Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 41, 2020: 37–49 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 41, 2020) DOI 10.22630/AHLA.2020.41.4 Assessment of spatial cohesion in suburban areas based on physical characteristics of buildings JOANNA KOŁATA, PIOTR ZIERKE Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology

Abstract: Assessment of spatial cohesion in sub- problem and the related spatial chaos has urban areas based on physical characteristics changed over the centuries and has been of buildings. The rapid expansion of residential usually based on specific urban designs buildings in suburban areas currently makes these places particularly exposed to spatial degradation, and cities’ construction rules. These the disappearance of traditional rural landscapes rules, among many relics of the past, are and other various problems. The lack of archi- a special issue because they have influ- tectural and urban cohesion of new and existing enced not only the spatial order, but also buildings is one of the reasons for increasing spa- the principles of the society’s existence. tial disorder. The subject of the presented research is the physical features of the building forms, Although the origins of urban planning which influence spatial order through their role date back to ancient times, and its rules in shaping the spatial context. The authors aimed have changed over time, one of them has at creating a method of spatial monitoring based remained unchanged – the authorities on the characteristics of the physical features of are responsible for designing, organis- buildings located in a given area. The results of the study are intended to provide in-depth and ing and managing the space they govern digestible information on the buildings in indi- (Kowalewski et al. 2018). vidual areas. They should also enable the partici- The behaviours formed in the 20th pants of the construction process to become better century, as well as those resulting from acquainted with the local forms of buildings and the political transformation in Poland at raise the architectural awareness of inhabitants. the turn of the 20th and 21st century, af- Key words: spatial monitoring, spatial cohesion, fects the contemporary spaces of Polish spatial order cities and villages. The economic devel- opment in recent years has contributed to INTRODUCTION the dynamic growth of the building sec- tor, which, especially in suburban areas, The rapid expansion of residential build- is the source of many unfavourable proc- ings which can now be observed in esses, characterised by such concepts suburban areas, makes these places par- as chaos and spatial disorder. Increased ticularly exposed to spatial degradation, investment activity, however, does not the disappearance of traditional rural result in actions taken by the authorities landscapes and other various problems. to standardise the planning process. Ex- Spatial disorder is not, of course, a new isting legal acts and the competences of phenomenon; it has been present in Po- professionals do not ensure spatial order. land for decades. The approach to this Residential districts sprawling within 38 J. Kołata, P. Zierke cities and their surroundings are created have focused on the introduction of in accordance with the applicable law, a partial monitoring, covering in the first but their location, shape and relationship stage the physical features of the build- with the neighbouring areas are ques- ing forms. The development of this sys- tionable. tem and the development of a compre- As the authors of the Polish Academy hensive spatial monitoring system will of Sciences (Polska Akademia Nauk) require cooperation with specialists from report “Studies on Spatial Chaos” em- other areas of design and spatial plan- phasise, the effects of political and social ning in the coming years. Although the negligence are dramatic for the condition introduction of partial monitoring will of space (Kowalewski and Nowak 2018). not completely solve spatial problems, They have noticed that the constant dev- it will make it possible to compile and astation of laws and institutions respon- to provide people involved in different sible for their preparation and implemen- stages of the construction process, such tation results in a growing collapse. as officials, planners and architects, with Spatial chaos is a subject of scientific precise information on the physical char- research primarily because of its origins acteristics of buildings, which are an and its current and future consequences. important spatial element. Such persons Apart from further changes in the law, should have the widest possible knowl- which are of course also necessary, the edge of local architecture and building scientific studies published in recent forms. The analysis presented in the years have also recommended efforts to manuscript is the first stage of works on develop a system for monitoring proc- the monitoring system, which is to be re- esses of spatial planning and develop- fined and supplemented over the years. ment. The creation of such a system is The authors hope that the data obtained postulated, among others, for instance, in the following years will broaden the in the third volume of the aforemen- state of knowledge about developed ar- tioned Polish Academy of Sciences re- eas also by obtaining detailed compara- port (Śleszyński et al. 2018). However, tive material, which should show the the authors of this document predict scale and type of spatial changes in the that the creation of such a system will analysed areas. be complicated as it requires the unifi- In order to better illustrate the results cation of evaluation processes (e.g. due of the analysis of the physical charac- to the need to compare the condition of teristics of buildings and to present data space both within the commune, poviat on the forms of buildings in a more ac- and a whole country). At the same time, cessible way (as suggested by the afore- the system should “present the issues in mentioned Polish Academy of Sciences a way that is as digestible as possible for report), the authors decided to present its recipients and be generally and easily ac- results as areas with different degrees of cessible” (Śleszyński et al. 2018). spatial cohesion. Since the overall space monitoring is The lack of cohesion of the architec- a complex process and concerns many tural and urban structure is one of the el- aspects of spatial planning, the authors ements that characterise spatial disorder. Assessment of spatial cohesion in suburban areas... 39

According to many scientific studies, Many of the above definitions of co- spatial cohesion is a key element of spa- hesion are obviously very broad and re- tial order (Wdowicka and Mierzejewska fer to a much broader concept than the 2012), and some researchers even use form of the buildings themselves, but the these terms interchangeably (Kolipiński characteristics of buildings are always 2011, Kozłowski et al. 2017). The im- a constituent element, a factor influenc- portant role of cohesion in shaping a city ing the concept of cohesion. is also mentioned by Kantarek (2008, 2010), which she defines as “such a fea- ture that combines its individual parts PURPOSE AND TEST METHODS together”. This view is also found in for- eign studies. Salingaros (2017) believes The aim of the study is to create a method that “space is experienced positively only of space monitoring based on the physi- when it is coherent”. Caliskan and Mash- cal characteristics of buildings, which, hoodi (2017) believe that the notion of as a result of a synthesis of the obtained coherence is the most basic condition of results, will make it possible to enable spatial quality within the urban fabric. the formulation of guidelines for further This approach is also consistent with development in given areas. The analy- the work of older architecture and urban sis of the individual physical character- theorists. Alexander (2002) believes that istics of buildings was developed with design should combine dependencies the use of a proprietary method of pre- in such a way as to create a special bal- senting the results by identifying areas ance and consistency in complete design that are coherent, partially coherent, and structures, on all scales. In “A Pattern incoherent, located in the analysed area. Language” Alexander et al. (1977) write This is because, in principle, the results that “when you build a thing you can- of the research are to be as accessible as not merely build that thing in isolation, possible to the recipients. A presenta- but must also repair the world around it, tion which shows the dominant physi- and within it, so that the larger world at cal features in a given area may be more that one place becomes more coherent, readable and may characterise areas with and more whole”. Maki (1964), while dominant features. This is intended to explaining the nature of collective form, help the participants in the construction states that “it is, however, not a collec- process, especially planners, officials tion of unrelated, separate buildings, responsible for drawing up and giving but of buildings that have reasons to be opinions on planning guidelines, archi- together”. It is also worth mentioning tects, who unfortunately are not always here the very definition of the form of familiar enough with the surroundings of the city by Lynch (1990), i.e. the “spatial the buildings they design, and, finally, in- arrangement of physical structures and vestors, who can more consciously seek spaces of localised activities and flows building forms that are better suited to on the scale of a community or urban re- the local spatial context. This approach gion”. is in line with the 2017 draft of the 40 J. Kołata, P. Zierke

Urban Planning and Construction Code. The method of assessing coherence Article 116, par. 2 of the Code stipulates presented in this paper is an attempt to that “it shall be ensured that an invest- identify areas where certain physical ment project is harmoniously embed- characteristics of buildings dominate. ded in the immediate surroundings by Such areas have been identified as co- adapting [...] the characteristic external herent. Where no predominant physi- parameters of the investment project cal characteristic features of buildings to the dominant type of the develop- can be defined in the area, the area was ments in the analysed area” (Projekt identified as incoherent. The third type z dnia 23 listopada 2017 r. ustawy Kodeks of areas identified in the course of this urbanistyczno-budowlany). However, it study are partially coherent areas, i.e. ar- should be mentioned here that although eas where there are characteristic physi- the principles of the Code were right, cal features of buildings but they are not and it contained many provisions criti- dominant. cally needed for the spatial order, the act The pilot study was carried out in itself was not finally passed and work on municipalities of the Poznań area. As the it was terminated. analysis of the whole area is planned to Since cohesion analysis has its ori- stretch over several years and data col- gins in a branch of mathematics called lection and compilation is still ongoing, topology, research works from this very this manuscript presents the results of pi- field are the most common. The term lot studies based on the example of the is also used to describe social and eco- Luboń municipality. nomic phenomena. Much less frequent While working on the research meth- are works aimed at measuring spatial od, source literature was studied, mainly cohesion which usually focus on trying in the area of spatial chaos and order, to determine the level of cohesion of the as well as in the area of research on the urban fabric. In recent years, attempts visual evaluation of space. The tool re- to define a method for measuring urban quired experimentation and pilot studies cohesion have been made by Ewing and to check the correctness and repeatability Clemente (2013). In their study they fo- of the results obtained. A field query was cused on the definition of eight measur- carried out in the area of Poznań, and able urban indicators, which were then cartographic and satellite image analy- evaluated by means of visual assessment ses were performed. In the course of the analyses, which were largely based on works, a questionnaire survey was also spatial perception. used, which made it possible to define The aim of the Caliskan and Mash- the most important physical features of hoodi study (2017) was to measure ur- buildings influencing the visual coher- ban cohesion more objectively. To this ence of the space they occupied. end, they used the Gini–Simpson index, The analysis assessed small areas not which is a measure of the coherence, exceeding a few urban blocks, which are equality and proximity of elements in the distinguished by the visual features of spatial arrangement. the existing buildings. The most impor- Assessment of spatial cohesion in suburban areas... 41 tant element of this stage of the analy- visible in the near zone defined by the sis was to define the criteria for assess- maximum distance expressed in tens of ing the spatial cohesion. Niezabitowski metres. Already from such distances and (2006) writes that “both the building and perspectives some features are easier to its surroundings are characterised by see than others and actually have more a number of physical features that can influence on shaping the spatial order be perceived visually, such as shape, and cohesion. The assessment of the size, colour, texture, proportions, surface importance of the elements of the build- transparency, articulation, decoration ing form varies depending on the study and others”. The physical characteristics and the authors. The previously men- of the forms of the analysed buildings tioned draft of the Urban Planning and presented in the paper were determined Construction Code indicates the primary on the basis of the criteria set out in the role of such building features as the col- act referred to above: the Urban Planning our of the building, building alignment and Construction Code, and above all its and shape and geometry. Podawca “urban planning regulations for devel- (2016) points to the “height of the build- oped areas”. It has been determined that ings and the form of the roof as factors the analysed physical characteristics of shaping spatial order in Poland”. In view buildings will be their height, their loca- of the differences in scientific studies, it tion in relation to the road, the type, ge- was decided to conduct a survey among ometry, colour and material of the roof, architects and students of the Faculty of maintenance/departure from the existing Architecture at the Poznań University of alignment of the buildings, colour and Technology who deal with the issues of material of external walls, proportions of physical characteristics of buildings and the building, ratio of the height of walls their impact on spatial order and cohesion to the height of the roof, proportions of as part of classes held at the Research and window openings, as well as the length Design Studio. The aim was to indicate and width of the buildings, colour of which of the sixteen physical characteris- window and door woodwork, colour of tics of the building have the most signifi- the plinth, and the architectural details in cant impact on the spatial cohesion. And the buildings. However, not all of these although only 20 respondents took part features have the same impact on the in the survey, it helped clarify and sup- perception of space, which is usually as- plement the characteristics indicated in sessed from the perspective of a person the abovementioned studies. The results or a passenger using means of transport. are presented by percentages depending The visual impact assessment method on the number of votes obtained. Even- distinguishes three visual zones of the tually, seven features received a signifi- environment: near, intermediate and dis- cance rating above 50%: tant, in which the perception of space – 100% – height of the building (can be changes (Niezabitowski 2006). Due to expressed also with the number of its the nature of the survey and its focus on storeys), the physical characteristics of buildings, – 95% – location of the building in re- the most important criteria will be those lation to the road, 42 J. Kołata, P. Zierke

– 95% – type and geometry of the alignment, colour of external walls, and roof, colour of the roof. – 90% – maintenance of or deviation During the pilot study it was noted from the existing building alignment, that a full coherence of all the indicated – 85% – colour of external walls, physical characteristics of buildings is – 70% – proportions of the building not necessary and an area can be per- (ratio of height to length and width), ceived as coherent even though only – 65% – colour of the roof, some of them are compatible. It was – 50% – external wall finishing mate- noted that three out of six characteristics rial, are sufficient for an area to be visually – 45% – ratio of wall height to roof perceived as coherent. height, The benchmark for assessing coher- – 45% – proportions of window open- ence was the nature of the buildings ings, dominating the surroundings. – 35% – width of the building, Finally, the following definitions of – 35% – length of the building, areas that are coherent, partly coherent, – 20% – roof finishing material, and spatially incoherent, were proposed: – 20% – characteristic details of the – coherent areas – areas which consist building, of buildings, the majority of which – 10% – colour of window and door have the same values of at least three frames, out of the following architectural – 5% – colour of plinths. features: height of the building, its The above results indicate that the location in relation to the road, main- assessment of the features that have the tenance of the existing building align- greatest influence on perception is large- ment, type and geometry of the roof, ly consistent with the abovementioned as well as the colour of external walls publications in terms of the colours of and the colour of the roof, the buildings and their roofs, the build- – partly coherent areas – areas which ing alignment, shape and geometry of consist of buildings which have the roofs and building height. same values for at least three of the During the survey, accurate measure- following architectural features: ment of the height of buildings, usually height of the building, its location in due to a lack of access to them, proved relation to the road, maintenance of to be a major problem. Due to the desire the existing building alignment, type to keep the widest possible spectrum of and geometry of the roof, as well as the analysed buildings, it was decided to the colour of external walls and the exclude building proportions from the colour of the roof, but these buildings study. Finally, the six criteria were used do not predominate in this area, in the study: height of the building, lo- – incoherent areas – areas which con- cation of the building in relation to the sist of buildings which do not share road, type and geometry of the roof, the same values of at least three out of maintenance of the existing building the following architectural features: Assessment of spatial cohesion in suburban areas... 43

height of the building, its location in COHESION STUDY BASED relation to the road, maintenance of ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE CITY the existing building alignment, type OF LUBOŃ and geometry of the roof, as well as the colour of the external walls and On the basis of the criteria presented in the colour of the roof. the previous chapter, a study on the co- The correctness of the dominance of hesion of areas in terms of the dominant physical characteristics in the individual physical characteristics of their buildings analysed areas, and thus the correctness was carried out in the Luboń commune. of the qualification of the areas as coher- Its results presenting the location of areas ent, partly coherent and incoherent, has that are coherent, partially coherent and been verified with the dominance index, incoherent are presented in Figure 1. which is usually used in the biological The analysis made it possible to de- sense to calculate species prevailing in termine the level of cohesion of the areas the biocenosis of the given area. The cal- in terms of physical characteristics of the culations were based on the formula: buildings situated in them. It turned out that incoherent areas, which occupy just D = (n / N) · 100% under 63% of the developed areas, i.e. 470 ha, prevail in Luboń. Coherent areas where: occupy almost 27% (203 ha) and partly D – predominance of the analysed physi- coherent over 10% (78 ha). A detailed cal characteristic, analysis of the six elements influencing n – number of buildings characterised by the perceived cohesion, a fragment of the presence of the physical feature, which is presented in Table 2, made it N – total number of buildings in the ana- possible to define the most important ar- lysed area. chitectural features and the places where In order to make the results of the sur- the given features prevail, e.g. two-sto- vey more accessible to the public, it was rey buildings, higher buildings. The decided to supplement the plans with study showed that there are flat-roofed the location of coherent, partly coherent buildings in most areas, and indicated and inconsistent spaces with a signature where buildings with other types of roof system which determines the values of (e.g. slanted) predominate. Information the dominant physical characteristics of was also gathered on the type and col- buildings in the given area. Each sig- our of the roofing and the dominant col- nature consists of seven elements, the our of the external walls. Thus, during first of which is a three-digit land or- the microscale analysis, comprehensive der number, with the next indicating information was obtained concerning the dominant function of the buildings the characteristic features of the Luboń followed by the value of the six physi- architecture and the places where these cal characteristics prevailing in the area. features are the most frequent. The areas The proposed signature designations are designated in the study were assigned shown in Table 1. signatures determining the values of the 44 J. Kołata, P. Zierke

TABLE 1. The system of signatures proposed for the spatial cohesion study No Name Signature 1 Serial number 001-999 MN – single-family residential buildings MW – multi-family residential buildings Dominant function(s) of buildings in U – service areas (shops, craftsmen, etc.) 2 a given area UP – public service areas (education, sacral facilities, sports and recreation areas, etc.) AG – areas of economic activity Number of overground storeys of 3 1 – one storey … > 10 buildings dominating the plot A – pyramid C – hip roof D – roof (also asymmetrical) H – onion roof K – roof M – Dominant roof type N – half-hipped roof 4 + P – approximate pitch R – curved roof, Delorme roof S – saw-tooth roof T – Dutch U – shed roof W – roof X – Z – other roof c – red, orange g – black, grey 5 Dominant roof colour r – brown n – blue i – other Building location in relation K – ridged 6 to the road S – peaked b – white g – black, grey k – beige r – brown 7 External walls colour ż – bright yellow o – orange ó – pink z – green c – red dominant physical features in the given 059.MW.4-5.7.X3g.bgrk, multi-fam- area. A fragment of the map supplemen- ily residential buildings prevail, with ted with signatures is shown in Fig- four, five and seven storeys, with a flat ure 2. For example, in the area marked roof with a pitch close to 3° and a grey Assessment of spatial cohesion in suburban areas... 45

FIGURE 1. Location of coherent, partially coherent and incoherent areas in the Luboń commune or black covering, and with white, grey, – 100% – external wall colour: white, brown or beige external walls. grey, brown and beige. In each area, the indicators of domi- The signature of the area in question nance of the individual analysed physi- does not take into account non-dominant cal characteristics of the buildings were physical characteristics: also calculated; for the abovementioned – 50% – location of buildings in ac- area marked 059 they were: cordance with existing building – 100% – building height: 4, 5 and 7 alignment, floors, – as well as the location of the build- – 100% – type and geometry of the ings in relation to the road, due to the roof: flat roof, with a pitch slope of fact that there are only buildings with about 3°, flat roofs. – 100% – roof colour: grey and graph- In the opinion of the authors, the ite, signatures make the analysis more 46 J. Kołata, P. Zierke

TABLE 2. Fragment of the analysis presenting the predominant features of buildings in coherent areas of the Luboń commune Location Area Number of the Maintenance Type and External Colour Area size of building of building geometry walls of the roof (ha) storeys in relation alignment of the roof colour to the road white, beige, S01 1.46 2 – yes mixed black, grey grey white, beige, S02 1.44 2 – yes mixed – grey S03 1.22 2 – yes flat black, greywhite S04 0.94 2 ridged yes gable black, greywhite S05 3.92 1 – partly hip 30° brown beige white, grey, S06 0.85 2 ridged yes gable 45° black, grey brown

S07 4.03 1–2 – yes gable, flat – white, beige

ridged, beige, S08 0.44 3 yes gable black, grey peaked brown S09 1.68 2 ridged yes gable 45° brown white

S10 0.32 2–3 – yes flat black, grey white, beige

S11 0.94 2 ridged partly gable, hip 45° brown white, beige

S12 0.59 2 yes flat roof black, grey white, beige

ridged, gable, hip 30° black, grey, S13 3.00 – yes white, beige peaked & 45° brown gable, mixed 30° black, grey, S14 4.62 2 – no white, beige & 45° brown

S15 6.71 2 peaked yes gable 45° black, grey white, beige

ridged, gable, mixed 30° red, black, S16 3.74 2 yes white, beige peaked & 45° grey, brown ridged, S17 3.15 2 yes mixed 30° & 45° – beige peaked ridged, black, grey, white, beige, S18 2.48 2 yes mixed 30° & 45° peaked brown red ridged, white, beige, S19 2.16 – no gable 30° & 45° red, brown peaked green ridged, red, black, S20 3.47 2 yes gable 30° & 45° white, beige peaked grey Assessment of spatial cohesion in suburban areas... 47

FIGURE 2. Fragment of the map of Luboń supplemented with signatures indicating the dominant physical features of buildings accessible to recipients, and the physical ings located in a given area. In order to characteristics of the buildings that dom- make the results more accessible to the inate in a given area are more transparent public, they are presented in the form and may constitute a more detailed alter- of a map of areas with different degrees native to notes on the drawings in stud- of cohesion. They have been supple- ies of the conditions and directions of the mented with a signature system showing spatial development of municipalities, or the dominant physical characteristics in even local spatial development plans. each area. Data collected during future field searches will broaden the state of CONCLUSIONS knowledge about developed areas, and will make it possible to obtain detailed The article presents a method of partial comparative material. It should show the space monitoring based on characteris- scale and type of spatial changes in the tics of the physical properties of build- analysed areas. 48 J. Kołata, P. Zierke

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