may have scales only on portions of their body, and some species have no scales.

Body Spines

1. Body spines are modified scales.

2. Protective spines are common in slow-swimming fishes and others that need to protect themselves without moving.

3. Some fishes actively engage spines.

Most surgeonfishes (family Acanthuridae) have mobile, razor-sharp precaudal fin spines that they use to protect themselves.

The triggerfishes (family Balistidae) have three dorsal spines that lock together. These spines may allow a triggerfish to securely lodge itself between rocks and keep predators from swallowing it.

Some pufferfishes (family Tetraodontidae) have spines that cover the entire body. The spines lie flat until the pufferfish inflates its body.

Mucus

1. A fish secretes a layer of mucus that covers its entire body. Mucus helps protect a fish from infection. 2. In some bony fishes, mucus may serve additional functions. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/ 4/5 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/physical-characteristics/ Some species of parrotfishes (family Scaridae) envelop their bodies in mucous bubbles at night while they rest. This mucous barrier may "hide" the parrotfish from nocturnal predators that rely on their sense of smell to locate prey.

Young discus (Symphysodon discus) feed on the parent fish's mucus.

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Anatomy & Physiology

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Anatomy & Physiology Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

→ Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior Skeletal System Diet & Eating Habits

Reproduction 1. The skeleton of bony fishes is made of bone and cartilage. The vertebral column, cranium, jaw, ribs, and intramuscular bones make up a bony fish's skeleton. Longevity & Causes of 2. The skeleton of a bony fish gives structure, provides protection, assists in leverage, and (along with the Death spleen and the kidney) is a site of red blood cell production. Conservation & Research Muscular System

Books for Young 1. The muscles of the tail and trunk consist of a series of muscle blocks called myotomes. The myotomes Readers usually resemble a sideways letter "W". A connective tissue called myosepta separates the myotomes. A horizontal septum separates the myotomes into dorsal (top) myotomes and ventral (bottom) Bibliography myotomes. 2. Jaw muscles usually consist of adductor muscles that close the jaw and abductor muscles that open the jaw. 3. Fin muscles consist of abductor and adductor muscles that move the fins away from and close to the body, and erector muscles that provide stability and flexibility in the fins.

Nervous System

1. The nervous system of fishes is poorly developed compared to that of other vertebrates. 2. A bony fish's brain is divided into three sections: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.

The forebrain is responsible for the bony fish's ability to smell. Bony fishes that have an especially good sense of smell, such as eels, have an enlarged forebrain.

The midbrain processes vision, learning, and motor responses. Blind bony fishes, such as blind cavefishes in the family Amblyopsidae, have a reduced midbrain.

The hindbrain (medulla oblongata and cerebellum) coordinates movement, muscle tone, and balance. Fast-swimming bony fishes usually have an enlarged hindbrain.

3. The spinal cord and a matrix of nerves serve the rest of the body.

Cardiovasular System

1. A bony fish's heart has two chambers: an atrium and a ventricle. The venous side of the heart is preceded by an enlarged chamber called the sinus venosus. The arterial side of the heart is followed by a thickened muscular cavity called the bulbus arteriosus. 2. Blood flow.

The sinus venosus receives oxygen-depleted blood from the body. A valve at the end of the sinus venosus opens into the atrium.

The atrium has thick, muscular walls. The atrium receives oxygen-depleted blood and pumps it into the ventricle.

The ventricle is the largest and most muscular chamber of the heart. When filled with blood, it http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/anatomy-and-physiology/ 1/3 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/anatomy-and-physiology/ constricts, forcing the blood through the bulbus arteriosus.

Blood flows through the bulbus arteriosus into the ventral aorta. A valve or series of valves in the bulbus arteriosus controls blood flow into the ventral aorta.

From the ventral aorta, blood flows to the gill filaments, where it is oxygenated.

Oxygenated blood flows from the gill filaments to the organs of the head and body. A complex system of arteries, veins, and capillaries circulates blood through the body and returns the blood to the sinus venosus. 3. Some tunas (family Scombridae, subfamily Thunninae) maintain a body temperature several degrees higher than that of the surrounding water. This heat is due to the modified circulatory system associated with the red muscle.

As red muscle functions, it generates heat. Muscle-generated heat warms the blood circulating through the red muscle, which then travels back to the heart through veins. Thus, blood returning to the heart from the muscle is warmer than blood traveling from the heart to the muscle.

Due to the nearness of arteries and veins, heat passes from warmer veins to cooler arteries within the fish's body, rather than dissipating to the cooler environment. This modified circulatory system retains heat in the red muscle.

A higher body temperature is an adaptive advantage for high-speed swimming.

A similar modified circulatory system warms the brain and eye of some species of tunas and billfishes (family Istiophoridae).

Digestive System

1. The esophagus in bony fishes is short and expandable so that large objects can be swallowed. The esophagus walls are layered with muscle. 2. Most species of bony fishes have a stomach. Usually the stomach is a bent muscular tube in a "U" or "V" shape. Gastric glands release substances that break down food to prepare it for digestion. 3. At the end of the stomach, many bony fishes have blind sacs called pyloric caeca. The pyloric caeca are an adaptation for increasing the gut area; they digest food. 4. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the intestine for digestion. 5. Most food absorption takes place in the intestine. The length of the intestine in bony fishes varies greatly. Plant-eating bony fishes generally have long, coiled intestines. Carnivorous bony fishes have shorter intestines. 6. The digestive system terminates at the anus.

Respiratory System

1. Water enters the gill chamber through a fish's mouth and exits through gill openings under the operculum. Blood flowing through the gill filaments absorbs oxygen from the water.

2. Some fish have adaptations for getting oxygen from air. Lungfish must return to the surface to breathe air. A lungfish swallows air to fill up an air sac or "lung". This lung is surrounded by veins that bring blood to be oxygenated. Its gills alone can't keep a lungfish supplied with enough oxygen to live. Other species such as tarpon (family Elopidae) can gulp air at the surface to supplement their oxygen demand.

3. Some species of bony fishes can absorb considerable amounts of oxygen through their skin.

Swim Bladder

1. Many species of bony fishes have a gas-filled bladder called a swim bladder.

2. Apparently the swim bladder originally developed in fish as an organ of respiration, as evidenced by the "lung" of the lungfishes. 3. In modern bony fishes that possess a swim bladder, the organ serves principally in maintaining neutral buoyancy. 4. In some fishes the swim bladder has adapted to function as a sound amplifier.

Osmoregulation http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/anatomy-and-physiology/ 2/3 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/anatomy-and-physiology/ 1. Both marine and freshwater fishes regulate the movement of water across their body surfaces. 2. The tissues of marine fishes are less salty than the surrounding water, so water continually leaves the body of a marine fish through its skin and gills. To keep from becoming dehydrated, a marine fish drinks large amounts of water and produces a small amount of concentrated urine. In addition, its gills are adapted to secrete salt. 3. The tissues of a freshwater fish are saltier than its surrounding environment, so water is continually entering the body of a freshwater fish through its skin and gills. Freshwater fishes do not drink water, and they produce large amounts of dilute urine.

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Senses

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Senses Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

→ Senses

Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits Acoustic Senses Reproduction 1. The ears of a bony fish function in equilibrium, detecting acceleration, and hearing. Longevity & Causes of Death There are no external openings to the ears. Sound waves travel through soft tissue to the ears. (A fish's soft body tissue has about the same acoustic density as water).

Conservation & There is great variation in hearing sensitivity, bandwidth, and upper frequency limit among bony Research fish species. The hearing range of the cod Gadus morhua is about 2 to 500 Hz, with peak sensitivity near 20 Hz - probably typical for most bony fish species that lack the adaptations described below. Books for Young Readers In some bony fish species, the swim bladder is associated with adaptations for enhanced sound reception at higher frequencies. In some, the swim bladder lies against the ear and acts as an Bibliography amplifier to enhance sound detection. In other species, such as goldfish (Carassius auratus), a series of small bones connects the swim bladder to the ear.

The hearing range of the goldfish is about 5 to 2,000 Hz - with peak sensitivity near 400 Hz.

Recently researchers have discovered that the American shad (Alosa sapidissima) and certain related species can detect sounds from 200 to 180,000 Hz. The researchers theorize that this ultrasonic hearing is an adaptation for avoiding echolocating dolphins, which typically produce clicks at about 100,000 Hz. 2. Lateral line.

Like the ear, the lateral line senses vibrations. It functions mainly in detecting low-frequency vibrations and directional water flow, and in distance perception.

The lateral line system is a series of fluid-filled canals just below the skin of the head and along the sides of a bony fish's body. The canals are open to the surrounding water through tiny pores.

Lateral line canals contain sensory cells. Tiny hairlike structures on these cells project out into the canal. Water movement created by turbulence, currents, or vibrations displaces these hairlike projections and stimulates the sensory cells.

3. In bony fishes, frequency range of sound production does not appear to be correlated with hearing sensitivity.

4. Most species of bony fishes probably detect prey by sound.

5. In water, sound travels more than four times the speed of sound through air.

Eyesight

1. Bony fishes have a basic vertebrate eye, with various structural adaptations. A bony fish's eye includes rods and cones. Bony fishes, especially those that live in shallow-water habitats, probably have color vision. Certain visual cells are specialized to particular wavelengths and intensities.

In general, deep-water fishes have large eyes, allowing them to absorb as much light as possible in the dark. Shallow-water fishes generally have smaller eyes.

The pupils of some species of bony fishes, such as eels, contract and dilate depending on light conditions. In most species of bony fishes, however, pupils can't contract or dilate. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/senses/ 1/2 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/senses/

The water's surface can reflect up to 80% of light that strikes it. Bony fishes have large lenses to make the most of available light. In some species, the eye has a reflective layer called the tapetum lucidum behind the retina. The tapetum lucidum reflects light back through the retina a second time.

The mudskipper (family Periophthalmidae) and several other species of bony fishes have excellent eyesight both above and below the surface of the water. The four-eyed fishes (family Anablepidae) swim at the water's surface. Their eyes lie at the water line and are adapted for seeing in air and in water. Separate retinae and an asymmetric lens allow these remarkable fish to focus on images above the water and on images under water simultaneously. 2. The eyesight in some species of bony fishes may be well developed. Goldfish (Carassius auratus) have excellent visual acuity up to 4.8 m (16 ft.) away. 3. Some species of bony fishes have no eyes. The blind cavefishes (family Amblyopsidae) have no vision perception. Other senses help them find prey. The blind goby (Typhlogobius californiensis) is born with eyes that degenerate as the goby matures.

Taste

1. Bony fishes have taste buds in their mouths. Some species have taste buds along the head and ventral side of the body. 2. Taste perception hasn't been extensively studied in bony fishes. Some species can detect some sensations, such as salty, sweet, bitter, and acid stimuli. 3. Taste may be responsible for the final acceptance or rejection of prey items.

Smell

1. Olfactory cells in the nasal sac detect tiny amounts of chemicals in solution. 2. In general, the sense of smell is well developed in fishes. The nasal areas and extent of the sense of smell vary among species.

Species of freshwater eels (family Anguillidae) may detect chemicals in extremely low dilutions. Eels may detect a substance when only three or four molecules have entered the nasal sac.

Studies suggest that smell guides at least some species of salmons (family Salmonidae) to their home streams during the breeding season.

Some species can detect pheromones, chemical substances released by an animal that influence the behavior of members of the same species. Fishes may release pheromones during the breeding season or when alarmed.

Electroreception

1. Some bony fishes in the families Electrophoridae, Gymnotidae, and Mormyridae produce a low-voltage electric current that sets up a field around the fish. Tiny skin organs on the fish detect disruptions in the electric field that are caused by prey or inanimate objects.

Electric organs are made up of cells called electrocytes that have evolved from muscle cells. Electrocytes typically are thin and stacked on top of one another.

Electroreception is an adaptation for detecting prey and for navigation in murky water.

2. Some other fishes produce stronger electric currents for stunning prey.

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Behavior

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Behavior Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

→ Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits Activity Reproduction 1. Some species of fish, such as tunas, swim continually.

Longevity & Causes of 2. Many species spend most of their time lying on the ocean bottom. Bottom-dwellers include stonefishes Death (Synanceja spp.), flatfishes (order Pleuronectiformes), and blennies (family Blennidae). Conservation & 3. Certain species have peak activity times during a day. Research Morays (family Muraenidae) are an example of fish that are more active at night. Books for Young Readers Butterflyfishes (family Chaetodontidae), parrotfishes (family Scaridae) and others are most active during the daytime. Bibliography Some bony fish species are most active at dawn and dusk.

Schooling

1. Many species of small bony fishes swim together in a coordinated fashion, called schooling.

Schooling is an adaptation for avoiding predators: An individual fish has a lesser chance of being eaten by a predator when in a school than when alone. A school of small fish may give the impression of a large animal, discouraging predators.

Schooling poses a hydrodynamic advantage and increases reproductive success. It also may facilitate locating food sources. 2. Spawning aggregations develop for the purpose of reproduction. These schools consist mainly of reproductively mature individuals. Cod (family Gadidae) often form spawning schools.

3. Migrating schools form along migration routes of bony fishes. Migrating schools often form into other types of schools, such as spawning schools. Salmon (family Salmonidae) form migrating schools as they travel upstream to spawn.

4. Feeding schools develop in the feeding grounds. Feeding schools form primarily due to the concentration of food organisms. Feeding schools can be comprised of many different species of bony fishes at different developmental stages.

5. Wintering schools originate in the wintering grounds of bony fishes. Various species of bony fishes may congregate into areas with the appropriate environmental conditions for survival during the winter months. These schools often disband after the winter season.

Territorial Behavior

1. Various species of bony fishes have sharply contrasting territorial behavior. Although damselfishes (family Pomacentridae) are relatively small, they are fearless in defending a territory. However, most large groupers (family Serranidae) will retreat from their territory if approached by another animal.

Swimming

1. Most species of bony fishes propel themselves with the caudal fin, but many species use other fins for http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/behavior/ 1/2 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/behavior/ propulsion. 2. Among the slowest-swimming bony fishes are the eels. 3. The Guinness World Records lists the fastest bony fish as the sailfish Istiophorus platypterus, which has been clocked at 109 km per hour (68 mph).

Sound Production

1. Many bony fishes produce sound, sometimes in association with reproductive, social, territorial, or aggressive behavior. 2. Depending on the species, a bony fish can produce sound by rubbing its teeth together, vibrating its swim bladder, or by flexing and contracting muscles. 3. Most sounds produced by bony fishes are below 10,000 Hz.

Symbiotic Relationships

1. Several species of small bony fishes, such as the cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus), are "cleaners" that eat debris and parasites from the skin and scales of larger fishes. 2. Remoras (family Echeneidae) commonly attach themselves to sharks or other large fishes, whales, and sea turtles using a modified dorsal fin. They eat scraps left over from the meals of their hosts. They may eat parasites as well. 3. Some bony fishes have symbiotic relationships with nonfish species. Clownfishes (family Pomacentridae) live unharmed among the venomous tentacles of sea anemones, which protect the clownfish from potential predators.

Bony Fish Attacks

1. The great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda) has been known to attack divers. Barracuda may confuse shiny objects with the shiny scales of their prey. 2. Piranhas (Serrasalmus spp.) can be voracious predators - they're quick swimmers with razor-sharp teeth. Piranhas inhabit freshwater river systems in South America. During periods of low rainfall, streams and rivers recede, and schools of piranhas can become trapped in shallow ponds. Here their usual prey - smaller fish - are soon consumed. A school of starving piranhas can consume large animals in minutes. Under these circumstances, piranhas have been known to attack humans. They are not a threat to humans when water levels are high and food is abundant. 3. Morays (family Muraenidae) inhabit tropical and warm-temperature waters of the world. Most species can be found in coral reefs and rocky areas taking shelter in cracks and crevices. Divers tormenting them, feeding them, or invading their areas have provoked nonfatal attacks.

Non-Schooling Social Behavior

1. Bony fish species show great diversity in social behavior and social organization. For example, in many wrasse species, social structure includes a large dominant male and many smaller, subordinate females. In contrast, most large predatory bony fishes such as groupers (family Serranidae) are mostly asocial except during breeding seasons.

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Diet & Eating Habits

Scientific Classification Bony Fish Diet & Eating Habits Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior

→ Diet & Eating Habits Food Preferences and Resources Reproduction 1. As a group, bony fishes have a diverse range of food preferences. Some are herbivores (plant-eaters); Longevity & Causes of some are carnivores (meat-eaters); some are omnivores (plant- and meat-eaters); and some are Death detritivores (animals that eat decomposing plants and animals). 2. As a group, bony fishes can eat all sizes of plants and animals, from microscopic plant plankton to some Conservation & of the largest marine animals. Research 3. Some of the animals common in the diets of bony fishes include: annelid worms, marine snails, Books for Young mussels, clams, squids, crustaceans, insects, birds, amphibians, small mammals, and other fishes. Readers

Bibliography Food Intake

1. The amount of food a bony fish eats is directly related to its size, its metabolic rate, and the temperature of its environment.

Smaller fishes generally have a higher metabolic rate than large fishes of the same species. Thus, small fishes generally eat proportionately more.

Warm-water fishes generally require more food than similar-size cold-water fishes. A fish's body temperature - and its metabolic rate - is determined by the temperature of its environment. 2. Some bony fishes can go long periods without eating. Some freshwater eels (Anguilla spp.) can survive more than a year without food. 3. Some researchers have calculated food intake for some species.

In one study, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) - a species of small freshwater fish - ate between 1% and 35% of their body weight in food per week, depending on water temperature.

Studies on anchovies (family Engraulidae) during the summer showed a food intake of about 8% to 10% of body weight per day.

Methods of Collecting and Eating Food

1. Many bony fishes, such as mackerels and tunas (family Scombridae), seabasses (family Serranidae), and others are active predators. Like other predators, they often select weak, ill, injured, or dying prey because it is easier to catch.

2. Some bony fishes, such as anchovies (family Engraulidae) are filter feeders. They strain plankton from the water with gill rakers.

3. Many bony fishes, including catfishes (Family Ictaluridae) are adapted for bottom feeding. 4. A species' particular mouth shape and teeth are adapted to accommodate a particular diet.

The wolf eel's (family Anarrhichadidae) large canine teeth grasp its shelled prey. Its blunt molars crush the shells.

The blue sucker's (Cycleptus elongatus) thick, nubby lips help it suck plants from rocks.

A parrotfish's (family Scaridae) chisel-like teeth, in a beaklike mouth, nibble on reef-building corals. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/diet-and-eating-habits/ 1/2 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/diet-and-eating-habits/ These fish are herbivores that eat the algae within the coral. In the process, they grind the coral's hard exoskeleton and defecate sand. 5. Some bony fishes are quite specialized for feeding. Here are just a few examples:

A billfish (family Istiophoridae) uses its long bill to stun prey.

An archerfish (Toxotes jaculatrix) shoots water "bullets" at insects as high as 1.8 m (5.9 ft.) above the water, knocking them to the water's surface.

Lying at the bottom of the ocean and looking more like a rock than a fish, a stonefish (Synanceja spp.) waits for prey to come to it. When an unsuspecting animal swims by, the stonefish swiftly gulps it.

The 91 cm (3 ft.) arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum), a freshwater fish of South America, can leap entirely out of the water to seize small birds.

Some fishes produce strong electric current to stun prey. The electric catfish (Malapterurus electricus) can produce 350 volts of electricity. The South American electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) can produce up to 650 volts of electricity.

Some species of bony fishes, notably the cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus), are "cleaners" that pick debris and parasites from larger fishes.

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Reproduction

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Reproduction Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits Sexual Maturity

→ Reproduction 1. Several factors influence sexual maturity, including age, gender, and size.

Longevity & Causes of 2. Fishes become sexually mature at various ages, depending on species. In general, small species begin Death reproducing at an earlier age than large species.

Conservation & Some bony fishes are sexually mature at birth. Males of the dwarf perch (Micrometrus minimus) Research can spawn immediately after birth. Although female dwarf perch receive sperm soon after they're born, they do not bear young for up to a year. Books for Young Readers Some bony fishes become sexually mature shortly after birth. The western mosquitofish becomes sexually mature within a year. Bibliography Most bony fishes become sexually mature between one and five years.

It may take ten years or more for some bony fishes to become sexually mature. The eels (family Anguillidae) become sexually mature at 10 to 14 years of age, and the sturgeons (family Acipenseridae) may take up to 15 years to mature.

Reproductive Modes

1. In most species of bony fishes, sperm and eggs develop in separate male and female individuals. Males and females may look similar, or they may look very different. Male/female differences may include size, coloration, external reproductive organs, head characteristics, and body shape. 2. Some bony fishes are hermaphrodites: a single individual produces both sperm and eggs.

Sequential hermaphrodites are born one sex and change sex sometime during the course of life. For example:

Some damselfishes (family Pomacentridae) begin life as males and change into females. In some, females can revert back to males.

Some seabasses (family Serranidae) change from female to male, and are capable of reverting back to female.

Most wrasses (family Labridae) are born female, grow into sexually mature females, and have the potential to transform into functional males later in life. In many of the wrasses, sex change correlates with social hierarchy and social behavior: social structure includes a large dominant male and many smaller, subordinate females. Removing the male from the group triggers the largest female to begin transforming into a male.

Synchronous hermaphrodites have both sperm- and egg-producing organs at the same time. In a few species, self-fertilization is possible. 3. A few species are unisexual: there is no fusion of sperm and egg. A sperm cell is necessary to trigger an egg cell to develop, but the sperm cell ultimately degenerates and does not contribute genetic material. The resulting young always are females. Thus, unisexual species are entirely female. They mate with males of related species to produce female offspring. Poecilia formosa is an example of a unisexual species. Always female, P. formosa mates with male P. mexicana or P. latipinna.

Reproductive Behavior http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/reproduction/ 1/3 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/reproduction/

1. Various factors may influence bony fish breeding.

Changes in the duration of sunlight (called photoperiod) can stimulate some species of bony fishes to begin reproduction.

Temperature change may trigger breeding in temperate and subpolar areas.

Other factors that may affect reproduction are presence of the opposite sex, currents, tides, moon stages, and presence of spawning areas. 2. Reproduction is generally cyclic in bony fishes. The duration of cycles may be as short as four weeks or as long as many years. Some species spawn continuously throughout the spring and summer.

Some bony fishes may spawn many times a year.

Many bony fishes reproduce once a year until they die.

Other bony fishes may reproduce only once during their lifetime. Pacific salmon (family Salmonidae) reproduce only once during their five-year lifespan, then die soon after. 3. Diadromous fishes must have access to both marine and freshwater systems to complete their life cycle.

Fertilization and Embryonic Development

1. Some species release unfertilized eggs and sperm. Young develop from eggs that are fertilized in the water. 2. Some species have internal fertilization; these species mate. For species with internal fertilization, there is great variation in the development stage at which offspring are released: fertilized eggs, larvae, juvenile fish, or even sexually mature adults. 3. Oviparous bony fishes release eggs, and the developing embryo is nourished by a yolk sac.

The eggs of a bony fish generally are spherical. A soft membrane protects the egg. Most are 0.4 to 3.0 mm (0.02-0.12 in.) in diameter.

Some bony fishes produce and "scatter" their eggs. Some eggs drift through the water column. Some have oil droplets that help them float. Some bottom-dwelling fishes produce eggs that sink and remain on the ocean bottom.

Some bony fish eggs are sticky or have tendrils that entangle them among plants and other living or nonliving materials in the environment. In some cases parents protect their eggs until the embryos develop and the young swim free.

Some parents brood eggs in the mouth or on the skin, fins, or gill areas.

4. In ovoviviparous fishes, one parent (usually female) retains the fertilized eggs in her body, and the developing embryo is nourished by a yolk sac formed prior to fertilization. There is no nutrient connection between the parent and the developing embryos.

Examples of ovoviviparous fishes are the seahorses (family Syngnathidae). In contrast to most other animals, it's the male seahorse that incubates fertilized eggs. The female seahorse deposits eggs into a pouch on the male's abdomen. The male releases sperm into the pouch, fertilizing the eggs. The embryos develop within the male's pouch, nourished by their individual yolk sacs. After the embryos have developed, the male gives birth to tiny seahorses.

5. In viviparous fishes, the female retains the fertilized eggs in her ovary or uterus, and the developing embryo is nourished by connection with the mother.

6. Fish larvae develop from hatched embryos. A transitional stage, larvae of many species look and behave differently than adults. Fish larvae are free-living organisms that feed on plankton, bacteria, or organic debris.

7. Gestation periods vary greatly among species, ranging from just a few days to several months. Within a particular species, water temperature affects the rate at which an embryo develops. 8. The number of offspring is inversely related to the chance a single egg has to reach maturity and reproduce.

In general, species whose eggs have little chance to reach maturity lay the most eggs. The common ocean sunfish, which "scatters" unfertilized eggs, may produce more than 28,000,000 eggs in a single season. Guppies (family Poeciliidae), which mate and bear their young live, often produce less than 25 young at a time. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/reproduction/ 2/3 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/reproduction/

Within a species, the number of offspring a female produces varies according to many factors including age, size, food availability, season, and water temperature.

Parental Care

1. Many species give no care to their eggs or young. 2. Some species hide or guard their eggs. 3. Some species, such as the jawfish (family Opisthognathidae) brood fertilized eggs. A male jawfish broods fertilized eggs in its mouth. 4. Some bony fishes bear live young that can protect themselves at birth. Very little, if any, parental care is needed after young are released. 5. Some species care for their young after they have hatched. Male bowfins (family Amiidae) fiercely guard their young. Some species make elaborate nests and provide parental care to the developing fishes. Sticklebacks (family Gasterosteidae) construct elaborate nests to care for 30 to 100 fry (juvenile fish).

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Longevity & Causes of Death

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Longevity & Causes of Death Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits Longevity Reproduction 1. Longevity for most bony fish species is unknown. Large species generally have a longer life expectancy → Longevity & Causes than smaller species, and colder-water species often live longer than warm-water species. Some species of Death live only for a few months. Others, like the orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) may live for 100 years or longer. Conservation & Research Aging Studies Books for Young Readers 1. Growth rings are periodically deposited on the scales, vertebrae, and earstones of many species of bony fishes. Experts can stain these hard body parts, examine them for growth rings, and estimate the age of Bibliography the fish. 2. Examining the scales, vertebrae, or earstones of known-age fishes after their death enables researchers to compare the estimated age (based on growth rings) with the fish's known age. 3. In some species, tagging and releasing fish yields information about growth rates. A tagged fish can be measured again when it is recaptured. Researchers correlate the measurements with the number of years since recapture and estimate a yearly growth rate.

Predation

1. Depending on the species, bony fishes have a wide variety of predators, including other fishes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals (including humans), and various invertebrates. 2. Small bony fishes may have a large variety of predators. Large bony fishes have fewer predators. 3. Fish eggs or larvae may have different predators than adults of the same species. Some adult fish eat fish larvae, sometimes including larvae of the same species. 4. Many bony fishes will eat members of their own species.

Disease

1. As in any animal population a variety of diseases can be responsible for bony fish death. These include bacterial, viral, and fungal infections, as well as tumors.

Parasites

1. Many types of internal and external parasites are common to bony fishes. Parasites are not typically a cause of death.

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Conservation & Research

Scientific Classification Bony Fish Conservation & Research Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits Commercial Fisheries Reproduction 1. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that for 2002, commercial Longevity & Causes of ocean fisheries captured more than 84 million metric tons of fish and shellfish; inland fisheries Death captured and harvested more than 9 million metric tons of fish and shellfish. While these numbers include sharks, rays, mollusks and crustaceans, about 82% of the total is bony fishes. → Conservation & Research About 73 percent of the fisheries harvest is food for human consumption. Most of rest goes to feed livestock that are then used for human consumption.

Books for Young Demand for fish is projected to increase in the future. Yet the FAO estimates that about 52% of the Readers oceans' wild fish stocks are fully exploited, 17% are overexploited and 8% have been depleted. Thus, only about 23% of the world's marine fisheries stocks offer opportunity for further fisheries Bibliography expansion.

U.S. commercial fishing operations accounted for about 3.7 million metric tons of the bony fish catch in 2003. 2. Most commercial fishing operations aren't able to perfectly select only the kind of fish that they want (specimens for which there is a market). Non-targeted catch is called bycatch. Bycatch is discarded, often dead or dying.

A 1996 study by the FAO estimated that the amount of bycatch for that year was somewhere between 18 and 39 million metric tons.

Shrimp trawl fisheries generate more discards than any other fishery type and account for just over one-third of global total bycatch.

Fisheries strive to reduce bycatch. Gear modifications and operation modifications have been somewhat successful in reducing bycatch.

Another goal of fisheries is to utilize the non-targeted specimens to fulfill demand for food.

3. With the goal of ensuring effective conservation, management and development of living aquatic resources, the FAO has developed a "Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries". The Code sets out principles and international standards for responsible fishing practices. In 1997 the United States National Marine Fisheries Service/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NMFS/NOAA) set forth an implementation plan for compliance with the Code.

Recreational Fishing

1. Various species of marine and freshwater bony fishes are targeted for small scale fishing for food and recreation. 2. In 2003, about 100,000 metric tons of bony fishes were caught by recreational anglers in the U.S.

Aquarium Collection

1. Some of the marine fishes sold in pet and aquarium stores are collected using methods that destroy other marine animals (including other fish) and habitats. 2. The Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) is an international organization that certifies collection areas and http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/conservation-and-research/ 1/4 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/conservation-and-research/ collected organisms as well as industry professionals who adhere to best practices for the marine aquarium industry. MAC promotes sustainable, environmentally sound trade and conservation of natural resources. 3. SeaWorld encourages aquarium enthusiasts to purchase "hand-caught" or captive-bred fishes, and to look for MAC-certified sources of aquarium fish.

Invasive Species

1. A non-native species introduced into a habitat can alter the ecology of that habitat. 2. Some invasive species have devastating results on native species.

A popular aquarium fish, the goldfish (Carassius auratus) is native to Asia. It has been released - both intentionally and inadvertently - and has formed wild populations. In some areas goldfish prey on native fish.

A strain of Caulerpa taxifolia, a marine algae cultured for use in aquariums, is an invasive seaweed that was inadvertently introduced into the Mediterranean Sea, where it grows in dense beds that prevent native plants from growing, thus eliminating habitat for native species. In 2003, experts were alarmed to find this invasive species in California.

Habitat Modification

1. Damming, channelization, and stream diversion alter aquatic habitats. Without assistance, hydroelectric dams would make migration impossible for anadromous fishes (those that hatch in freshwater and travel downriver to the sea to complete their life cycle).

Young fish headed toward the ocean can be barged downriver, sent over the dam, or guided to a bypass channel.

After spending several years at sea, anadromous fishes must travel upriver to spawn. A fish ladder next to a dam provides a way for these fish to travel upriver. 2. Silting can result from deforestation or agriculture, and can change an aquatic habitat significantly. 3. The loss of wetlands due to coastal development threatens fish populations. Wetlands are important nursery grounds for many species of ocean fishes.

Pollution

1. Chemicals that are used on land can eventually end up in freshwater systems and oceans as pollution. Such chemical contaminants can enter the food chain and become concentrated in the bodies of fishes.

Pesticides may enter waterways through agricultural runoff.

Household and garden pesticides can enter waterways, too - through sewers and storm drains.

2. Small amounts of heavy metals occur naturally in the ocean, but industrial pollution has increased the amount of heavy metals in many aquatic environments. Heavy metals may also enter waterways when people illegally empty household chemicals, such as paints, into sewers and storm drains.

Heavy metals accumulate in the tissues of organisms that ingest them and are passed up the food chain. Thus, large carnivorous fishes are most susceptible to high levels of heavy metals.

The effects of heavy metals on fishes are not well known, but we do know that more than minute amounts of heavy metals are poisonous to humans. The best known heavy metal poisoning associated with fish is from mercury. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has set a maximum acceptable level for mercury in fish. Any fish with more than 0.5 ppm (parts per million) mercury may not be sold as food.

3. Acid rain results when the emissions of fossil fuels combine with moisture in the atmosphere to form droplets of sulfuric or nitric acids. The droplets fall as rain or snow and can reduce the pH level in lakes and streams to the point where the pH is inhospitable to native species. 4. Oil spills are harmful for fish populations.

Aquaculture

1. The FAO reports that worldwide aquaculture operations harvested more than 39 million metric tons of fish and shellfish in 2002. While this number includes mollusks and crustaceans, about 66% is bony fishes. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/conservation-and-research/ 2/4 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/conservation-and-research/ 2. According to FAO calculations, aquaculture operations worldwide have grown at a rate of 9% per year since 1970. In comparison, the worldwide annual growth of ocean fisheries has been only about 1% per year, and worldwide terrestrial farmed-meat operations growth has been just 3% per year. 3. Worldwide, the most commonly farmed fish are various species of carps, salmons, trouts, smelts, and tilapias. In the United States, catfish farming leads the aquaculture industry.

Stock Replenishment

1. Some species of bony fishes can be reared in a controlled environment for part of their life cycle and then released in open waters to replenish natural populations. 2. Salmon hatcheries in the Pacific Northwest release more than 120 million young, ocean-ready fish each year and contribute between 50% and 70% of all adults caught in that region's coastal areas. 3. California’s Ocean Resources Enhancement Hatchery Program (OREHP) was created to counteract the depletion of California's coastal marine fisheries through stock enhancement.

OREHP is a partnership between California state resources agencies, public utility companies, volunteer user groups and the scientific community. An important component of OREHP is an assessment of the biological and economic impacts of its releases.

The Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute (HSWRI) has participated in the OREHP program since 1983 by breeding and rearing white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis), releasing fingerlings into Southern California waters.

White seabass had virtually disappeared from California waters due to overfishing and habitat destruction.

To date, HSWRI has bred, tagged and released more than 650,000 seabass into Southern California waters. Nearly 1,000 of these hatchery-reared white seabass have been recovered.

To evaluate the hatchlings' success in the wild, researchers insert a coded wire tag into the cheek muscle of the fish. When a fish is caught, the tag allows researchers to identify its release group and helps them learn about the white seabass population as it develops.

HSWRI continues to develop programs to improve culture technology, evaluate population characteristics, evaluate habitat requirements, assess stocking methods, and develop methods to monitor wild populations.

Legal Protection for Fishes

1. Several U.S. agencies govern fishing laws and regulations, notably the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Other federal agencies that have responsibility for fish management and conservation include the U.S. Forest Service, The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the United States Geological Survey, and the National Park Service. 2. State agencies such as state Departments of Natural Resources (DNR), state Departments of Environmental Protection (DEP), and state Departments of Fish and Game may also enact fishing laws and regulations for the state.

3. The Convention in International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international treaty developed in 1973 to regulate trade in certain wildlife species. CITES prohibits or controls trade in about 80 species of bony fish.

4. Endangered and threatened species and populations.

IUCN/The World Conservation Union is a worldwide conservation organization. This organization links together government agencies, non-government agencies, and independent states to encourage a worldwide approach to conservation. As of 2005, IUCN/The World Conservation Union identified 162 "critically endangered" fish species, 140 "endangered" fish species, 429 "vulnerable" fish species, 12 "conservation-dependent" fish species, and 105 "near-threatened" fish species.

CITES designates species status via listing within an appendices system.

CITES lists the world's most endangered plants and animals in CITES Appendix I. Nine bony fishes are listed in Appendix I. One of these, the Asian bonytongue (Scleropages formosus), is on display at SeaWorld San Diego.

CITES Appendix II lists species that are not currently endangered, but in which trade must be controlled to avoid endangering the species. About 70 species of bony fishes are listed in Appendix II. Six of these species are displayed at SeaWorld parks: the arapaima (Arapaima gigas), the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus), and four species of http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/conservation-and-research/ 3/4 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/conservation-and-research/ seahorses (Hippocampus spp.).

As of 2005, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) lists 114 species of native bony fishes that are endangered.

Individual U.S. states may also list fish species as endangered.

Research

1. The non-profit SeaWorld & Busch Gardens Conservation Fund (SWBGCF) works on behalf of wildlife and habitats worldwide. The goal of the SWBGCF is to encourage sustainable solutions by supporting critical conservation initiatives worldwide.

The SWBGCF conducts grant awards twice each year and anticipates funding for 2005 to approach $700,000. Selected projects must be science-based, solution-driven and community-oriented - attributes needed to achieve effective and long-term conservation success.

Groups working on fish conservation projects are invited to apply for a SWBGCF grant. Projects are carefully selected by a diverse mix of wildlife experts, scientists, business leaders and educators.

The SWBGCF accepts donations to support conservation projects in the U.S. and around the world. 100% of donations go directly to selected projects.

SWBGCF supports the following programs that are related to bony fish conservation:

The Nature Conservancy is working to protect the Meso-American Reef, the second largest barrier reef in the world. Their goal is to build a marine reserves network, support the development of conservation policies and practices, and protect spawning grounds and reef systems of dozens of fish species. In 2004, SWBGCF provided funding to continue these efforts.

The University of Miami's Rosensteil School of Marine & Atmospheric Science is addressing declines in fishes and coral of the Western Atlantic coral reefs. A 2004 SWBGCF grant helps fund several teams of scuba divers to assess the health of the Western Atlantic coral reef. The results will provide answers to key questions about these impacts and will provide a baseline to evaluate future changes.

A 2004 SWBGCF grant to Project Seahorse (University of British Columbia Fisheries Centre) helps fund the production of an educational seahorse poster. The poster explores seahorse biology, demand for seahorses, conservation concerns, and creative solutions for managing seahorse populations. 2. From 1999 to 2003 - before the creation of the SWBGCF - SeaWorld and Discovery Cove supported The Nature Conservancy's Rescue the Reef® campaign to protect and preserve fragile warm-water coral reef habitats in the Florida Keys, Caribbean Basin and Asia/Pacific regions. The program enlists scores of volunteers - some of whom are SeaWorld and Discovery Cove employees - who do everything from underwater clean-ups and fish counts to outreach programs for local dive shops and fishermen. 3. Scientists all over the world continue to study the abundance, biology, reproduction, migration, and catch information for various bony fish species.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Books for Young Readers

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Books For Young Readers Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits Book List Reproduction Arnold, Caroline. Electric Fish. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1980. Longevity & Causes of Death Campbell, Elizabeth. Fins and Tails, A Story of Strange Fish. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1963. Conservation & Research Carlstrom, Nancy White. Fish and Flamingo. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1993 (fiction).

→ Books for Young Fitzsimons, Cecilia. My First Fishes. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. Readers Fowler, Allan. It Could Still Be a Fish. Chicago: Children's Press, 1990. Bibliography Hornblow, Leonora and Arthur Hornblow. Fish Do the Strangest Things. New York: Random House, 1990.

Kaufman, Les and the staff of the New England Aquarium. Do Fishes Get Thirsty? New York: Franklin Watts, 1991.

Ling, Mary. Eyewitness Junior Books. Amazing Fish. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.

Lionni, Leo. Fish is Fish. New York: Dragonfly Books (Alfred A. Knopf), 1970 (fiction).

Lionni, Leo. Swimmy. New York: Dragonfly Books (Alfred A. Knopf), 1963 (fiction).

Lovett, Sarah. Extremely Weird Fishes. Santa Fe, New Mexico: John Muir Publications, 1992.

Maddern, Eric. Curious Clownfish. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1990 (fiction).

Parker, Steve. Eyewitness Books. Fish. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.

Rabin, Staton. The Truth About Water Monsters. New York: Franklin Watts, 1992.

Ricciuti, Edward R. Our Living World. Fish. Woodbridge, Connecticut: Blackbirch Press, Inc., 1993.

Ricciuti, Edward R. Dancers on the Beach. The Story of Grunion. New York: Thomas Y Crowell Company, 1973.

Sabin, Louis. Fish. Mahwah, New Jersey: Troll Associates, 1985.

Selsam, Millicent E. and Joyce Hunt. A First Look at Fish. New York: Walker and Company, 1972.

Stratton, Barbara R. What is a Fish? New York: Franklin Watts, 1991.

Wallace, Karen. Think of an Eel. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Candiewick Press, 1993.

Wheeler, Alwyne. Fishes. Tulsa, Oklahoma: EDC Publishing, 1982.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Bibliography

Scientific Classification Bony Fishes Bibliography Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy & Physiology

Senses

Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits References Reproduction Axelrod, Herbert R. and Warren E. Burgess. Saltwater Aquarium Fish. Neptune City, New Jersey: T.F.H. Longevity & Causes of Publications, Inc., Ltd., 1973. Death Bond, Carl E. Biology of Fishes. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1979. Conservation & Research Burton, Maurice and Robert Burton. Encyclopedia of Fish. St. Louis: BPC Publishing, 1984.

Books for Young Evans, David, ed. The Physiology of Fishes. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993. Readers

Fichter, George S. and Edward C. Migdalski. The Fresh & Saltwater Fishes of the World. New York: → Bibliography Greenwich House, 1983.

Hauser, Hillary. Book of Marine Fishes. Glen Cove, New York: Pisces Books/Tetra Press, 1984.

Herald, Earl Stannard. Fishes of North America. New York: Doubleday, 1972.

Humann, Paul. Reef Fish Identification. Orlando: New World Publications, Inc., 1992.

Johnson, James Edward. Protected Fishes of the United States and Canada. Bethesda, Maryland: American Fisheries Society, 1987.

Jordan, David Starr. The Genera of Fishes, and a Classification of Fishes. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983.

Joseph, James, Witold Klawe, and Pat Murphy. Tuna and Billfish-Fish Without a Country. La Jolla, California: Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, 1988.

Lagler, Karl F., John E. Bardach and Robert R. Miller. Ichthyology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962.

Le Monte, Francesca Raimonde. Giant Fishes of the Open Sea. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1985.

Lowe, David W., ed. The Official World Wildlife Fund Guide to Endangered Species, Volume 11. Washington, D.C.: Beacham Publishing, Inc., 1990.

Marshall, N.B. The Life of Fishes. New York: Universe Books, 1973.

Miller, Daniel J. and Robert N. Lea. Guide to the Coastal Marine Fishes of California. Fish Bulletin No. 157. Sacramento, California: California Department of Fish and Game, 1972.

Mills, Dick. Aquarium Fish. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1993.

Moseley, Charles J., ed. The Official World Wildlife Fund Guide to Endangered Species, Volume 111. Washington, D.C.: Beacham Publishing, Inc., 1992.

Moyle, Peter B. and Joseph J. Cech, Jr. Fishes. An Introduction to Ichthyology. Second edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988.

Nelson, Joseph S. Fishes of the World. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/bibliography/ 1/2 1/12/2015 seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/bony-fish/bibliography/

Nikolsky, G.V. The Ecology of Fishes. New Jersey: TF.H. Publications, Inc. Ltd., 1978.

Ommanney, F D. The Fishes. New York: Time, Inc., 1984.

Ono, R. Dana, James D. Williams, and Anne Wagner. Vanishing Fishes of North America. Washington, D.C.: Stone Wall Press, Inc., 1983.

Popper, Arthur N. and Sheryl Coombs. "Auditory Mechanisms in Teleost Fishes." American Scientist 68, pp. 429-440, July-August 1980.

Popper, Arthur and Richard R. Fay, eds. Comparative Studies of Hearing in Vertebrates. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1980.

Quinn, John R. Our Native Fishes. Woodstock, Vermont: The Countryman Press, 1990.

Sakurai, Atzushi, Yohei Sakamoto, and Fumitoshi Mori. Aquarium Fish of the World. The Comprehensive Guide to 650 Species. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1991.

Thompson, Peter. Thompson's Guide to Freshwater Fishes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1985.

Thresher, R.E., Reproduction in Reef Fishes. Neptune City, New Jersey: TFH. Publications, Inc. Ltd., 1984.

Thurman, Harold V. Introductory Oceanography. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1981.

Wheeler, Alwyne. Fishes of the World. An Illustrated Dictionary. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975.

Wilson, Josleen. North American Fish. New York: Gramercy Books, 1991.

Wootton, R. J. Ecology of Teleost Fishes. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1990.

Wootton, R. J. Fish Ecology. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1992.

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