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Bio-Ecology of the African Citrus Triozid Trioza Erytreae Del Guercio (Hemiptera: Triozidae) on Citrus in Kenya

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Bio-Ecology of the African Citrus Triozid Trioza Erytreae Del Guercio (Hemiptera: Triozidae) on Citrus in Kenya Zentrum für Entwicklungsforschung Bio-ecology of the African citrus triozid Trioza erytreae Del Guercio (Hemiptera: Triozidae) on citrus in Kenya implication for its management Dissertation Zur Erlangung des Grades Doktor der Agrarwissenschaften (Dr.agr.) der Landwirtschaftlichen Fakultät Rheinischen Friedrichs-Wilhelm-Universität Bonn von Owusu Fordjour Aidoo aus Abeadze-Dominase, Ghana Bonn 2019 Referent: Prof. Dr. Christian Borgemeister Koferent: Prof. Dr. Mamoudou Sétamou Tag der Promotion: 13. Dezember 2018 Angefertigt mit Genehmigung der Landwirtschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Bonn ABSTRACT Citrus production is a major industry in Kenya. Apart from providing income and jobs, it contributes to food and nutritional security. For the last decade, citrus production has experienced a continuous decline, particularly in the Kenyan highlands. Consequently, production is unable to meet local demands, which has led to increased imports of citrus. Low production has been attributed to pest and diseases, of which the African citrus triozid (ACT) Trioza erytreae Del Guercio (Hem.: Triozidae) is the economically most important pest species due to its ability to vector “Candidatus Liberibacter africanus” (CLaf), the causal agent of the African citrus greening disease. Currently, the disease has no cure, hence the need to manage the pest in order to prevent the further spread of it. Through field surveys and laboratory studies, this thesis sought to determine the bio-ecology of ACT on citrus in Kenya and implications for its management. The results showed that ACT was widely distributed, causing more damage in shaded than unshaded citrus trees, particularly in the southeastern canopy quadrants. A newly developed predictive model revealed hotspots out of the distributional range under current and future climate scenarios. Trioza erytreae reproduction was confined to plants belonging to the family Rutaceae. Adult T. erytreae survived and reproduced on Zanthoxylum usamberensis (Engl.), Murraya koenigii (L.), Calodendrum capense(L.f.) Thunb., Teclea nobilis (Del.), Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Benth. and Vepris bilocularis (Wright & Arn.) Engl. Also, plants which appeared to have superior host plant quality, as reflected by several of ACTs’ tested biological parameters, also produced adults with larger wing size and greater shape. Two host plants, i.e. V. bilocularis and T. nobilis, were reported here for the first time as alternative host plants for ACT. A spatial survey was conducted to assess seasonal variations of ACT occurrence across different altitudinal gradients with ACT populations significantly varying across different altitudinal gradients, resulting in higher pest densities in mid elevations (1,500-2,000 meters above sea level [m.a.s.l.]). The closely related Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hem.: Liviidae) was found and sampled in elevations up to 1,409 m.a.s.l. Yellow sticky card traps proved to be most efficient in trapping adult ACT. The result of a study to compare the effects of host plant quality on wing shape and size of ACT clearly showed that both geometric and traditional morphometry were useful in separation different populations of T. erytreae. The findings of this thesis thus provide relevant information to improve monitoring of ACT and to design ecologically sound integrated pest management strategies for control of this pest. KURZFASSUNG Die Zitrusproduktion ist ein wichtiger Wirtschaftszweig in Kenia. Neben der Bereitstellung von Einkommen und Arbeitsplätzen trägt sie zur Lebensmittel- und Ernährungssicherung bei. Im letzten Jahrzehnt hat die Zitrusproduktion insbesondere im kenianischen Hochland kontinuierlich abgenommen. Folglich kann die Produktion der lokalen Nachfrage nicht gerecht werden, was zu einem zunehmenden Import von Zitrusfrüchten geführt hat. Der geringe Ertrag wird Schädlingen und Krankheiten zugeschrieben. Der wichtigste Schädling ist der Afrikanische Zitrustriozid (ACT) Trioza erytreae Del Guercio (Hem.: Triozidae) aufgrund seiner Fähigkeit "Candidatus Liberibacter africanus" (CLaf), den Erreger der Aftikanischen Zitrusgrünung, zu übertragen. Derzeit hat die Krankheit keine Heilung, daher muss der Schädling bekämpft werden, um eine weitere Ausbreitung der Krankheit zu verhindern. Durch Feld- und Laborstudien wurde versucht, die Bioökologie von ACT auf Zitrusfrüchten in Kenia und die Implikationen für die Bekämpfung des Schädlings zu bestimmen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass ACT in beschatteten Zitrusbäumen stärker verbreitet war als in nicht beschatteten, insbesondere in den südöstlichen Baumkronenquadranten. Ein neu entwickeltes Vorhersagemodell beschrieb ‚Hotspots‘ außerhalb des derzeitigen Verbreitungsgebietes unter aktuellen und zukünftigen Klimaszenarien. Die Reproduktion von T. erytreae war auf Pflanzen der Familie Rutaceae beschränkt. Adulte ACT überlebten und reproduzierten auf Zanthoxylum usamberensis (Engl.), Murraya koenigii (L.), Calodendrum capense (L.f.) Thunb., Teclea nobilis (Del.), Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Benth. und Vepris bilocularis (Wright & Arn.) Engl. Auf Pflanzen mit hoher Wirtspflanzenqualität entwickelten sich ACT mit größerer Flügelgröße und -form. Zwei Wirtspflanzen, V. bilocularis und T. nobilis, wurden zum ersten Mal als alternative Wirtspflanzen für ACT beschrieben. Eine räumliche Untersuchung wurde durchgeführt, um saisonale Variationen des ACT-Vorkommens über verschiedene Höhengradienten hinweg zu erfassen, wobei ACT-Populationen zwischen verschiedenen Höhengradienten mit höheren Schädlingsdichten in mittleren Höhenlagen (1.500- 2.000 Meter über dem Meeresspiegel [M.ü.d.M.]) signifikant variierten. Die nahe verwandte asiatische Zitrusfrucht-Psyllide Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hem.: Liviidae) wurde in Höhen bis zu 1.409 M.ü.d.M. gefunden. Gelbe Klebe-Kartenfallen erwiesen sich als am effizientesten zum Fang von erwachsener ACT. Das Ergebnis einer Studie zum Vergleich der Effekte der Wirtspflanzenqualität auf die Flügelform und die Größe von ACT zeigte, dass sowohl die geometrische als auch die traditionelle Morphometrie zur Trennung verschiedener Populationen von T. erytreae geeignet ist. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit liefern daher relevante Informationen zur Verbesserung des Monitorings und ACT zur Entwicklung von ökologisch verträglichen integrierten Pflanzenschutzstrategien gegen den Schädling. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Citrus ............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 History of citrus ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Citrus production, importance and constraints .................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Description, biology and lifecycle ......................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Geographical distribution ..................................................................................................... 7 1.2.3 Flight activity ......................................................................................................................... 9 1.2.4 Factors affecting population dynamics of citrus flush ........................................................ 10 1.2.5 Detection and monitoring ................................................................................................... 12 1.2.6 Vector pathogen-interactions ............................................................................................. 12 1.2.7 Morphometryof Trioza erytreae ......................................................................................... 15 1.3.1 Management of Trioza erytreae and ACGD ........................................................................ 18 1.3.2 Chemical control ................................................................................................................. 18 1.3.3 Biological control ................................................................................................................ 19 1.3.4 Cultural control ................................................................................................................... 20 1.3.5 Justification of the study ..................................................................................................... 20 1.4.1 Aim and objectives ..................................................................................................................... 21 1.4.2 Structure of the thesis......................................................................................................... 22 2. DISTRIBUTION, INFESTATION LEVELS AND RISK OF SPREAD OF TRIOZA ERYTREAE (HEMIPTERA: TRIOZIDAE) IN KENYA .................................................................................................................................. 23 2.1 Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 23 2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 24 2.3 Materials and methods .............................................................................................................. 27 2.3.1 Data collection ...................................................................................................................
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