NGJI, An International Refereed Journal, (NGSI-BHU, ISSN: 0027-9374/2016/1596), vol. 62 (4), September : 303-314

Tectonic Processes and Landforms in the Lesser Himalayas : An experimental study from Khairna Watershed Jyoti Joshi Different types of landforms and processes in different parts of the earth surface are topic of interest for the people studying geomorphology. Landforms change with time through active processes. The role of these processes becomes very significant when we are concerned with the young and dynamic mountain system like the Himalayas. The changing intensity and speed of processes that are reflected in the landforms of a Himalayan watershed is the topic of interest in this study. Analysis of the tectonically controlled landforms within the watershed further help for a better understanding of sediment mobilization and transportation of earth material down slopes and downstream. Khairna watershed, a Lesser Himalayan drainage basin is used as an experimental laboratory for continuous monitoring of the geomorphologic processes and associated landforms. Field investigations were conducted in the Khairna watershed between 2004-2007.Steep to very steep scarps, terraces, triangular facets, and waterfalls in the study area are associated with the faults and are caused by vertical displacement of rocks due to differential uplift. Apart from direct tectonic origin, debris channels, debris fans and cones, cols and knolls, sudden changes in river profiles are examples of tectonically controlled landforms modified by denudation activities. Identification, monitoring and analysis of different processes and associated landforms in the experimental drainage basin may help to understand the geomorphic processes in a systematic way which affect the region as well as the people living in the region in various ways. Similar studies in different parts of the dynamic Himalayan watersheds may be helpful for the systematic analysis of landforms and the processes associated with their origin to a great extent. Key Words: Sediment mobilization, tectonic processes, landforms, drainage basin, differential uplift. Introduction interest to the earth scientists. Though it is not Tectonic processes are related with the easy to measure the role of these processes in movements below the earth’s crust. The quantitative terms, there are sufficient processes are responsible for the evolution of evidences to prove the role of these processes different types of landforms upon the earth in a particular area. They are of special interest surface. Therefore, these processes are of for researchers working in different parts of Dr. Jyoti Joshi, Department of Geography, S. S. J. Campus, Almora-263601, Kumaun University, Uttarakhand, India. [email protected]

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the Himalayan mountain system because this processes. Changing form and type of a young orogeny has been supported by related particular landform has its effect on series of research in the last century, which prove that interconnected landforms. Description of the entire region is tectonically active. The landforms of a particular region, processes entire Lesser Himalayan belt and the Siwalik acting upon them and changes in the shape and Group are cut by a multiplicity of faults that size of the landforms due to these continuous are occupied by streams. The structure of the processes is necessary to understand the present study area is not so simple as portrayed dynamics of the earth surface in general and by earlier works (Auden, J.B., 1934;Heim and some specific area of interest in particular. Ganser, 1939; Gansser, A., 1964).The These differences can be observed in different Himalayan zone is a geosynclinal tract parts of the Lesser Himalayan region. Natural squeezed between the two large continental boundaries in the form of drainage basins can masses of Eurasia and Gondwanaland (Wadia, help to connect the link between individual 1975). A number of studies including Pande, processes and their interrelationship with the 1950, Vashi and Merh (1965) Sharma (1981), whole system. The present study is an attempt Valdiya (1988), Shastri(1989), Bartarya(1993), towards understanding different landforms of Joshi(2015) have found evidences of the the study area and the processes responsible tectonic and neotectonic processes in this for their existence. region lying in the Lesser Himalayan terrain. Starting from the top, these processes As a zone of recent folding and fracturing, large carry down the earth material in various forms. amount of sediment yield and mobilization The speed and rate of movement of every through different processes result in changing process varies with space and time. Thornbury landscapes and landforms in the mountainous (1993) has stated that geologic structure is a region. In the tectonically active areas, the dominant control factor in the evolution of mass wasting processes are more active. landforms and is reflected in them. The term Majority of the third, fourth and fifth order structure includes all the ways in which the streams flow along these lineaments and the earth materials differ from one another in their faults that are more susceptible to weathering, physical and chemical attributes. Attitude of slope failures and erosion. specific rocks, presence or absence of joints, Different levels of terraces, shifting of bedding planes, folds, faults, rock massiveness, streams, steep scarps are some of the very the physical hardness of the constituent common features of the Himalayan region. The minerals, the permeability of rocks and various landforms and the processes directly affect the other ways by which the rocks of the earth people living in the study area and indirectly crust differ from one another. These the entire country. Throughout the history of differences can be observed in different parts the evolution of the mighty Himalayas, these of the Lesser Himalayan region. Flowing in their processes have been active, have reshaped, youthful stage, the Himalayan streams differ and resized the landforms. Landforms from each other and; of course their drainage (particularly the landforms of tectonic origin) systems too. The drainage basin as a unit for have evolved through complex geomorphic studying the complex geomorphic processes

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Fig.1. Location of the study area may be helpful in quantitative geomorphologic and two fifth order streams. The area of the studies. Therefore, identification, location, drainage basin is about 125 km2.The area measurements and understanding different enjoys cool temperate climatic conditions. The types of landforms associated with tectonic stream flows from south to north and joins river activities in a lesser Himalayan drainage basin Kosi at Khairna . The basin area lies in Nainital are the objectives of the present study. district in the hill state of Uttarakhand. Most of The Study Area the southern part of the drainage basin is surrounded by Gagar Ninglat reserve forest. To study the complexities in landforms of Mukteshwer, a tourist destination is located in a particular area, drainage basin is the most the southeastern part of the drainage basin. practical unit, which is specifically helpful in Along the southwestern boundary lies Nainital, quantitative geomorphologic studies. In this famous tourist centre of Kumaun hills. The study, the selected area includes the drainage western boundary is formed by Naina Reserve basin of Khairna stream. The drainage basin forest. More than half of the drainage basin lies between 290 23' to 29031' North latitudes area is covered with forest. Agriculture is not and 790 25' to 79039' East longitudes in the a very profitable job in the steep hill slopes. Kumaun Lesser Himalayas (Fig. 1). All the Some patches of terraces are good to grow streams flowing within the Khairna stream are fruits and vegetables. Bhowali-Ramgarh and structurally controlled (Valdiya, K. S. 1988).The Khairna Garampani are the places growing Khairna river is a sixth order stream comprising fruits (apples, plums, peaches, khubani pears as many as 380 first,76 second 19 third 5 fourth etc.) and vegetables (capsicum, beans, brinjals

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peas, tomatoes, potatoes etc.). Two tributaries this deformation so commonly recorded in the of the Khairna stream namely Ninglat stream study area, mark the dominant lineation and and the Jakh gadhera are south-north flowing generally plunge at various angles due N to streams while the Ramgarh stream flows in NE.The eastern part of the study area is said east-west direction. The area is experiencing to be the lower part of Almora synform which serious environmental hazards related to the is constituted of two thrust sheets. Pande, instability of the hill slopes (Valdiya, K. S. 1988). (1950) recognized this as Ramgarh Nappe. The Khairna river basin has unique geologic and area constitutes of five major stratigraphcal geomorphic setting. groups namely Krol formation, Blaini formation, The Khairna stream and all its tributaries Upper Jaunsar formation, Lower Jaunsar are structurally controlled. The region is formation and the Ramgarh formation. Nine characterised by numerous mountain ranges, sub groups have been identified within these dissected valleys and undulating steep slopes. groups (Valdiya 1988). These groups have The deposition of terraces of different levels varied rock types ranging from volcanic, and differences in their heights from one level quartzite, limestone and siltstone. These rocks to another, shifting of river channels, triangular are crushed and sheared at several places. facets, steep scarps, debris fans and cones, Numerous folds that are open with one limb debris channels suggests that the region had steep and almost vertical while the other gently history of tectonic rejuvenation. Earlier workers dipping due NE. These folds extend NWSE (Heim and Gansser, 1939) in Kumaon Himalaya and are overturned due south such that their separate the underlying younger rocks of Krol axial planes show moderate dips due NE. Their nappe from those of Almora nappe above it. fold axes plunge gently due NW. numerous The town of Bhowali, situated on an anticline, minor folds related to these structures are perhaps is complementary to the above- recorded which show geometry identical to the mentioned structure to the north. Between major structures. Ideal development of these Bhowali and Ranikhet-Almora, Vashi and Merh folds is seen in the Khairna-Suyalbari region (1965) have shown a thrust dipping due NE, is on the two sides of the river Kosi. These found near Ramgarh. Heim and Gansser(1939) structures gradually tend to smoothen out have joined the Ramgarh Thrust with North southeastward and in Ramgarh-Nathuakhan Almora thrust. Gansser (1964) too has area, the folds practically disappear (Merh, considered the Ramgarh thrust as the southern et.al; 1971).Different landforms with varied limb of the synformally folded Almora thrust. geomorphic features within the study area are Merh (1968) has established a sequence of the indicators of the recent tectonic activities. three major deformational events in Central The existence of five major stratigraphical units Kumaon Himalaya. The first deformation in this small watershed shows that the area is comprises large-scale isoclinals folding which geologically sensitive and is prone to hazards synchronized with the progressive phase of the and disasters. regional metamorphism of the Almora nappe, Objectives and the resulting metamorphic foliation, The main objectives of the present study characterises the axial plane of the isoclinal are as follows : folds. The axes of the minor folds related to

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To identify, locate and understand the Continuous monitoring and measurements different types of processes active in the during field investigations. selected drainage basin. Results and discussions Morphometry (location, height and The contour map (Figure 2) of the study length) of the landforms associated with these area depicts that in the western part of the processes and study area there are steep slopes while in the To understand the dynamics of the eastern part the scarps are not much steep. selected drainage basin in context to the eastern The areas with steep slopes are either forested and western part. or barren with steep rock scarps. Materials and Methods Detailed field investigations in the Khairna The following materials and methods used watershed reveal that different types of for the study helped to identify different types landscapes and landforms characterize the of landscapes and landforms of the study area. basin. The landforms of the Khairna watershed Topographical Sheets No. 530/7 and 530/ are divided into following groups. 11 published by Survey of India used as base Tectonically controlled landscapes: The maps for the present study. associated landforms with these landscapes Detailed field survey to identify different are; Scarps, landslide scarps, triangular facets, types of landforms, which are associated with waterfalls, terraced spurs, debris fans, cones, the geomorphic processes in the present as well cols and knolls as past. Fluvial landscapes: Floodplains, alluvial

Fig. 2. Distribution of contours

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Fig. 3 : Tectonic landforms terraces, point bars, alluvial fans and cones are suggest that the basin is still tectonically active. the landforms associated with these landscapes. The detailed field investigations depict the Anthropogenic landscapes: Deforested selected morphological features that are either land, agricultural land, roads, settlements, tectonic or tectonically controlled (Figure 3 ). bridges and canals include landforms due to These are scarps (rock scarps landslide scarps human interference within the experimental and terrace scarps), triangular fault facets, watershed. waterfalls, debris cones and fans cols, knolls Tectonic Landforms etc. Landforms formed because of tectonic Scarps activities, are recognized as tectonic landforms. The scarps may either be formed by The mountainous region of the Himalayas is tectonic or by erosion processes. A tectonic going through stress because of the recent scarp is a steep slope associated with the tectonic activities along the main boundary fault differential or regional uplift of a part of the close to which the study area lies. The tectonic earth surface. If a fault displaces the surface and tectonically controlled landscapes within of the ground, so that one side is higher or lower the watershed show clear signatures in the form than the other the fault scarp results (Bloom, of various landforms. Several episodes of 1979). Apart from the direct geomorphic erosion and deposition have produced multiple consequences, there are landforms developed terraces at different levels. Frequently available by tectonically controlled erosion processes and fault aprons (debris cones and debris channels) landforms modified by tectonic activities.

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Landforms evolved by tectonically controlled Ramgarh and Ratighat of Khairna stream mass wasting processes along the faults and shows a number of landforms associated with dislocation of surface area along the basin. these processes. These landforms seen as The scarps of the study area (Figure 3) debris channels, adjacent debris fans and cones, are associated either with major faults of the steep scarps, sediment filled flood plains and basin or regional uplift of the whole basin. wider terraces. The scarps are very steep-to- 1. Garampani Fault and the scarps steep. The height of these scarps ranges in between 25 and 300 meters. Some scarps are Garampani fault is linked with Manora covered with grass while the others are devoid thrust, which separate Bhowali quartzite of vegetation cover. underlain by the rocks of Bhumiadhar formations. East and west facing rock scarps 2. Jakh Fault and the scarps are associated with this fault. A number of east The steep scarps near Talla Ghunna and and west facing crushed and sheared rock Dangichaura are the old fault scarps associated scarps are associated with this fault.Ratighat with the Jakh fault. These scarps are covered is a transverse fault which trends north south with grass and scrubs and with trees near some (Valdiya,1976) .It is tracable particularly at places. Apart from these, a number of vertical Ratighat , Ramgarh, and follows the north south scarps (80°) are associated with this fault courses of the Khairna and Ghuna gad particularly seen at Dangichaura, Jakh, Purana streams. The geomorphic processes within the Chorsa etc.in the study area. These scarps are drainage basin show several signatures of mainly devoid of vegetation cover. folding, faulting, shearing and fragmentation of 3. The Ghunna Fault and the scarps rocks.The exceptionally wide valley along South-east to north-west trending Ghunna Table 1 : Height, Length and Rock type of the Scarps (Eastern part of the Garampani fault) Location Height (m) Length (m) Rock type Ratighat (below road) 60 600 Volcanic Hartap mafi 100 350 Quartzite Malla Ghuna 120 900 Quartzite and slate South East of Ratighat 80 200 Quartzite and slate North to Bisoda village 70 250 Quartzite West bank of H.S.6 150 420 Quartzite Near Padli canal 1 90 500 Quartzite Near Padli canal2 50 250 Quartzite Near Bukhani village1 30 250 Quartzite Near Bukhani village2 20 550 Quartzite Near Kuleti 25 550 Quartzite Near Bhowaligaon 60 300 Quartzite Average 71 427

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Table 2. Height, Length and Rock type of the Scarps (Western part of the Garampani fault) Location Height (m) Length (m) Rock type 3 km NW to Dangichaura 150 700 Quartzite Mouth of Jakh stream 100 200 Quartzite South of Hartap mafi 120 300 Quartzite and slate Along Ghuna stream 100 550 Quartzite and slate North of Sher ka danda 95 600 Slate and quartzite Along Jakh nadi 105 550 Quartzite North of Purana chungi 95 350 Slate Near Purana chungi 90 350 Slate Near Thelkha village 100 300 Quartzite and slate South East of forest chauki 110 600 Quartzite North East of Forest chauki (Naina RF ) 100 200 Quartzite North of Forest chauki 80 500 Slate and quartzite Average 104 433

fault passes through village Thelkha, Subjiya, The waterfalls in the study area have been Gaujani and southern part of the drainage basin. listed in Table 3. Due to the steep scarps in the study area, and Landslide Scarps tectonic activities along the fault, mass wasting processes (landslides and rock fall) are active Landslide scarp is the major tectonic along this fault. feature frequently seen in the watershed. Just like terrace scarps, the landslide scarps are also 4. The Kilbury Fault and Scarps associated with the major fault planes of the Southeast to northwest tending Kilbury area. Due to the recent tectonic activities along fault passes through the Kilbury forest area. the Garampani fault, recurrent landslides have Vertical to steep scarps in the area with forest severely damaged surface area of the drainage cover are associated with this fault . The steep basin. The landslide scarps are common scarps covered with vegetation in this area geomorphic features covering five to six indicate that these are older fault scarps. kilometres stretch from the mouth of the Most of the steep scarps are located in drainage basin up to Ghunna and Chorsa. the western part of the drainage basin. On an Terrace Scarps average, the major scarps in the western part of the Garampani fault are about thirty-three The vertical slope in between different meters higher than the eastern part. A series terraces is known as terrace scarp. The detailed of waterfalls along the Garampani fault may field investigations in the study area reveal that be because of vertical displacement of rocks terrace scarps are associated with the different due to differential uplift. There are as many as levels of terraces in the study area . The relative 17 waterfalls identified within the study area. height of the terrace scarps on western side of

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Table 3. Location and height of major waterfalls of the study area Waterfall No. Location Height (m) 1. Kilbury forest area 50 Kilbury forest area 20 Kilbury forest area 100 Kilbury forest area 150 Kilbury forest area 60 2. 1 km. south to Ratighat along road 10 3. Jabar Raula (SE to Natyali village) 80 4. 500m. South to Bhowali 10 5. Near Thelkha 60 6. 80 m. south to Thelkha village 30 7. 20 m. South to Gaujani village 40

the Khairna stream increases from reach to Bloom (1979), many gullies or valleys that cause mouth. Near the reach of the stream, the height a scarp to be segmented into a series of of T1terrace is about 2 meters while near the triangular facets. The triangular facets in the mouth its height is about 60 meters. Similarly, study area are genetically tectonic . These have diverging tendency of terraces (Leopold, evolved due to vertical displacement of the et.al.1964) was seen during field investigations Garampani fault (Joshi, 2005). in the experimental watershed. Most probably, Conclusion the diverging tendency of terraces may be Different geomorphic evidences based on because of the tectonic tilting of the area as extensive field survey and going through the suggested by Nakata (1972). works of researchers related with the Terraced Spur geological, hydrological and geomorphologic There are two or three levels of flat aspects of the geodynamics of the study area surfaces on the hill spur which have been show that drainage basin is in its youthful stage. named here as terraced spur. These flat Some unique geomorphic features including the surfaces on the hill spur are without alluvium ‘V’ shaped valleys,triangular facets,steep and covered by a very thin layer of non- scarps (devoid of vegetation cover) and detailed transported soils. Leopold et.al. (1964) has field studies including the measurement of introduced such terraces as bedrock terraces width, depth and height of scarps, waterfalls, or strata which are caused by successive uplift landslides along faults, rockfalls and debris of the region. channels suggest the same.Various geomorphic Triangular Facets processes including pluvial, fluvial, mass The researchers studying landforms have wasting and anthropogenic processes are different opinions whether the triangular facets degrading the basin. Therefore, the basin is is the result of faulting or not. According to dynamically sensitive and tectonically active.

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Different landforms within the Khairna the tectonic features have fractured and watershed suggest that the entire drainage shattered the rocks to a sufficiently high degree basin has a history of tectonic activities in the so that the area is becoming prone to different recent past and are active at present too. mass wasting processes. Joshi (2015) reveals Though the area has been least affected by that sediment was mobilized in the drainage human activities, but only small disturbances in basin in different forms of mass wasting the natural system are responsible for the processes including debris flow, rock fall and geomorphic processes to activate faster. As landslides. Added meteorological inputs also an example one can easily notice several increase the rate of erosion in the study area. landslides along the main metallic road that The processes have their impact on human passes through the drainage basin. beings in the form of natural hazards and The study area is a showcase of different disasters. Similar studies in different parts of type of landscapes and landforms. A number the dynamic Himalayas, using drainage basins of tectonic features, may be in consequence as a unit for experimental studies may help to of the faults passing through this basin. calculate the input and output of the mobilized Sediment mobilization in the form of different material within the drainage basin and discharge mass wasting processes assessed through through basin mouth. Thus, detailed study of morphometric analysis indicates the same. the processes and landforms in different parts Study of the geomophic features of the Himalayan region may particularly help concludes that the western part of the drainage in quantitative geomorphology. Comparative basin is uplifting at a significant level. Study of studies in different parts can help in mitigating scarps suggests that the scarps of the western the adverse effects of these active processes block of the Garampani fault are higher than in the tectonically active Himalayan region. that of the eastern part. The average height of Acknowledgements the scarps of western and eastern block is 93.4 The author is thankful to The Department and 69.6 m., respectively. The development of of Science and Technology, Government of different type of landforms of tectonic origin India for financial assistance, Professor J. S. also suggests some activities along the faults Rawat and Mr Vinod Rawat (NRDMS, and thrusts of the area. The study reveals that Almora) for providing cartographic support.

References Auden, J. B. 1934, Geology of the Krol Belt. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 67, pp. 357-434. Bartarya, S. K. 1993, Hydrochemistry and rock weathering in a sub-tropical Lesser Himalayan river basin in Kumaun, India, Journal of Hydrology, 146, pp. 149-174, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.

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Bloom, A. L., 1991, Geomorphology: A Systematic analysis of late Cenozoic Landforms, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, pp. 35-63. Heim, A., and Gansser, A., 1939, Central Himalaya - Geological observations of the Swiss expedition, 1936, Mem. Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat, 73, pp. 1–245. Gansser, A. 1964. Geology of the Himalaya. Interscience Publishers, London, p. 289. Joshi, J. 2005, Hillslope Processes and Sediment Routing; an experimental study from Kumaun Himalaya, Progress Report -SR/WOS-A/ES-51/2003. Joshi, J. 2015, Mass Wasting Processes in Khairna Basin: Kumaon Himalayas, Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, 5(4):pp. 201-209 ISSN 2249 0256. www.environmentaljournal.org. Leopold, L. B., Wolman, M. G. and Millar, J. P. ,1964, The drainage basin as a geomorphic unit in Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology, Eur. Pub. House. New Delhi,: pp.132-150. Mishra, D. K. ,1980, Nature of the Ramgarh thrust and tectonic position of the Amritpur granite in the Okhalkanda Kalagarh area, Nainital district, Kumaun Himalaya, Himalayan Geology,10: pp. 264-279. Merh, S. S., Vashi, N. M. and Patel, J. P. ,1971, On the nature of the Ramgarh Thrust in Kumaon Himalaya, Jour. Geol, Soc. India, 12: pp. 380-383. Nakata, T., 1972, Geomorphic history and crustal movements of the foothills of the Himalayas.Science Reports of the Tohokw.Univ.7th Series Geography, 22(1), pp. 42-170. Pande, J. C., 1950, A Geological note on the Ramgarh area, district Nainital, Q. J. Geol. Min. Metall. Soc. India, 22: pp.15-23. Pandey, I. C., 1974, Tectonic interpretation of the geology of Nainital area, Himalayan Geology, 4: pp. 532-546. Sharma, A. K., 1981, Structural study of the area East of Nainital with special reference to hillside instability. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Kumaun University, Nainital. p.126. Shastri, J. ,1989, Sediment Budgets and Routing in the Ninglat drainage Basin, Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. Ph. D. Thesis, Nainital (K.U.). Thornbury, W. D., 1993, Principles of Geomorphology; John Wiley and sons, Inc. New Delhi. :pp. 34-162. Valdiya, K. S. , 1976, Himalayan transverse faults and folds and their parallelism with subsurface structures of north Indian plains, Tectonophysics, 32: pp. 353-386.

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Valdiya, K. S. ,1988, Geology and the natural environment of the Nainital Hills, Kumaun Himalayas, Gyaodaya Prakashan, Nainital, p. 68. Vashi, N. M. and Merh, S. S., 1965, Structural elements of the rocks in the vicinity of the S. Almora Thrust near Upradi, Almora District, Jour. M. S. Univ., Baroda, 14 ( 3) : pp. 27-32. Wadia, D. N., 1975, Geology of India, Tata Mc Graw. Hill publication CompanyLimited, New Delhi. : pp. 390-403.

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Geomorphological Mapping of Allahabad District, Uttar Pradesh Richa Chaturvedi In this paper an attempt has been made to study the mapping of the geomorphological landform. The geomorphological mapping was carried out with the help of IRS (LISS III) imagery by visual interpretation technique.In India remote sensing has been used for various applications during the last four decades and has contributed significantly towards development. Identification of landforms using key interpretation features such as image tone, texture, association and terrain shadow has been done in this paper. Based on the existing landforms, drainage characteristics on the imagery, various geomorphic units have been identified in district Allahabad. Keywords : Remote sensing, GIS, resolution, interpretation.

Introduction final output cheaply as well as within a short Title of this paper consists of two different time (Hazra and Bhowmik, 2002). The synoptic disciplines, Remote Sensing and coverage and high precision of remotely sensed Geomorphology. Remote sensing means data coupled with the marked cost- acquiring information without touching any effectiveness and time efficiency of the data object of the surface. Geomorphology deals acquisition and analysis procedures have made with the genesis of relief forms of the surface satellite based geomorphological mapping an of the earth’s crust. Certain natural processes extremely effective tool for management of are responsible for the forms of the surface of natural resources in recent times (Rao, 1978, the earth. A geomorphological map must give Bhattacharya, 1980, Srinivasan,1988). The use information about morphology (appearance), of remote sensing technology for morphometry (dimensions and slope values), Geomorphological studies has definitely morphogen (origin/genesis) and increased its importance due to the morphochronology (the age) of each form (Rao, establishment of its direct relationship with allied 2002). The geomorphic mapping using remotely disciplines, such as geology, soils, vegetation/ sensed data products has received a great land use and hydrology (Karwariya, Tripathi impetus in regional survey during the recent and Shiva, 2013). Satellite imagery is helpful in time at macro, meso and micro levels. The demarcating the geomorphic features of a large utility of this technique enables to acquire the area. The temporal, spectral and spatial Dr. Richa Chaturvedi, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, [email protected]

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resolutions of remotely sensed data are valuable Methodology for analyzing geomorphic dynamics and The mapping of geomorphological units mapping of relief and landforms. Geomorphic involved a series of different steps which are and geologic studies using remote sensing data given here: First, the base map was prepared are largely being done by different scholars both based on topo-sheet by adopting different steps at national and international platform. Mention of geo-referencing, mosaicing and subset of a few works may be made as presented by creations. Second, pre-field satellite image Verstappen (1977, 1983), Way (1978), interpretation for identification, demarcation and Townshend (1981), Barnett and Curtis (1982), mapping of geomorphological units was Curran (1985), Sabins (1987), Lillesand and attempted by using visual image processing Kiefer (2000), Rao (1975), Mishra (1993, 97, techniques. Third, the interpreted image- based 2003), Nagaraja and Mishra (1998), Roy (2000), information was transferred on base map by Bhan (2000) and Jha (2000). selecting numerous control points and using Study Area ERDAS software. Fourth, selective field checks were done to assess the validity of the Allahabad District (24045’N to 25045’N) pre-field image interpretation. Finally, and (81030’E to 82015’E) lies in the south incorporating the necessary alternations and eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, India at the corrections based on the field checking, the confluence of holy rivers Ganga, Yamuna and image-based maps were completed by using invisible Sarswati, popularly known as Triveni Arc View . Sangam. Allahabad district occupies an area of 5482.0 sq.km with the population of 59, Results 54,391 persons (2011). Geologically it exhibits The mapping of geomorphological more complex nature and broadly be features in Allahabad district has largely been categorized into recent alluvium in the north based on remotely sensed data (IRS- P6, LISS- and Vindhyan system in the south.The aim of III) hard copy print on scale 1:250,000. the present study is to bring out the Different geomorphic features of the area have geomorphologic map using IRS P 6 LISS III been identified and delineated through visual on 1: 250,000 and to utilize the knowledge for interpretation of the satellite image and the sustainable development by using Remote scanning the image through Google earth and sensing and GIS techniques Wikimapia. The area under study appears to Data sources be the result of complex geologic and geomorphic processes. In the northern alluvial Survey of India Topo-sheets at the scale plain, river Ganga with its tributary, Yamuna, of 1:250,000 (No. 63G, H, K and L) along with has been playing a dominant role in shaping remote sensing data of IRS P6 and LISS-III and reshaping the landforms with its frequent (23.5 m Spatial resolution) both in digital format changes in courses. On the other hand, the and hard copy (Path 101 and Row 54) were southern part covered under Vindhyan plateau consulted for demarcating and mapping of is flown by rivers: Tons and Belan. The Ganga geomorphological units. flood plain features include, new flood plain,

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Geocoded Image Geological map and (IRS P6 LISS III) ancillary data (23.5Spatial Resolution)

Demarcation of Geomorphological Units with the help of Different image interpretation Keys

Preparation of final Field Survey for verify the result Geomorphological Map which are obtained from satellite image

Updating and preparation of final Geomorphological Maps

Flowchart: Different steps for preparation of Geomorphological Maps from Satellite Image

old flood plain, paleo channel, channel bar, point and (ii) Vindhyan Upland (Table 1). The bar and ox-bow lakes etc. while Vindhyan assemblages of landforms comprising each of upland include the features like buried pediment, these categories are discussed below: pediment with vegetation, pediment with stony Ganga Flood Plain Features surface and denudational hill etc (Fig. 1 and Table 1). The geomorphic features of the study The northern portion of the district as a area are largely governed by the geomorphic whole and some of the southern part covering processes, geologic structures and stages of Chaka, Uruva, Karachhana and Kaundhiyara development. For example, the area of recent blocks, possess relatively leveled surface which alluvium, i.e., Ganga flood plain bears more is formed by gradual deposition of sediments landform features developed by erosional and brought by river Ganga and its tributaries. The depositional actions with less variation in flood plain surface can geomorphologically be gradient while the Vindhyan upland on the other defined as landform composed primarily of hand, characterizes with undulating surface unconsolidated depositional materials derived caused by complex geomorphic processes. On from sediments being transported by the related the basis of observations, the district as a whole stream. The Ganga flood plain features include, has been dividing into two major new flood plain, old flood plain, paleo channels, geomorphological units: (i) Ganga Flood Plain, channel bar, point bar and ox-bow lakes

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etc.(Fig.1). places because of its restricted flow governed 1 New flood plain by attached Vindhyan plateau region in the south. New flood plain known as ‘Khadar’ or newer alluvium is formed by the deposition of 4. Channel bars sediments brought by river Ganga and its The channel bars are formed by the tributaries during each flood. This is the nearest deposition of huge amount of sediments within zone of area attached with the stream which is the course of a stream with an elongated shape generally considered as an integral part of the caused by the deposition of sand and gravel. stream. On the imagery, such landforms are Channel bar, building some lines, take place characterized by dark red tones, smooth within the channel by creating island and textures and irregular shapes. The areal splitting the stream into several channels. coverage of new flood plain is marked in 8.66 Sizeable channel bars can be marked at many per cent of District. places in the river Ganga, especially in the north 2. Old flood plain and north-west of Allahabad city covering 1.82 per cent area of the whole district that are easily Old flood plain (OFP) locally known as marked by very light tone on satellite imagery. ‘Bangar’, represents older alluvium showing higher surface located far from the channels. 5. Island These features are generally observed on Island is a tract of land in the river satellite imagery with numerous characteristics surrounded by water of a stream. In due course but on the basis of tonal variations these are of time, the island may become the part of the further divided into 3 sub-groups, such as, (i) flood plain when any one side of the channels OFP I (light to dark red tones) (ii) OFP II (light becomes dry and is filled with sediments. A red mixed with gray tones) and (iii) OFP III sizeable island has been formed in the river (red mixed with white tones).The areal Ganga near Dubawal village of Bahadurpur coverage of OFP I, OFP II and OFP III are block at 20 km in the east of Allahabad city marked in 10.66 per cent, 15.55 per cent and covering 2.19 per cent area of the whole 6.86 respectively. district. 3. Point bars 6. Natural levees (Settlement) Point bars are formed on the convex side Natural levees are narrow belt of higher of meanders and grow by individual increments relief that is formed by the accumulation of outwards into the meander curve (Thornbury, sediments brought by the rivers during floods 1969:165), these point bars have been formed when water overflows its banks and spreads due to the deposition of sediments carried out over the adjacent flood plains. On satellite by river Ganga. Numerous point bars can be imagery, these features can be marked by light marked at both banks of the river Ganga, to grey tones having higher ground than the especially where it forms meanders. This unit surrounding areas. Some of stabilized natural is occupying 1.29 per cent in district. Point bar levees have attracted the human settlements formation by river Yamuna is limited at a few such as the old city of Allahabad towns like

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Phaphamau, Jhusi, Naini and Sirsa etc. Weathering action has played a vital role in Generally, the natural levees are supported by dissecting several blocks of the rocks. As a backswamp in their countryside (back region) whole, the landforms identified on Vindhyan but in reference to Allahabad district, these Uplands by image interpretation may be enlisted features are either merged with new flood plain as: zone or not visible due to human interferences. (i) Pediment with stony surface (Type I), The areal coverage of natural levees (ii) Pediment covered with vegetation (Type (settlement) is marked over 4.58 per cent of II), (iii) Shallow buried pediment, (iv) Deeply District. buried pediment and (v) Denudational hill (Fig 7. Oxbow lake 1). An oxbow lake is a crescent-shaped, often 1. Pediment ephemeral body of standing water, situated on A pediment is a gently inclined erosion the abandoned channel (oxbow) where the surface, carved in bedrock, thinly veneered with stream -neck is cut-off and later filled up with gravel, and developed at the base of mountains. silted materials. Numerous such features are The term pediment is used to designate the open marked in the Gangapar region such as Phulpur, rock – surfaces created by erosion processes. Saidabad and Dhanupur where they are called They are mostly surfaces of flat to very low Tals (lake). slope and sometimes, attached with denuded 8. Palaeochannel hills. The pediment is the characteristics feature of Vindhyan Upland. It has been generally Palaeochannel, abandoned surface observed on satellite imagery and classified into channels on flood plains are noticed at several two types depending on their image places which are the ancient routes of rivers characteristics and nature of existence. (i) like Ganga, Yamuna, Barna etc. The satellite Pediments type I generally visualized by light images provide a very clear-cut vision of to very light tone (whitish) because of higher palaeochannels because of their specific terrain reflectance caused by bare rocks as there is characteristics, underlying materials, land use no vegetation cover on it. (ii) Pediments type etc. These earlier river courses bear their II are those rock cut surfaces which are distinct appearance with dark tone, irregular covered with veneer of soils mixed with stony pattern and crescentic shape on satellite waste materials and sparse vegetation or imagery. bushes. These features are found in Vindhyan Upland Features Yamunapar region. Pediment with Vegetation The Vindhyan upland is composed mainly is very clearly marked on imagery by light to of fluvio-marine deposits of probably the moderate gray tones. The areal coverage of Cambrian age, which has been uplifted and Pediment type I and II are marked on 5.17 per peneplained several times (Pichamuthu cent and 8.23 per cent, respectively. 1980:63-65). A great variety of geological and 2. Buried pediments lithological phenomena existed in the area, have Buried pediments are those flat surfaces influenced the remarkable landforms. of the plateau region which consists of thin to

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Table 1. Image Characteristics of Geomorphic Features in Allahabad District (2004) (Based on IRS P 6 LISS III) Landform Area Area Tone Texture Shape Size Features/unit (S.q.) (%) Ganga Flood Plain New Flood Plain 474.75 8.66 Dark red Smooth Irregular Large Old Flood Plain Type I 583.45 10.66 Light to dark Coarse Irregular Large red Old Flood Plain Type II 853.47 15.55 Red mixed Coarse Irregular Large with white Old Flood Plain Type III 376.53 6.86 Light red mixed Coarse Irregular Large with gray Channel Bar 98.89 1.82 Very Light Coarse Elongated Small Point Bar 70.91 1.29 Very Light Coarse Crescentic Small Vindhyan Upland Pediment I 283.67 5.17 Light to very Coarse Irregular Large light Pediment II 451.35 8.23 Light to mode- Coarse Irregular Large rate gray Shallow buried Pediment 977.38 17.82 Light to dark Coarse Irregular Large red mixed Deep buried Pediment 445.38 8.14 Dark red to Coarse Irregular Small grey mix Denudational Hill 58.85 1.07 Light grey Uneven Irregular Small to whitish Waterbodies (River) 436.52 7.96 Blue Smooth Irregular Large Settlement (Urban) 250.60 4.58 Mixed Medium Irregular Small Island 120.25 2.19 Light to very Medium Irregular Small light Total 5482.0 100 Source: Image Based Analysis

thick unconsolidated materials over them with blocks. Buried pediments are sub-grouped into soil, gravel or weathered rocks. The buried two types on the basis of their image pediments are very clearly marked on imagery characteristics caused by variations in the by dark red to mixed tones. It has been surface cover and depth of soils: (i) Shallow generally observed in southern portion of the buried pediment are those where rock beds are district (Vindhyan Upland) covering found at the depth of one to three meters. As Shankargarh, Jasra, Meja, Koraon and Manda regard to areal extension, they occupy larger

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Fig.2

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portion (17.82 per cent) of the Vindhyan upland that the remote sensing and GIS are very area. (ii) Deeply buried pediment (8.14 per convenient tools for mapping geomorphic cent) are those where depth of soil / underlying features of Allahabad district. The remotely materials are found to be more than three sensed data of IRS-P6-LISS III with 23 m metres. The later type is characterized with resolution is proved to be very suitable for good to very good cultivation in addition to delineating the spatial extent of regional grown up trees and gardens. geomorphic features like new flood plain, old 3. Denudational hills flood plain, oxbow lake, natural levee, channel bar, point bar, island, paleo channel, pediment, Denudational hills are formed due to and denudational hill.At last, the utility of remote differential erosion and weathering, so that sensing for geomorphological studies is more resistant formation stands as hill. immense. It allows for the rapid assessment of Denudational hills of various heights ranging large areas and for the monitoring of changes from 354 m to 363 m, above mean sea level, to these areas – things that would be impossible are mostly covered with vegetation. The to do using field studies alone. Proper denudational hills having their flat top surfaces understanding on the principles of geomorphic are marked at two locations in Yamunapar process will definitly pave ways for better region (Koraon block) at south east corner of results in planning methods to exploit natural the district (1.07 per cent). These hills are resources and landform maps are widely used generally enclosed with barren land or rocky in various fields of resource surveys, surfaces partly buried by debris. engineering application and geotechnical Conclusion studies, environmental planning, hydrological The results of the present study indicate studies, mineral and oil explorations and also in hazard mitigation.

Reference E.C. Barrett and L.F. Curtis, 1982, Introduction to Eenvironmental Remote Sensing, 2nd ed. Halsted Press, New York, . S.K. Bhan, 2000, Role of Remote Sensing in Geomorphology and Terrain Evolution, In V.C. Jha (ed.) Geomorphology and Remote Sensing, acb Publication, Calcutta, : pp. 116-120. A. Bhattacharya, 1980, Geological and Geomorphological Mapping Using Landsat-MSS Data in Tripura Area, Proc. Indian Photo Interpretation Institute, Dehradun. P.J. Curran, 1985, Principals of Remote Sensing. Longman, London. P.B. Hazra and S. Bhowmik, 2002 , Use of Satellite Imagery in Geomorphology: A Case Study, In V. C. Jha (ed.) Geomorphology and Remote Sensing.acb Publication, Calcutta, : pp.103-108.

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V.C. Jha, (ed.), 2000, Geomorphology and Remote Sensing. acb Publication, Calcutta. S.K. Karwariya, S.Tripathi and S. Shiva, 2013, Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Determination of Geomorphological Mapping of AchanakmarAmarkantak Biosphere Reserve Using Multispectral Satellite Data”, International Journal of Remote Sensing & Geoscience (IJRSG), 2(4) : pp.44-49. S.P. Mishra, 1997, Landform Evaluation through Integrated Remote Sensing. Indian Journal of Landscape System and Ecological Studies , 20 (1) : pp.136-141. S.P. Mishra and S.K. Chaubey, 1999, Geomorphic Features and Their Relation with Agricultural Land Quality: A Case Study of Chahania Block, Chandauli District, U.P., Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers, 21(2) : pp.23-34. S.P. Mishra, 2003, Hydrogeomorphological Characteristics of Karmanasha Basin, Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Indian Geographical Journal, 78 (1) : pp.13-26. R. Nagarajan and H.N. Mishra, 1998, Remote Sensing Techniques and Their Applications . In H.N. Mishra and V.P. Singh (ed.) Research Methodology in Geography.Rawat Publications : pp. 162-175. C.S. Pichamuthu, 1980, Physical Geography of India. National Book Trust of India, New Delhi. D.P. Rao, 1975, Applied Geomorphological Mapping for Erosion Surveys: the Example of the Oliva Basin, Calabria, ITC Journal, 3 : pp.341-350. D.P. Rao, 1978, Utility of Landsat Coverage in Small-Scale Geomorphological Mapping : Some Example from India, Photonirvachak, Jour. Indian Soc. of Photo. Int., 6( 22) : pp.49-53. A. K. Roy, 2000, Applied Geomorphology Mapping and Remote Sensing in Resource Survey. In V.C. Jha (ed.) Geomorphology and Remote Sensing, abc Publication Calcutta, : pp. 85-91. P. Srinivasan, 1988, Use of Remote Sensing Techniques for Detail Hydrogeomorphological Investigation in Parts of Narmadasagar command Area, Photonirvachak, Jour. Indian Soc. of Remote Sensing,16(1) : pp.55-62. W. D. Thornbury, 1969, Principles of Geomorphology, John Willey & Sons.

E:\BHU\BHU.PM5 (324) NGJI, An International Refereed Journal, (NGSI-BHU, ISSN: 0027-9374/2016/1598), vol. 62 (4), September : 325-336

Perspectives of Migration in India Sayan Mondal and B. N. Singh

In the present paper, an attempt has been made to analyse the migration status of population in India from the perspectives of demography, economic and social reasons. Movement is an integral part of the human life and civilization dated back over five thousand years. Human migration is mainly induced due to various reasons like searching for foods, searching for habitable places in a hostile environment, searching for better lifestyles, relief from the civil disobedience and wars etc. from the early age of civilization. Due to the physical vastness and cultural variation across various regions, India experiences also some different types of migration. The developmental plans by the various governments after the post-colonial era were also influenced differently on the migration scenario in India. The present study emphasizes on various aspect of migration scenario and their perspectives from geographical point of view. The major sources of data for this paper are from Census of India and the NSSO reports. Keyword : Migration, reason/causes, employment.

Introduction of better livelihoods is a key feature of human The word migration has been derived history. Normally, people move ahead and from the Latin word ‘Migrate’ which means to migrate to access various emerging change one’s residence. Literally it means the opportunities at the economically and socially settlement or shifting of an individual or a group developed areas. The gaps between rural and of individuals from one cultural area or place urban areas have also been widening day by of habitation to another, more or less day mainly due to industrialization which permanently. Movement is an integral part of induced migration towards the industrial urban human existence, and its manifestations are centres. diverse. The concept of migration, however, Migration is another factor of population also covers a change of milieu, i.e. of change besides the factors of fertility and environment. Thus, the change of dwelling mortality in demographic study. “Migration is a place and change of milieu is an important geographic mobility that involves a change of aspect of migration (Joshi, 1994). Human usual residence between defined political or migration from one place to another in search administrative areas, or between residence

Sayan Mondal, Research Scholar and Dr. B.N. Singh, Professor, Department of Geography, B.H.U., Varanasi- 221005.

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areas of different types. In general usage, the of migrants changing their residence within the term has been restricted to relatively permanent district of enumeration and over 20% within change” (International Encyclopedia of the state of enumeration while the rest move Population, 1982). In Encyclopedia Americana, across the state boundaries. A significant 1968 it has been stated that “Migration is a proportion of women migrate over short coordinated voluntary movement of a distances, mainly following marriage. considerable number of people from an (Srivastava and Sashikumar, 2003) accustomed habitat to a new one”. India’s population has generally been Early migration tended to be the characterized as non-mobile but recently for movement of tribes, races and groups. In some decades internal migration has recorded modern times, it is the movement of families phenomenal increase (Rawat, 1993). In the and, still more of individuals seeking economic case of women migrants they have migrated settlement and transient work in other lands mainly due to marriage. In India, marriage (Rawat, 1993). Numerous studies show that between a man and a woman from the same the process of migration is influenced by social, village is against the customs. So in other words, cultural and economic factors and outcomes marriage means women migration. Joining can be vastly different for men and women, family members is also another reason behind for different groups and different locations (cf. migration. First the husband gets employment de Haan and Rogaly, 2002). and settles. If he can get a decent job and house, Migration Scenario in India he brings his family. With regard to urban-urban migration, Migration is a continuous process which people move from one urban centre to another was started from the time of the first human urban centre in search of better job condition civilization dated over thousands of years ago. and income opportunities. The self employed There is not any place or time, in which and employers also move because of better migration didn’t occur. On the basis of the trade and business prospects in larger cities. different individuals, societies and culture, the With this respects migrants prefer to convert scale, type and implications of migration vary their fixed assets into money capital for their greatly. Due to the physical vastness of the transfer purposes. Urban-urban migration is country and invariably differences in physical therefore more likely to be dominated by family landscape and cultural variation across the rather than individual migration (Oberai and country, India has some special characteristics Singh, 1983). of migration behaviour. In 1951, the urban population in India was Indian people are by nature home loving 62 million, i.e. people roughly about17% of the and majority of the Indian population spends total population. By 2011, the urban population entire cycle of life in or around the place of was 377 million which was 31% of the total birth (Joshi, 1994). Migration in India is population. By 2025, 42.5% of the population predominantly short distance, with around 60%

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will be urban. By 2030, India’s urban population 2001 Census data on inter-state migration, is set to reach 590 million, an addition of Maharashtra received the largest number of approximately 300 million to India’s current migrants (8 million) from other states and other urban population. Much of this growth will be countries by place of birth, followed by Delhi due to rural-urban migration. Between 1992– (6 million), and West Bengal (5.5 million). On 1993 and 1999–2000, NSS data indicate an the basis of net migration during the decade, increase in urban migration, but this is mainly i.e. the difference between in-migration and due to urban-urban flows (Srivastava and out-migration in each state, Maharashtra stood Bhattacharya, 2002). at the top of the list with 2.3 million net migrants, The proportion of people migrating for followed by Delhi (1.7 million), Gujarat (0.68 economic reasons is greater among long- million) and Haryana (0.67 million) while Uttar distance migrants. Most male migrants moving Pradesh (minus 2.6 million) and Bihar (minus between states did so for economic reasons. 1.7 million) were the two states with the largest Again, economic motives are more significant number of net out-migration from the state in urban migration streams, especially for males. (GOI Census, 2001). The share of inter-state to total migrants was Social structures and the tempo or pattern only 11.8% in 1991 and such migrants of development are the other major influential comprised 28% of all economic migrants. factors behind the migration scenario in India. Similarly, 49% of male migrants were in urban The development policies by all the areas and 69.2% of such migrants migrated governments in the post colonial India have for employment (Srivastava, 1998). accelerated the process of migration. Spatial There are also important regional differentiations of the development and differences in the pattern of female labour disparities among the various social classes/ mobility between the northern and southern segments/states are also the striking forces for states (Singh, 1984). Among inter-state human mobility. economic migrants, the share of the northern Impact of Migration on Migrants and states (Bihar, UP) is very large in male Their Families migration, but the southern states have a The uncertainty of earnings and comparatively larger share in female economic magnitude of remittances pushes women and migrants (Srivastava, 1998). But overall it can children from poor labouring households to be said that, females migrate smaller distances participate in the labour market under adverse than of their male counterparts for the reason conditions. Thus, the impact of migration on of employments. the women can be two-sided but the strong Due to the vast size of the country and influence of patriarchy restricts the scope of large differences in physical and human women’s autonomy (Menon, 1995). The impact dispositions across the country, migration trend of male migration can be especially adverse in India shows some specific features. As per for girls, who often have to bear additional

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Table 1. Migration Rates in India in Different NSSO Rounds Rounds Rural Urban Male Female Total Male Female Total 64th (2007-08) 5.4 47.7 26.1 25.9 45.6 35.4 Census 2001 11.5 46.1 28.3 32.9 40.3 36.4 55th (1999-2000) 6.9 42.6 24.4 25.7 41.8 33.4 49th (1993) 6.5 40.1 22.8 23.9 38.2 30.7 43rd ( 1987-88) 7.4 39.8 23.2 26.8 39.6 32.9 38th (1983) 7.2 35.1 20.9 27.0 36.6 31.6 Source: NSSO 55th Round, 1999-2000, Report No- 470

domestic responsibilities and take care of their characteristics including social and younger siblings. The absence of male demographic background of migrants and also supervision further reduces their chances of the causes behind the migration. acquiring education (Srivastava, 2001). Findings and Discussions Objectives of the Study The table no 1 shows different migration In brief, following are the three major rates in India by different NSSO rounds and objectives which are to be examined in this Census year with different time scale. The paper: migration rates were calculated on the basis of 1. To study the proportion of migrant the total population of India. It can be easily populations and their trends. seen that in rural areas of India, female 2. To study the general educational level migration is the major migration phenomena of the migrants. which has continuously increased by the 3. To inquire the reasons behind the following years. In year 1983 it was about 35 migration of migrants. percent which increased to about 48 percent Data Sources and Methodology Table 2. Distribution of Out-Migrants by In the present study, the secondary data Employment (Per Thousand) obtained from the Census of India and National Employment Male Female Total Sample Survey (NSS) data have been used. Status The Census of India data provides an idea of Abroad Employed 23.9 7.1 21.9 proportions of migrant population and their sex Not Employed 4.4 15.7 5.9 wise distribution. The latest data from National In India Employed 43.7 12.0 39.3 Sample Survey (NSS) of 49th, 55th and 64th Not Employed 28.0 65.2 32.9 round have been used for this study. This survey is providing the information on household Source: (NSSO-49th Round, 1993) Report No- 430

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Table 3. Educational Level of Migrants in India (In Percent, 2001) Migrant Illiterate Literate Secondary Secondary Technical Graduate or High but below diploma, and above School Graduate certificate and degree Male 25.8 74.2 39.3 21.0 3.3 8.6 Female 57.7 42.3 27.8 9.2 0.6 2.7 Total 48.3 51.7 31.2 12.7 1.4 4.5 Source:Computed fromTable D4(2001),Censusof India

Table 4. Educational Level of Migrants in India (2007-08) Migrant Illiterate Literate Primary/ Secondary/ Technical Graduate (Below Middle High School Diploma/ and above Primary) Certificate Male 16.0 12.1 30.5 23.6 3.3 14.4 Female 51.8 9.4 23.8 10.7 0.6 3.7 Total 44.8 9.9 25.1 13.2 1.1 5.8 Source: NSSO 64th Round, 2007-08, Report no- 533 patriarchal society and their marriage system. The table 2 has been computed from the NSSO 49th round report which shows about 80 70 60 the employment status of the Indian migrants 50 40 30 who have migrated far away in different parts 20 10 0 of the country within India. It can be easily identified that within the migrants, abroad employment status is smaller than the migrants within India. It can be also seen that larger in 2007-08. In urban India also, female proportion of male migrants are employed migration has the major share which is about whereas female migrants employed proportion 46 percent in 2007-08. But in urban India, male is very little. So it can easily be concluded that migration also has the reasonable percentage. the female migrants mostly migrated as a family Every one in four urban males was migrated member of the employed male members who due to any reason. The probable reason behind went to abroad for their employment reason. the excess share of female migrants in both In India also a sizable female populations who the rural and urban area, is due to Indian are not employed have migrated due to

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marriage. The proportion of male migrants of causes behind it are also bound to vary. under not employed category normally migrates According to Rawat, in the early stages for the educational purpose. of civilization disasters like floods, famines, The tables no 2 and 3 show about the epidemics, wars, conquest and invasions, general educational level of migrants in India economic, political and religious oppressions at for two different time periods of 2001 and 2007- home, and love for adventure, aspiration for 08. According to Census of India, in 2001 about more wealth etc., were the probable causes of half of the Indian migrants were not literate, migration. However, the factors of recent time within them ratio of female illiteracy was much are more explicitly specified than ever before higher. About three-fourth of male migrants (Rawat, 1993). were literate, within whom about 40 percent Factors such as age, education level, were below high school pass, about 21 percent wealth, land owned, productivity and job were above secondary but below graduate. opportunities influence the participation of Only 8.6 percent male were graduate where individuals and households in migration, but so as only 2.7 percent female migrants were do social attitudes and supporting social graduate. About 28 percent female migrants networks (Haberfeld et al, 1999; Rogaly et al, were literate with high school degree only. It is 2001; Mosse et al, 2002). clear that at the time of migration, male National Sample Survey Organisation on migrants tend to have higher level of educational their migration related reports broadly classified attainment than the female population. In the the reasons behind the migration into 13 year (2007-08) the literacy condition improved categories. The categories are mainly related by the overall as well as its gender wise figures. with the economic reasons, marriage, The percentage of male migrants, having movement with family, studies etc. are graduate and above degree increased mentioned below: reasonably. Reasons for Migration Causes of Migration 1. In search of employment Due to various reasons human have 2. In search of better employment moved from their origin areas to another areas 3. To take up employment/ better for centuries. Some are drawn to new places employment by ‘pull’ factors, whereas for the others, they 4. Transfer of service/ contract find it is problematic to remain in their place of 5. Proximity to the place of work origin and moved due to ‘push’ factors. These 6. Pursuing studies have contributed to the recent movement of 7. Acquisition of house/ flats human and also are the reasons behind human 8. Housing problem migration to other areas or states or between 9. Social/ political problem the countries. In India, as there are wide 10. Health diversities in the nature of migration so the 11. Marriage

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Table 5. Reasons for Migration in Various Rounds in India Rural Urban Male Female Male Female Rounds 49th 55th 64th 49th 55th 64th 49th 55th 64th 49th 55th 64th Economic Reason 47.7 30.3 28.6 8.3 1.0 0.7 41.5 51.9 55.7 4.9 3.0 2.7 Marriage 2.3 9.4 9.4 61.6 88.8 91.2 0.9 1.6 1.4 31.7 38.5 60.8 Mov. with parents 20.8 26.0 22.1 23.7 6.3 4.4 28.3 27.0 25.2 49.5 31.0 29.4 Studies 4.1 5.3 10.7 1.1 0.4 0.5 18.0 6.2 6.8 7.0 1.3 2.2 Forced Migration - - 4.2 - - 0.3 - - 1.3 - - 0.5 Other Reasons * 25.1 29.0 25.0 5.3 3.5 2.9 11.3 13.3 9.6 6.9 6.2 4.4 *”Other Reasons” included housing problem, post retirement, acquisition of own house/ flats, health care etc.

12. Movement of parents/ earning Reason”. members The table 5 draws attention towards the 13. Others causes for migration in India in the various For the purpose of the present study the NSSO rounds in the various time scales (49th above mentioned reasons are clubbed into six Round- 1993, 55th Round- 1999-2000, 64th common classes. The categories of 1-5 have Round- 2007-08). This table clearly reflects that been named as “Economic Reason”. the “Economic Reason” is an important reason “Marriage”, “Movements with parents” and behind the male migration in both the urban and “Studies” remain the same categories as they rural area. On the other hand “Marriage” is were earlier. “Forced Migration” has been the single dominant reason for the female added on the 64th round of reports. All other migration mainly in the rural areas and the segments have been counted as the “Other proportion of this segment has been increasing

Table 6. Reasons behind Migration in India Reasons for Migration Percent to Total Migrants Male Female Total Work/ Employment 28.09 1.66 9.51 Business 2.55 0.20 0.90 Education 2.55 0.44 1.07 Marriage 2.33 69.61 49.64 Moved after birth 9.94 2.94 5.02 Moved with household 19.39 11.27 13.68 Other reasons 35.15 13.87 20.19 Source: Computed from Table D5(2001), Census of India

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Reasons for Migration (Census 2001) rural and urban areas. For the category “Forced

s 80 t Migration” it was not considered as a reason n 70 a

r 60 g i 50

M and so was clubbed into the “Other Reason” 40 l

a Male t 30 th th o 20 T Female category at the time of 49 and 55 round. If o 10 t 0 % we carefully see the “Other Reason” category we can find that the share of the male population specially from the rural area more tend to migrate due to various reasons than the female by time. This factor is negligible for male population. migration, as major parts of India practices According to Census of India, 2001 about patriarchic customs. “Movements with half of the migrant population, migrated due to parents” is also an important reason of migration “Marriage” and of the whole female migratory for both the male and female migrants in both population about 70 percent migrated due to the rural and urban areas during different time the “Marriage”. About 29 percent male periods, though for the rural female migrant migrants migrated for the purpose of “Work or population, the proportion of this reason have Employment” where only about 2 percent been decreasing variably in the 55th and 64th female migrated for this reason. In both the rounds. The findings revealed that for the segments of “Business” and “Education” category “Studies” male population more tend around two and half percent of male population to migrate than their female counterparts in both Table 7. Reasons of Migration by Migration Stream in India Reasons Male Female R-R U-R R-U U-U R-R U-R R-U U-U NSSO Economic Reason 31.4 30.0 57.0 44.8 0.9 3.0 2.8 2.8 55th Marriage 12.1 2.3 1.7 1.4 90.6 64.2 61.4 55.0 Round Movement with 26.8 22.5 24.4 31.5 5.1 21.5 29.2 33.7 parents/ Family Studies 6.9 2.0 8.0 4.4 0.4 0.6 1.6 1.0 Other Reason 22.8 43.2 9.0 17.9 3.1 10.6 5.0 7.5 NSSO Economic Reason 29.1 28.8 60.9 48.2 0.5 2.0 2.6 2.7 64th Marriage 12.2 2.1 1.6 1.2 92.6 74.2 62.8 58.5 Round Movement with 23.7 18.4 22.8 28.9 3.6 15.4 28.2 31.1 parents/Family Studies 10.5 12.5 7.8 5.3 0.5 1.2 2.5 1.9 Other Reason 24.4 38.2 6.9 16.4 2.9 7.3 4.0 5.7 Source: NSSO 55th Round, 1999-2000, Report No- 470, NSSO 64th Round, 2007-08, Report no- 533

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each have migrated in India. It can be easily important among the male migrants. seen that after the birth in India there is more Conclusion probability of male child migration for various Likewise some other third world countries, reasons, including their better health and India is also facing some migration related issues education by their family members. There was in perspective of both the source areas and about 10 percent male population and 3 percent destination areas, which is slightly different female population who moved after their birth. from the condition of the developed countries. About 20 percent of male migrant population Migration from India to industrialised counties, and about 11 percent female migrant population though modest in scale, grew steadily between migrated with their families. This happened in 1950 and 2000. Nearly 1.25 million Indians have India normally because of the joint family migrated to the principal destinations. Although culture. About 35 percent of the male population it can be seen that still in India female migration and 14 percent of female population migrated happens mostly due to marriage but it also can due to various “Other” reasons. be said that labour mobility or employment The table 7 depicts various migration related migration is also a key feature of the streams in India by the male and female development process in India. population. There are four migration streams From the above study we can easily as rural to rural stream, urban to rural stream, identify that from rural to urban areas the tempo rural to urban stream and urban to urban stream. of migration has been seen more. The reason Here for the study,we have collected data from behind this is that urban areas are more the NSSO 55th round and 64th round. For the prosperous due to better facilities of health, male migrants, economic reason is the single education etc. In urban areas there are more dominant and the most important cause behind possibilities of getting jobs and employment than the migration in all of the four streams of the rural areas. So people are normally attracted migration, among which rural to urban and to migrate in urban centres. Normally in rural urban to urban migration take the largest share areas we can find lack of educational and of male migrants. For the same category and health related institutions which are the basic streams, female migrants are very negligible. services for society. Also due to lack of proper “Marriage” is the main reason for the female development, the employment situation or job migration in all of the above four streams but opportunity is much worse than in any urban rural to rural stream has the largest share. From area. Now due to heavy movements of rural to rural short distance migration mainly migrants towards urban areas, the cities are female migration occurred due to the marriage. experiencing overcrowded situations, and also About one fourth of the migrant population in unhygienic living situations such as slums etc. all the four streams independently by their sex In most cases it can be seen that migrants occurred mainly due to the “Movement with normally live in such a poor condition where parents/ Family”. The above table also basic facilities like drinking water, electricity, highlights that the category “Studies” is mainly

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drainage and sanitation facilities hardly exist. “Graduate and above” has been increased from So it is desirable that government should take 8 percent in 2001 to 14 percent in 2007-08. steps for developing the conditions of rural areas From the above study, it can be also concluded and increasing more job opportunities by various that due to the improvement in the educational govt. schemes. Those will directly influence condition in India resulting into improvement in reduce the number of migrants towards urban migrant communities. This leads the migrants centres for job perspectives. Government and to get better employment situation and higher urban authorities jointly should take steps for living standards. On the purpose of education developing the living situations of migrants in it also can be said that the children who were urban areas also. accompanied with their parents for several Migration is a complex process and this months at a time were often not getting proper occurs mainly due to a combination of factors education in the destination either for the new like migrants being unaware of their rights; poor school environment or the language problem in education and skills. One of the most serious the new area. problems faced by migrants is their lack of According to Census and NSSO data access to basic services like the basic about 30 percent of male migrants mainly education. In 2001 about 58 percent of female migrated due to the economic reasons or migrants were illiterate whereas about one employment related issues where for the female fourth of the total male migrants were illiterate. population this reason is negligible. About 70 But it can be seen that in 2007-08 about 51 percent of females migrate mainly for the percent of female migrants and only 16 percent marriage. Internal migration is largely driven of male migrants were illiterate. Also the by the persistence of large regional inequalities standard of educational qualification has been and its potential positive impacts on the lives of increased by that certain periods. The male the poor. migrants having educational qualification

References Birks, J. S. and Sinclair, C. A., 1980, International Migration and Development in the Arab Region. Geneva: ILO. Demery, L.,1986, Asian labour migration: An empirical assessment. In: Arnold, F. and Shah, N.M. eds. (1986) Asian Labour Migration: Pipeline to the Middle East. West View Special Studies in International Migration. de Haan, A. and Rogaly, B., 2002, Introduction: Migrant workers and their role in rural change. Journal of Development Studies, 37(5). Encyclopedia Americana, 1968, America Corporation, New York, 19, : p.48.

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International Encyclopedia of Population,1982, The Free Press, New York, 2, : p.448. Joshi, S.C.,1994, Migration to a Metropolis, R.B.S.A. Publishers, Jaipur, India. Mosse, D., Gupta, S., Mehta, M., Shah, V., Rees, J. and KRIBP Team, 2002, Brokered livelihoods: Debt, labour migration and development in tribal western India. Journal of Development Studies, 38(5) : pp. 59–88. Menon, G. , 1995, The impact of migration on the work and status of tribal women in Orissa. In: Schenk-Sandbergen, L. ed. (1995) Women and Seasonal Labour Migration. Indo- Dutch Series on Development Alternatives 16. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Ministry of Labour ,1991, Report of the National Commission on Rural Labour (NCRL Report). New Delhi: Government of India. Ministry of Labour , 2002, Report of the Second National Commission on Labour. New Delhi: Government of India. Nayyar, D.,1994, Migration, Remittances and Capital Flows: The Indian Experience. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Oberai, A. S.; H.K.Manmohan Singh.,1983, Causes and consequences of internal migration: A study in the Indian Punjab. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Oberai, A. S., Prasad,P.H. and Sardana, M.G. ,1989, Determinants and consequences of Internal Migration in India: Studies in Bihar, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Rawat, P. S. ,1993, Migrationand Structural Change: A Study of Rural Society in Garhwal Himalaya, Sarita Book House, Delhi. Srivastava, R. S. and Bhattacharyya, S., 2002, Globalisation, Reforms and Internal Labour Mobility:Analysis of Recent Indian Trends. Paper presented at a seminar ‘Labour Mobility and Globalising World: Conceptual and Empirical Issues’. September 18–19 2002, V. V. Giri National Labour Institute, ISLE and IHD. Srivastava, R. S., 1998, Migration and the labour market in India. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 41(4). Srivastava, R.S., 1998, Migration and the labour market in India. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 41(4). Srivastava, R.S. , 2001, Access to basic education in Uttar Pradesh. In: Vaidyanathan, A. and Gopinathan Nair, P.R. eds. (2001) Elementary Education in Rural India: A Grassroots View. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

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Singh, A.M. ,1984, Rural to urban migration of women in India: Patterns and implications. In: Fawcett, J.T. et al. (1984) Women in the Cities of Asia: Migration and Urban Adaptation. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Teerink, R. ,1995, Migration and its impact on Kandhesi women in the sugarcane harvest. In: Schenk-Sandbergen, L., ed. (1995) Women and Seasonal Labour Migration, Indo- Dutch Series on Development Alternatives 16. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

E:\BHU\BHU.PM5 (336) NGJI, An International Refereed Journal, (NGSI-BHU, ISSN: 0027-9374/2016/1599), vol. 62 (4), September : 337-350

Role of Sugar Industry in Rural Development: A Case Study of Kushinagar District, U.P. Anil Kumar Tiwari, R. K. Pandey and V. N. Sharma

The agro-based industries have great significance in the Indian economy, where agriculture accounts for over 35 percent of the national income and about two third of the working population are engaged in agriculture. It is also noticeable that over three-fourths of Indian population lives in rural area who eed to upgrade their standard of living. Agro-based industries play an important role in strengthening industrial and agricultural linkages. In reference to eastern Uttar Pradesh, sugar industry is a major agro-based industry that plays a dominant role in rural development mostly in tarai region including Kushinagar district. This district has highest number of sugar mills, gur and khandsari units. Sugar industry used raw materials from agriculture and their output has markets in rural and as well as urban areas along-with international markets. Surplus rural manpower can be absorbed by these industries in this district. This industry provides an excellent nexus in promoting integrated development of agricultural and industry and in transforming a stagnant rural economy into a dynamic one in this area. Present study is an attempt to examine the role of sugar industry in rural development with the help of sample study of some selected nearby villages of sugar mills in Kushinagar district. Key Words : Rural development, sugar industry, weighted value, composite value, composite index

Introduction initiating a number of entrepreneurial activities India has been the original home for in rural India (Pandey, 2007). Sugar industry sugarcane as well as sugar making where is second largest agro-based industry after the sugar industry provides a huge number of cotton textiles in the country, which has a lion’s employment for the rural people. More than share in accelerating industrialization and five crore farmers are engaged in sugarcane bringing socio-economic changes especially in cultivation in India. Sugar mills (cooperative, rural areas. History of sugar and sugar cane in private, and public) have been instrumental in India goes back to several thousand years BC.

Dr. Anil Kumar Tiwari, Assistant Professor, Kamla Devi Bajoria Degree College, Dubahar, Ballia, U.P., Email : [email protected] Dr. R. K. Pandey, Assistant Professor, S.G.R.P.G. College, Dobhi, Jaunpur Dr. V.N. Sharma, Professor of Geography, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005, U.P., INDIA, Email : [email protected]

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It was sometimes in 4th to 6th century when profit for rural areas. He suggested to improve art of sugar making was discovered. Thus, it this relationship through the management of could be rightly said that India has been the cane flows from the grower’s farms to mill as original home for sugarcane as well as sugar a way to enhance the profitability of both. Singh manufacturing. The sugar industry has a bright and Ray (1975) studied the impact of sugar future as one of the prospective players in the industry on the living standards of rural people global sugar market. The demand for sugar and economy of Uttar Pradesh. Yadav, Yadav, across the world has been growing and Tejra (2003) compared the old and new exponentially. The sugar industry of Uttar techniques of sugarcane cultivation with the Pradesh with its capacity can cater to this examples of china and India. He suggested the international demand. The advantages for sugar modern sugarcane machinery and labour saving industry in Uttar Pradesh are abundant cane devices which reduce the cost of sugarcane availability due to favourable climatic conditions production. Pandey (2007) presented the case and soils for sugarcane production and sufficient of sugar industry as one of the strong bases labour availability. Uttar Pradesh is the largest for rural India. He discussed history of sugarcane producing State in India. In 2011, development of sugar industry, sugar policy, raw 125 sugar mills were in operation and crushed materials, production, export, import and 6434.85 lakh quintals of sugarcane (L.B.S. domestic consumption, its critical assessment Ganna Shodh Sansthan, 2011), which was and challenges. Thus, these works show that almost 48 per cent of the total production of geographers have not payed significant attention the country. The sugar industry consists of to the role of this industry in enhancement of private, cooperative and public sector mills that living standard of rural people at micro-level. spread over the western, central and eastern This study is an attempt to examine the role of regions of the State. Over 50 per cent of these sugar industry in the development of agriculture mills are in the private sector and the remaining based economy at micro-level. mills are in the other sectors. Kushinagar district is (83º45' E - 84º15'' Studies of role of sugar industry in E and 26º45' N - 27º15' N) covering an area of economic development of rural area are 2,864.62 km² and population of 35,64,544 systematically analyzed in the work of Junning persons. The district is delineated in the east and Pingsun (2004). They studied the economic by the state boundary between Uttar Pradesh impacts of shutting down Hawaii’s sugar and Bihar, while the western boundary by industry on surrounding environment, cane Maharajganj and Gorakhpur districts. In the farmers, laborer’s earning and state taxes. south, the district is delineated by the Deoria Wada (2006) suggested cottage sugar industries district whereas northern point touches the Indo- for fulfilling the home demand of Nigeria. Gal, Nepal International border. The district consists Lyne, Meyer, and Solar (2008) focused on the of four tahsils, namely, Padrauna, Hata, relationship between sugarcane growers and Tamkuhi and Kasia, which are further sub- millers at a specific management level and its divided into fourteen development blocks.

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Sugar industry automatically follows the numbers in the series of indicator, decentralization pattern due to scattered M = Maximum number in the series, and cultivation of sugarcane in the district. N = Number in the series to be weighted Kushinagar district is rich in sugarcane Weighted value is calculated giving 100 cultivation but, it is not equally distributed all as a weight to the maximum number of the over the area. Alluvial soil, irrigation facility, series. Every number of the each series is adequate rainfall, availability of labour etc. are revaluated in the reference to 100 and thus, essential agricultural conditions that are revalued number is the real rational value of available for sugarcane cultivation in this district. the series and composite index is the weighted Kushinagar district produced 3,410,665 tons value of the sum of revalued numbers. The sugarcane in 2010-11 where 6 sugar mills are facts are explained with a line graph for the in operation. The geographical position of the correlation between indicators of sugar industry district has key advantage of easy access. development and rural development. Proper development of sugar industry in the The survey had been conducted in the district can meet the increasing domestic sample villages. Four villages (nearer sugar demands and improves the economic conditions mills) from four Community Development and general income level of the rural people. Blocks of Kushinagar district had been selected There are six working sugar mills (total 10 mills on a random basis keeping in mind that the in which 4 mills are sick) and about two hundred selected blocks and villages represent the whole small scale registered sugar refineries which district. In the present study, a household was are playing the effective role in the rural considered as a respondent. Information development of Kushinagar district. collected through the schedule covers family Data Sources and Methodology census, agricultural development, income, migration and employment opportunities data The analysis of the role of sugar industry etc. The selected villages (Fig. 1) were Shahpur on rural development has been made on the (Kaptanganj Block), Ratanwa (Padrauna basis of primary data collected during the field Block), Koindi Bariyarpur (Sevrahi Block) and survey in 2011. Secondary data was obtained Mahuari (Hata Block). The collected from the governmental and non-governmental information from various sources is utilized to sources basically from office of Census of analyze rural employment, rural income, rural- India. Weighted value of every index of urban migration, rural education and agricultural indicators of rural development and sugar development for rural development and number industry development have been calculated by of uits, employment and capital investmet for the following formula (Sharma, 2004, 2006, sugar industry development. Tiwari and Sharma, 2011, Tiwari, Pandey and Sharma, 2016) Profile of Sample Villages WV= N/M x 100 These 4 villages have a population of Where, WV = Weighted value of 7,813 persons in 1,275 households. A majority

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Table 1. Profile of Sample Villages Village Block No. of Total Total Total Households Population Workers Literates Mahuari Hata 525 3,366 1,154 2,076 Ratanwa Padrauna 208 1,285 409 688 Koindi Bariyarpur Sevrahi 306 1,761 543 1,050 Shahpur Kaptanganj 236 1,401 300 922 Total villages: 04 1,275 7,813 2,406 4,736 Source: Compiled from ‘Census of India’, Kushinagar, 2011

Table 2. Industrial Profile of Sample Villages Village No. of Small Scale Capital Employment Sugar Units Investment (in Rs.) (in person) Mahuari 4 329,000 16 Ratanwa 3 228,000 13 Koindi Bariyarpur 2 85,000 6 Shahpur 2 120,000 8 Total 11 762,000 43 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

of the total population of the villages is engaged are 4 working Gur /Khandsari unit with capital in agricultural activities. The total workers are investment of Rs. 32.9 lakh and employment 2,406 persons and literate persons are 4736 in of 16 persons. aggregate in these sample villages (Table 1). Ratanwa village is located nearer to There are 11 small sugar units (Gur/Khandsari Padrauna town, about 2 kms. away from making units) in the villages. These units J.H.V. Sugar Mills (Fig. 1). This village is linked invested Rs. 76.2 lakh and employed 43 persons with town by a metalled road. The village has (Table 2). Details profile of these sample a total population of 1,285 persons from 525 villages are given below: households. In this village, total workers are Mahuari village is 2 kms. away from 1154 persons and total literate are 2,076 (2011). New India Sugar Mills, Dhadha Bujurg in Hata There are 3 working Gur /Khandsari units with block is 1 km. from Gorakhpur- Sonauli National capital investment of Rs. 22.8 lakh and Highway (Fig. 1). Mahuari is linked with employment of 13 persons. National Highway by a Kharanza road. The Koindi Bariyarpur is 5 kms. away from village has total population of 3,366 persons United Province Sugar Factory (UP State Sugar with 525 households in which 1,154 workers. Corporation Ltd.) in Sevrahi block. This village Total 2,076 persons are literate in 2011. There is connected with Tamkuhi road with concrete

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road. Total population of the village is 1,761 and linked with market by metalled road. Total persons in 306 households with 543 workers. population is 1,401 persons in 236 households In all 1,050 persons are literate (2011). There with 300 workers. Total 922 persons are literate are 2 Gur /Khandsari making unit which in Shahpur village (2011). There are 2 Gur / invested Rs. 85,000/- and provided employment Khandsari making unit which invested Rs. 12 to 6 persons. lakh and provided employment to 8 persons. Shahpur village is situated on Kaptanganj- Rural Development Indicators Padrauna road in Kaptanganj block and is 1.5 kms. from the Kanoria Sugar Mills, Kaptanganj In order to study the impact of sugar

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industries on households, following factors to study their impacts on each household. namely agriculture, income, employment, Observations migration and education are considered. (i) Agricultural Surplus : Agriculture is These factors are converted into the backbone of the rural economy of the indicators for assessment of rural development Kushinagar district. This sector employed over as follows: 80 percent of the working force of the district 1. Per capita Annual Agricultural Surplus (2011). This heavy reliance of one sector is 2. Per capita monthly Income not due to higher development of agriculture; 3. Percentage of Employment rather it is indicative of the fact that the other 4. Percentage of Migration sectors are relatively less developed. Although, 5. Literacy rate 77.27 per cent of the total area is net cropped An attempt has been made to find out here (2010-11), the district is agriculturally the relationship between level of development under-developed because of traditional and of sugar industries and rural development. The rudimentary forms of the cultivation, oriented basic unit of the study is a household comprising mainly to the production of cereals. There is of different size of households in Kushinagar continuous absence of industrial crops and district. Study of sample characteristics of each cultivation of high yielding varieties of crops household is essential for analyzing the role of and the use of chemical fertilizers are not up to the factors responsible for socio-economic the mark. The total annual agricultural surplus change in the district. Distribution of sample of sample villages having sugar units is Rs. households according to annual per capita 3,800,408/- of which 47.12 per cent (Rs. agricultural surplus, monthly per capita income, 1,790,789) is devoted to Mahuari village percentage of employed persons (other than followed by Ratanwa (24.31 per cent, Rs. agriculture) in ratio to total population, 923,997), Shahpur (16.15 per cent, Rs. 471,999) percentage of migrated people and literacy rate and Koindi Bariyarpur (12.42 per cent, Rs. has been studied. All these variables have been 613,623). As for as, the relative data are discussed and compared for the sample villages

Table 3. Agricultural Surplus of Households of Sample Villages Village Annual Agricultural Annual Agricultural Per capita Annual Surplus (in Rs.) Surplus (in %) Agricultural Surplus (in Rs.) Mahuari 1,790,789 47.12 532.02 Ratanwa 923,997 24.31 719.06 Koindi Bariyarpur 471,999 12.42 268.03 Shahpur 613,623 16.15 437.99 Total 3,800,408 100.00 486.42 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

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Table 4. Per capita Income of Households of Sample Villages Village Monthly Income Monthly Income Per capita Monthly Other than Other than income Other than Agriculture (in Rs.) Agriculture (in %) Agriculture (in Rs.) Mahuari 1,766,813 41.84 524.90 Ratanwa 926,876 21.95 721.30 Koindi Bariyarpur 671,657 15.91 381.41 Shahpur 857,535 20.31 612.09 Total 4,222,882 100.00 540.49 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

concerned the per capita annual agricultural 857,535) and Koindi Bariyarpur (15.91 per cent, surplus of these sample villages having sugar Rs. 671,657). Per capita monthly income of units is Rs. 486/- (Table 3). Ratanwa village these villages is Rs. 540/-. Ratanwa village ranks highest in per capita annual agricultural ranks the highest per capita income of Rs. 721/ surplus of Rs. 719/- followed by Mahuari (Rs. - followed by Shahpur (Rs. 612/-), Mahuari (Rs. 532/-), Shahpur (Rs. 438/-) and Koindi 525/-) and Koindi Bariyarpur (Rs. 381/-). Bariyarpur (Rs. 268/-). (iii) Employment (ii) Income : Per month income in the Total employment (other than agriculture) sample villages having sugar units is not evenly in sample villages (having sugar units) are 1,114 distributed. Total monthly income of all villages persons (Table 5) of which 36.62 per cent (408 is Rs. 4,222,882 (Table 4). Mahuari village ranks persons) are from Mahuari village followed by the highest percentage (41.84 per cent, Rs. Koindi Bariyarpur (26.51 per cent, 295 persons), 1,766,813) of total income of these surveyed Ratanwa (18.55 per cent, 207 persons) and villages followed by Ratanwa (21.95 per cent, Shahpur (18.31 per cent, 204 persons). The Rs. 926,876), Shahpur (20.31 per cent, Rs. Table 5. Employment Status of Households of Sample Villages Village Employment Employment Percentage of (Other than (other than Employment to Total Agriculture) Agriculture) (in %) Population of Villages Mahuari 408 36.62 12.12 Ratanwa 207 18.55 16.08 Koindi Bariyarpur 295 26.51 16.77 Shahpur 204 18.31 14.56 Total 1,114 100.00 14.26 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

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Table 6. Migration Status of Households in Sample Villages Village No. of Migrates Migration(in %) Percentage of Migration to People Total Population of village Mahuari 136 48.67 4.05 Ratanwa 22 7.98 1.74 Koindi Bariyarpur 106 37.93 6.03 Shahpur 15 5.50 1.10 Total 280 100.00 3.59 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

percentage of employment (other than percentage (6.03 per cent) is found in Koindi agriculture) of sample villages (having sugar Bariyarpur followed by Mahuari (4.05 per units) is 14.26 per cent. Koindi Bariyarpur cent), Ratanwa (1.74 per cent) and Shahpur registers the highest percentage of employment, (1.1 per cent). i.e. 16.77 per cent followed by Ratanwa (16.08 (v) Literacy per cent), Shahpur (14.56per cent) and Mahuari The literate population in these villages is (12.12per cent). 4,578 persons (Table 7). Mahuari village has (iv) Migration highest percentage of literate persons to total Total migrated people in sample villages population in these villages (48.81 per cent, 2234 having sugar units are 280 persons (Table 6). persons) followed by Koindi Bariyarpur (19.23 Mahuari village has highest percentage of per cent, 880 persons), Ratanwa (17.03 per cent, migrated people (48.67 per cent, 136 persons) 780 persons) and Shahpur (14.93 per cent, 684 followed by Koindi Bariyarpur (37.93 per cent, persons). The literacy rate in these villages is 106 persons), Ratanwa (7.98 per cent, 22 58.59. Mahuari village has highest literacy persons) and Shahpur (5.5 per cent, 15 (66.38 per cent) followed by Ratanwa (60.68 persons). Percentage of migrated people in per cent), Koindi Bariyarpur (49.98 per cent) these villages is 3.59 per cent. The highest and Shahpur (48.79 per cent).

Table 7. Literacy percentage of Households of Sample Villages Village Total Literates Total Literates (in %) Literacy rate (in %) Mahuari 2,234 48.81 66.38 Ratanwa 780 17.03 60.68 Koindi Bariyarpur 880 19.23 49.98 Shahpur 684 14.93 48.79 Total 4,578 100.00 58.59 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

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Table 8. Indicators of Rural Development Block Per capita Per capita Employ- Migration Literacy Agricultural Monthly ment (in %) (in %) Surplus Income (in %) (in Rs.) (in Rs.) Hata 532.02 524.90 12.12 4.05 66.38 Padrauna 719.06 721.30 16.08 1.74 60.68 Sevrahi 268.03 381.41 16.77 6.03 49.98 Kaptanganj 437.99 612.09 14.56 1.10 48.79 Total 486.42 540.49 14.26 3.59 58.59 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

Block wise Observation annual agricultural surplus was Rs. 486/- (Table Block wise data reveals that per capita 8). Padrauna Block attained highest per capita Table 9. Weighted Values of Development of Sugar Industry (Heavy Sugar Mills + Small Scale Sugar Units) locks Weighted Weighted Value Weighted Value Composite Composite Valueof of Per Capita of Workers/ Value Index Units/Km2 Investment 1000 Popu- (A+D) (Rs.) (B+E) lation (C+F) GH I (G+H+I) Kaptanganj 59.874 40.165 36.756 136.795 46.10 Ramkola 50.520 53.249 54.256 158.024 53.25 Motichak 7.509 5.375 9.516 22.401 7.55 Sukrauli 6.840 24.470 15.005 46.315 15.61 Hata 77.465 96.936 100.000 274.401 92.47 Khadda 35.643 36.060 34.319 106.021 35.73 Nebua 18.565 28.453 34.647 81.665 27.52 Vishunpura 6.960 19.359 12.096 38.415 12.94 Padrauna 100.000 100.000 97.000 296.757 100.00 Kasiya 20.727 30.781 27.313 78.822 26.56 Duddhi 18.898 17.007 22.778 58.684 19.77 Fazilnagar 5.216 3.496 7.195 15.908 5.36 Tamkuhi 8.267 8.729 10.451 27.447 9.25 Sevrahi 47.166 38.211 45.002 130.379 43.93 Total 35.290 39.235 39.579 114.104 38.45 Source: District Industries Centre, 2010-11, Kushinagar (U.P.)

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annual agricultural surplus of Rs. 719/- followed cent), Sevrahi (49.98 per cent) and Kaptanganj by Hata (Rs. 532/-), Kaptanganj (Rs. 438/-) (48.79 per cent). and Sevrahi (Rs. 268/-). Per capita monthly Levels of Development of Sugar income of these Blocks was Rs. 540/-. Industry Padrauna Block has highest per capita monthly Levels of development of sugar industry income of Rs. 721/- followed by Kaptanganj in various blocks are delineated on the basis of (Rs. 612/-), Hata (Rs. 525/-) and Sevrahi (Rs. number of units per km2, per capita investment 381/-). The percentage of employment (other and ratio of employment in sugar industry to than agriculture) of sample Blocks was 14.26 total workers. The composite index is calculated per cent. Sevrahi registered the highest from weighted value with the help of the above percentage of employment that was 16.77 per formula (See formula and process of rural cent followed by Padrauna (16.08 per cent), development). Kaptanganj (14.56 per cent) and Hata (12.12 In this table, composite index show the per cent). Percentage of migrated people in degree of development of sugar industry among these Blocks was 3.59 per cent, in which, the blocks of Kushinagar district. Out of total highest percentage (6.03 per cent) was found 14 blocks, only four blocks- Hata, Padrauna, in Sevrahi followed by Hata (4.05 per cent), Sevrahi and Kaptanganj are choosen for Padrauna (1.74 per cent) and Kaptanganj (1.1 correlation analysis with indicators of rural per cent). The literacy rate in these Blocks was development which are belonging to only these 58.59. Hata Block had highest literates (66.38 four block (Table 10) per cent) followed by Padrauna (60.68 per

Table 10. Weighted Value of Indicators of Rural Development Block Per capita Per capita Employ- Migration Literacy Rural Sugar Annual Monthly ment (per cent) (per cent) Develo- Industry Agricul- Income (per cent) (D) (E) pment (F) Develo- tural (Rs.) (C) pment Surplus (B) (G) (Rs.) (A) (Weighted (Weighted (Weighted (Weighted (Weighted (Composite(Composite Value) Value) Value) Value) Value) Index) Index) Hata 73.99 72.77 72.27 67.16 100.00 92.80 92.98 Padrauna 100.00 100.00 95.89 28.86 91.41 100.00 100.00 Sevrahi 37.28 52.88 100.00 100.00 75.29 87.82 43.96 Kaptanganj 60.91 84.86 86.82 18.24 73.50 77.94 46.01 Total 67.65 74.93 85.03 59.54 88.27 90.21 38.48 Source: Compiled from Field Survey data, 2010-11

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Result and Discussion take place, tendency of migration goes down. Correlations between composite index of The rural un-employed persons get engagement sugar industry development and weighted value in sugar industries and allied activities, and, of indicators of rural development have been therefore, rural-urban migration decreases analyzed. The analysis has been made to point- which is the positive sign for economic out the impact of development of sugar industry development of this district. Literacy is one of on different indicators of rural development and the significant indicators of rural development. finally on rural development. Per capita annual The rural people invest more money on agricultural surplus has the closest correlation education of their family if they had sufficient with the development of sugar industries income. The relationship between sugar (+0.881). It means as the number of sugar industries development and literacy rate shows industries increases, agricultural surplus the coefficient of correlation of +0.927, which increases by approximately same rate. It is due reveals that as the sugar industry develops, the to the farmer’s involvement in initial literacy rate also increases. Finally, the commercialization of agriculture. However, relationship between development of sugar both sectors are in its initial stage of industries and rural development is positive modernization. Development of sugar industries (+0.857), which shows the significant positive in this area improves direct as well as indirect role of sugar industries in rural development in income of the rural people, which is proved by the Kushinagar district (Fig. 2). the closer positive correlation (+0.577) between Conclusion sugar industries development and per capita Rural development has always been a monthly income. major issue in all plans pertaining to economic There is not closer relationship as showed development of any region, especially in (-0.373) by percentage of employment with developing countries. In the developing sugar industry development. However, sugar countries, rural mass comprise a considerable industries are labour intensive and utilized majority of the population. Rural development simple technology, therefore, it employ more has highest correlation with the rural rural skilled as well non-skilled labourers. But, industrialization. Agriculture is the backbone of result shows that there is negative correlation the rural economy of the Kushinagar district. due to uneconomic size of old factories and The net cropped area comprised 77.27 per cent these units are producing Gur/Khandsari/Rab of the total area in 2010-11, yet the district is for only domestic uses not for commercial agriculturally under-developed because of purposes. Percentage of migration also indicates traditional and rudimentary forms of the negative correlation (-0.236) with sugar cultivation, oriented mainly to the production industries development. Though, it is very poor of cereals. Besides, sugarcane is a major coefficient of correlation, but, it very clearly industrial crop which helps development of reveals that as the sugar industry development sugar industries in this district. And,

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development of sugar industries and rural industries play a positive role of in rural development are positively correlated and sugar development.

References Chauhan, N. B., 2012, Rural Development, (unpublished assignment report), www.aau.in, accessed on 14.06.2015. Gal, L.P.Y., Lyne, P.W.L., Meyer, E. and Solar, L.G., 2008, Impact of Sugarcane Supply Scheduling on Mill Sugar Production: A South African Case study, Science Direct, Vol. 95, pp. 64- 74, available online at www.sciencedirect.com, accessed on 10.09.2013. Junning, Cai and Pingsun L., 2004, Economic impacts of shutting down Hawaii’s sugar industry, Cooperative Extension Service, El-06, pp. 1-4. L.B.S. Ganna Shodh Sansthan (P.I.O.), 2011, Chini Mill Prarambh Hone ki Tithi, Gannakharid, Perai Va Chini Utpadan Ki Sthiti, L.B.S. Ganna Shodh Sansthan, Lucknow. Pandey, A.P., 2007, Indian sugar industry - A Strong Industrial base for rural India, http:// mpra.ub.unimuenchen. De /6065/ MPRA Paper No. 6065, posted 03. December 2007 / 12:26. Sharma, V. N., 2004, Level of Industrial Development in Madhya Pradesh, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 66 (1). Sharma, V. N., 2006, Agro-Based Industries in Maharajganj District (U.P.) A Regional Analysis, National Geographer, Vol. XLI, No. 1+2, p. 21-31. Singh, J. and Ray, J.P., 1975, Impact of Sugar Industry in the Space Economy of U.P., Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika, Vol. 11(June), p. 4. Tiwari, A. K. and Sharma, V. N., 2011, ‘Level of agro-based industrial development in Eastern Uttar Pradesh’, National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. 57 (4), pp. 43-52. Tiwari, A. K., Pandey, R. K. and Sharma, V. N., 2016, Status of Sugar Industry in Kushinagar district, U.P., Transaction, Institute of Indian Geographers, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 117- 26. Wada, A.C., Gbabo, A., Ndarubu, A.A., 2006, Cottage Sugar Industries as alternatives for

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meeting Nigeria’s domestic Sugar Demands, Outlook on Agriculture, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 65-71, IP Publishing Ltd. Yadav, R.N.S., Yadav, S. and Tejra, R. K., 2003, Labour Saving and Cost Reduction Machinery for Sugarcane Cultivation, Sugar Tech, Vol. 5 (l and 2), pp. 7-10.

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Spatial linkage of Poverty Determinants in District Ambedkar Nagar : A Geographical Perspective Siddharth Shankar Rao and A. P. Mishra The problem of poverty is more acute in rural areas. Rural poor do not afford basic minimum needs that are reflected in their pattern of spatial location. Rural poor are more isolated than urban poor. They are differentiated not only in terms of the intensity of deprivation but also functionally in terms of their social participation and position in the structure of agrarian relations. Accordingly the effect of different factors that determine the incidence of rural poverty significantly varied between different segments of the rural society. The incidence of rural poverty is determined by different socio-economic and political factors, such as distribution of SC/STs population, small size of landholdings, daily wage labourers, marginal workers, poor infrastructure facility, access to education facility, poor health quality, low level of political participation etc. The determinants of poverty have its own linkages with evolving nature of society and space. The present study focuses on various poverty determinants, social pattern of poverty and its spatial interlinkage to rural poor in Ambedkar Nagar district. Key words: Rural poor, poverty determinants, spatial linkage of poverty, SCs poverty

Introduction rural areas and most of them are involved in Poverty is a chronic problem that primary activities. Poverty, in most of rural commonly exists in developing countries. areas, is unevenly distributed and significantly Chronic poverty concerns to the people who varies with geographical relations. Rural are poor for significant period of their lives, and poverty mostly exists in underdeveloped that is transferred from one generation to agrarian space confining to the lower strata of another. The severity of poverty is description social groups. In fact, poverty in rural areas of the degree of suffering and deprivation. India owes its genesis to rampant of feudal agrarian is a fast growing economy of the world but structure and low productivity in agrarian most of the people are still suffering from acute society. The absolute poverty of the agrarian problem of poverty. According to 2011 census, economy is proverbial and presents 68.8 per cent of population is still residing in fundamental problems to the process of

Siddharth Shankar Rao, Research Scholar, email - [email protected] and Dr. A. P. Mishra, Professor, email - [email protected], Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005.

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modernization and development. Eminent met’. Poverty in the economic sense is defined economists and sociologist have recorded that as a ‘state wherein an individual cannot fulfil main causes of rural poverty such as use of his minimum requirements for reasonable primitive agricultural techniques, insufficient healthy living in a given social and cultural irrigation system, land fragmentation, environment. Poverty in this sense is both uneconomic size of land holdings, over pressure relative and absolute. Relative poverty implies on agriculture, alarming rural indebtedness and, that some have more goods and services at above all, the existing land relation that needs their command than others. It is mainly a in-depth analysis. problem of inequality in the distribution of In Indian context, poverty is not defined income and wealth, characteristic of advanced by any single norm; rather it is more complex economy. Absolute poverty is the insufficiency in nature and origin. In current scenario poverty of basic necessities for a healthy life. In a adversely affects not only the health and vitality developing country like India, the problem of of the rural people but also exhibits spatial absolute poverty is more severe. Poverty is the backwardness of their social, cultural and problem of deprivation and it may be environmental conditions. The rural people in multidimensional either economic or cultural or general are ignorant, superstitious, and social or psychological or a combination of all culturally backward which may be attributed of them. The problem of poverty is often to their abysmal confinement with cultural conceptualized as ‘a socio-economic poverty. As a consequence they cannot afford phenomenon whereby the resources available to participate in the process of modernization to a society are used to satisfy the wants of and development. Thus, they remain excluded the few while they may do not have even their from any access to scientific knowledge of the basic needs met. So poverty is essentially a natural and social worlds imparted by social phenomenon as well as physical’ (Mishra, educational and cultural institutions. Economic 1988). prosperity is also the basic pre-requisition for a Deprivation of human resources is flourishing social and cultural life of rural poor. another critical dimension of poverty. It Hence, the problem of rural reconstruction at indicates to human development capture, a high social and cultural level is bound up with important dimension of well-being and reflects the problem of the eradication of rural poverty. not just the rate of growth in the economy but The complex nature of poverty requires multiple also levels and quality of public spending. They approach for its analysis and study. It cannot also broaden the picture of poverty and provide be defined by a single norm of poverty. It is a wider arena to fight against it. Effective public usually a relative expression and its nature spending on basic services, e.g. education, differs from time to time and place to place. health, water and sanitation can compensate Kurien (1978), considered in his study that the limited ability of the poor to acquire these poverty is ‘socio-economic phenomenon services through the market. In continuation to whereby the resources available to a society this, impact of spending on public goods and are used to satisfy the wants of the few, while services is another factor that accentuates the many do not have even their basic needs poverty. The nature of poverty in an agrarian

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social structure is an outcome of steady critical measures of non- monetary dimensions population growth with emergence of rising of welfare as well as important inputs into an landlessness and dependence on wage labour individual’s earning ability’ (Sen, 1981). It is and other productive assets that shape the identified that education as major indicator of pattern of poor and its process of deprivation. human development determined the socio- In its ‘structural dimension, poverty must be economic development of deprived sections, viewed in terms of the pattern of inequality particularly among women and socially exhibited in a community. Such a pattern gets vulnerable groups. Illiteracy gives rise to manifested in the available stock of resources, orthodoxy in Indian society, which leads to the their distribution and the way they are owned problem of social and cultural poverty. Again or controlled by various groups in that illiteracy produces unskilled workers, who can community. Unequal distribution of resources only be engaged in primary sectors. This is also determines not only unequal life chances but a form of economic poverty. The quality of also an unequal distribution of power’ (Reddy, human resources can be examined through the 1991). These factors may be considered as levels of literacy and skilled training attained determinants for nature and extent of poverty. by the people in the given area. Thus, illiteracy Determinants of poverty and its is an important determent of poverty in any linkages geographical region. Occupational structure also refers rational view of poverty status in Poverty as a complex phenomenon is any geographical space. ‘It is necessary to determined by various indicators. Almost, in all define the ‘agricultural holdings’ before the developing countries, poverty persists in attempting a discussion on the size pattern of more complex way because these countries are ‘agricultural holdings’ that implies the total area encountered with and still facing different basic of land which is hold for cultivations as a single problems, like hunger, starvation, malnutrition, unit by an individual, joint family or more than unemployment, illiteracy, shortage of drinking one farmer on a joint bases. Such land may water etc. After more than seventy years of either entirely be owned, taken on lease, or may independence, India is still facing various be partly owned partly rented’ (Mamoria, problems and challenges. Among them, poverty 1979).The agricultural labourers as landless’ is more acute problem in the rural areas. Rural social structure of SCs population may be people are still unable to afford and fulfill their classified as major component for poverty. Most basic needs. The government have launched of agricultural labourers get employment various policies and programmes for the opportunities only at the time of sowing and betterment of living conditions of rural people, harvesting which are not only seasonal and however, problem still remains. On this account, intermittent but also conditioned by drought and the origin and mechanism of poverty have its flood. Thus, full period regular job opportunity multi-dimensional characteristics that are is very limited. Agricultural labourers needed to be studied by researchers in social predominately belong to Scheduled Castes sciences. ‘Human capital measured in terms (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). They are of health status and education are considered illiterate, ignorant and live in scattered villages.

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Just as the reality of poverty goes beyond therefore they lack the leverage to ensure that material deprivation, it badly brings down the state institution serve them fairly. As a status of human development. Exclusion and consequence, either they lack access to public social marginalisation is often at the root of this facilities or have access only to goods and problem. For many poor people, low caste facilities of inferior quality. Problem of social status and gender operate as major social identity in particular castes and gender too is barriers that exclude them from many realms linked to poverty. Individuals with low caste of social and economic opportunity. status are more likely to be employed as low- Vulnerability to adverse shocks is a fact of life paid, low-status, agriculture labourers. Besides, for poor men and women. They are distressed they are often illiterate and live in poorly not only by current low levels of resources and constructed houses with limited access to water incomes, but also by the possibility of falling and sanitation. The destitute poor usually do into deeper poverty and destitution. Gupta not have other sources of income but (1987) has considered in his study that four constrained with low-wage, intermittently major groups of variables characterising rural available casual labour. In the worst case, they poverty: (1) economic components which are foraging and begging with rare exception include occupation and income ;( 2) basic need destitute households have very weak ties of components which include food and shelter; (3) mutual assistance and support, as compared to resource components which include health and their wealthier counterparts. Poor women, education; and (4) socio-cultural components particularly those with low-caste status, face which include demographic features, political high risk of becoming destitute. Exclusion- participation and value interest. These major based poverty on the basis of gender and caste four components constitute the determinants persists in rural areas that is a powerful of poverty which must be fulfilled and for contributing factor. The study discussed the role fulfilling these requirements there must be a played by gender and caste in limiting or barring minimum income and reach for betterment in opportunities to escape poverty. Social identity quality of life. The basic determinants of is a strong predictor of who is and is not poor, poverty seem to remain unchanged while who is illiterate, who is employed in low-paid, poverty levels show occasional improvement. low status, involved as agricultural labourer, and However, the conditions of rural poor remain who lives in poorly constructed houses with highly vulnerable to the consequences of limited access to basic services. Despite, poverty. Inequality, low literacy rate, low health decades of effort on the part of successive status, malnutrition, high fertility and population governments, SCs/STs are twice as likely to growth, and other related features may be suffer poverty as material deprivation, as envisaged as the determinants of poverty; and compared to majority individuals, as the as long these are not tackled, the depressed aggregate of non-SC/STs. A number of factors condition of the poor remains depressed and explain the gap in living standards between SC/ they endure it helplessly. STs who tend to possess fewer private assets Poor individuals and communities are in particular, less and poorer quality land, as generally deprived of political influence also, well as lower level of human capital. The latter

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trend is particularly disadvantageous in light of in temperature and go very hot. The average difficulties in redistributing land, and importance rainfall in the district ranges from 1000-1200 of opportunities in the non-farm sector. mm. According to 2011 census, the total area Education could play an important role in of the district is 2350km2with a total population improving welfare for poor and socially of 23, 97,888 persons. Out of this figure male marginalised households. Further, gender-based and female consisted 1,212,410 and 1,185,478 poverty is very common in study area because respectively. The district has a population of discrimination practices still continue. The density of 1,020 persons per square kilometre. present paper aims to investigate determinants The growth rate of population during 2001-2011 of poverty that persist in under developed areas decade was 18.35 per cent. Ambedkar Nagar like Ambedkar Nagar. has a sex ratio of 978 females per 1000 males. Study area The literacy rate in the district is 72.23 per cent. Approximately, 90 per cent of the population The Ambedkar Nagar district came into lives in rural areas with traditional mode of existence in September 29, 1995. Earlier it was farming. As per 2011 Census, 24.65 per cent a part of Faizabad district. The district is located of total population belongs to the Schedule on the north eastern part of Uttar Pradesh Castes (SCs) and 0.03 per cent to Scheduled which extends from 26009' N to 26040' N Tribes (STs) community. Major occupation of latitudes and 82012' E to 83005' E longitudes the study area is agriculture, as more than 60 (Fig. 1). It is bounded on the north by Basti per cent population directly or indirectly depends and Sant Kabir Nagar districts, on the north- on this activity. Potato, sugarcane, paddy, east by Gorakhpur district, on the south by wheat, pulses and oil seeds are major crops Sultanpur district, on the west by Faizabad and that are grown in the district. Most of the on the east by Azamgarh district. irrigated land (80 per cent) gets irrigation water Administratively, district has five tehsils (sub- by tube- wells while 15 per cent by canals. divisions) namely, Akbarpur, Tanda, Alapur, The industrial development is almost Jalalpur and Bhiti. The district is divided into insignificant with its meagre contribution to the nine development blocks namely Akbarpur, development process of the district excepting Katehri, Bhiti, Tanda, Baskhari, Ramnagar, Tanda and Akbarpur blocks, Ambedkar Nagar Jalalpur, Jahangir Gunj and Bhiyaon (District is known for Tanda Terracotta artifacts while Planning Map, 2005) that consisted 3955 in Tanda main economic activities are related villages. The district has entirely plain to work on power looms. The Tanda has a topography. The Ghaghara is the main river of thermal power station that belongs to the the region which flows in the north of the NTPC. There is a cement manufacturing plant district. There are many small rivers and that belongs to the Jaypee Group (Jaypee, streams which pass through the district from Ayoudha,Greeding). The Akbarpur has a sugar west to east direction. The district enjoys factory known as Akbarpur Sugar Mill which monsoon type of climate. The Rainy season is is situated near Mijhaura, about ten kilometers almost of three months. January becomes very from the district headquarters. cold whereas April, May and June witness rise

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Fig 1. Extent of Ambedkar Nagar district

Objectives the different libraries as well as web sources. The paper focuses on two major For deriving the result simple statistical objectives as follows: methods, MS excel and ArcGIS software for 1. To discuss various determinants of making maps and tables have been used. poverty and its interlinkages Cartographic techniques are used to portray 2. To find out social location and genesis spatial dimensions of various poverty of poverty in the study area determinants, poverty interlinkages and its social Database and methodology location. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques have been used to analyse and The present study is based mainly on interpret data and maps. In order to reveal the secondary sources of data collected from ground reality and interlinkages of poverty District Planning Office, Ambedkar Nagar, investigators have in-depth discussions with Census handbook, 2001 and 2011. Relevant knowledgeable and elderly people, persons information and literature are consulted from associated with NGOs and government officials

E:\BHU\BHU.PM5 (356) Spatial linkage of Poverty Determinants in District Ambedkar Nagar : A... 357 (X9) tare tare (X5) (X4) 0.50 hec- (X7) (X8) ons (X10) Literacy less than rers water nicati- road (X2) Popula- Familytion(X1) 2002 of SCs Male- (X3) Landh- Female Facility olders ltural bility of (X6) port Labou- ach by Drinking commu- supply pucca osite (X11) Score Index 26.62 59.63 65.70 21.82 69.76 20.50 41.21 99.21 23.95 74.04 93.21 - -

District Statistical Handbook, 2011 Handbook, and Personal Statistical Computation District Spatial Inter Linkage of Poverty Determinants in District Ambedkar Nagar Ambedkar District in Determinants Poverty of Linkage Inter Spatial BhitiKatehriAkbarpur 23.39Tanda 23.97 23.49Baskhari 37.74 32.60 31.05Ramnagar 59.34 29.64 63.82 26.58Jahangirganj 66.16 26.63 21.01 47.00 21.65 28.69Jalalpur 39.82 20.70 67.99 39.57 67.84Bhiyaon 66.18 42.74 70.05 66.81Total 29.74 67.38 19.89 20.77 Rural 12.71 21.02 66.08 26.12 29.23 22.82 70.70 35.01 42.89 69.08 24.26 38.43 100.00 35.20 71.84 40.65 71.00 66.07 99.43 23.36 40.16 33.15 66.77 99.49 21.03 18.42 6.82 39.76 10.30 44.89 23.94 100.00 67.40 69.26 31.28 42.60 98.77 73.30 43.19 69.37 92.27 36.07 76.92 17.96 99.47 98.30 22.95 98.28 63.5 19.86 79.51 95.90 41.54 28.42 77.46 12.88 90.98 58 38.30 0.57 99.40 95.08 80.00 75 56.22 66.5 0.20 98.58 90.00 25.75 90.56 1.35 51 0.78 24.82 82.04 49 -0.27 22 80.85 95.21 -0.41 89.36 -2.23 55 55 0.00 0.00 Source: Source: Block SC/STs BPL SCs Literacy in Gap No of Medical Agricu- Availa- Trans- Appro- Power Comp- Standard Table 1. Table

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to obtain scientific result on poverty determines the pattern of poverty because determinants and its spatial pattern in study these people mostly live under the Below area. Poverty Line category (59.63 per cent).The Interlinkages of poverty determinants table 1also clearly indicates that poverty is the cumulative result of multiple indicators, literacy The preceding discussion reveals that of SCs(65.70 per cent), gap in male-female poverty is the by-product of various socio- literacy(21.82 per cent), more than two-third economic factors. These determinants of (69.76 per cent) of landholders have less than poverty are explained through incidences of the 0.5 hectare land, poor medical facility(20.50 per ground reality of the study area. The various cent), substantial proportion (41.21 per cent) components of poverty(X1 to X11) considered of workers involve as agricultural labourers, for the study are listed in table: 1 that depicts poor transport and communication(23.95 per spatial pattern and interlinkages of poverty. cent), unapproachable by pucca roads(74.04 Table 1 shows block wise distribution of per cent) and poor power supply(93.21 per various socio-economic determinants of rural cent)have been related to the levels of poverty poverty in study area. The distribution of SC/ in study area. STs (26.62 per cent) population in study area Fig. 2 shows block wise spatial

Fig. 2

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interlinkages of poverty determinants in study because various determinants of poverty have area. On the basis of standard score and spatial lower impacts on this particular block. Spatial characteristics of poverty determinants, the distribution of various poverty determinants, study area has been divided into three major minimum SC/STs population (23.49 per cent), poverty groups: (i) Extreme poverty, (ii) minimum BPL population (31.05 per cent), high Moderate poverty; and (iii) Low poverty. literacy rate (66.16 per cent), lowest in male- Area of Extreme Poverty female literacy rate (20.07 per cent), better availability of drinking water facility (99.49 per The figure 2 shows that area of extreme cent), and proper access to power supply poverty is mainly concentrated in the eastern (95.90 per cent ) etc. are higher than other part of the district namely Jahangirganj (- 2. 23 blocks. per cent) block. Due to a combination of various factors such as maximum concentration of SC/ Social Location of Poverty STs (28.69 per cent) population, high proportion Every geographical region has its of population fall under BPL categories (42.74 own physical and cultural settings so the spatial per cent), highest percentage of gap in male- pattern of poverty differs from one space to female literacy rate (24.26 per cent), very high another. The spatial linkages of poverty are number of households (71.00 per cent) have product of multiple determinants of poverty less than 0.50 hectare land, poorest medical elements in the specific geographic background. facility (10.30 per cent), higher number (43.19 The extent and nature of poverty have very per cent) of population involved as agricultural close linkage with the availability of resources labourer, lack of potable drinking water (labour, land and capital), skilled, entitlements, facility(98.28 per cent) , very low transport and participation in decision making process and communication facilities (12. 88 per cent), and other developmental activities with social and poor approach of pucca roads to rural poor(56. individual capacities. The poverty in agrarian 22 per cent) etc. have contributed to generate space is followed in accordance with ethnic such extreme poverty in the area. nature of social hierarchy, groups, level of Area of Moderate Poverty employment, and participation in political process. In order to study the nature of poverty The table demonstrates that most of its socio-economic analysis may give some blocks, Baskhari (0.78 per cent), Katehari (0.57 information and insight for a specific per cent), Bhiti (0.20per cent), Jalalpur (0.00 geographical space. The poverty status of the per cent), Bhiyaon (0.00 per cent), Ramnagar study area has been marked through data (-0.41 per cent) and Tanda (-0.27 per cent) analysis of various poverty components. fall under moderate category of poverty which Most of the remaining unresolved issues represent lower impact of poverty determinants in poverty analysis are related directly or on vulnerable sections of SC/ST population of indirectly to the multidimensional nature and the area. dynamics of poverty. Social, cultural and Area of Low Poverty psychological locations over space have many Area of low poverty is found only in dimensions of poverty which require a scientific Akbarpur (1.35 per cent) block. This happens understanding of the issue. The social status in

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feudal society has many reasons for historical institutions, governing general social conduct exclusion groups that continues exploitation and and market transactions. This is seen to be more posed social segregation and suffering in social prevalent in the rural areas where poverty is life. Actually, social exclusion is often a far comparatively high. Although the strict one to more difficult challenge than material poverty. one correspondence of broad caste categories ‘Social and cultural sources of exclusion (in with class has eroded substantially over time, economic, civil and political spheres) including there still remain strong linkages between the stigma, discrimination and denial of citizenship two, which have been strengthened by are rooted in informal social structure’, (Thorat persistent cultural, social and religious ideas and 2007). In another observation, Haan and Dubey their practices. India, therefore, suffers from (2005) have observed that ‘the regional, social its unique problems with their implications on and gender disparities are more prominent livelihood outcomes, somewhat different from factors which determine the poverty pattern’. societies stratified only on class lines’. Further, they argue that SC/STs people are These aspects of poverty need attention facing the core incidence of poverty as by social scientists which should be studied at compared to other social groups. Further, it was micro level to reveal in depth realities of poverty. their conclusion that this descriptive exploration The present paper is an attempt in this direction of existing data of what is now one of the using newer approaches to study poverty. India’s poorest states highlights the importance Table. 2 and fig. 3 show block wise social of disparities within the state. Regional location of poverty in study area. Based on inequality seems to have increased in respect various social locations, like General, OBC and to poverty incidences, and there is little SC/STs, pattern of poverty followed caste indication that regional gaps in human reality that prevailed in Indian social hierarchy. development indicators are being bridged The proportion of BPL shows the social location despite for example the targeted attempts to of poverty in General (12.94 per cent), OBC universalise education. Disparities between (48.56 per cent) and SC/STs (38.54 per cent) social groups similarly are not being reduced that proves that social location is an important significantly. Marginal sections of society suffer phenomenon which determines poverty pattern from the kinds of discrimination that have been in any geographical space. In Indian society it well- documented for other parts of India. has played a significant role in perpetuation of Gender disparities are equally significant, with poverty situations. Above discussion also education gaps not being reduced, and women proved that social organization and structure continuing to suffer from specific health of society have played a major role in shaping disadvantages. Thorat, 2010 has observed in the pattern of poverty. his study that ‘Indian society is primarily an Concluding observation identity-based society. This identity of an On the basis of above discussion it has individual stems from caste, ethnicity, religious been observed that rural poverty is determined or even regional belongings amongst others. by various socio-economic factors. Further, it Unfortunately these identities are still has been also investigated that the spatial pattern entrenched in caste and religious hierarchal

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Table 2. Social location of poverty in District Ambedkar Nagar Block Total Per Total B.P.L Per Gen- Per OBC Per SC Per Popul- cent Family cent eral cent cent cent ation 2002-07 Bhiti 1,73,742 8.21 16,524 9.51 2523 15.27 8060 48.78 5941 35.95 Katehri 2,15,372 10.17 19,086 8.86 2550 13.36 9945 52.11 6591 34.53 Akbarpur 3,05,740 14.44 31,528 10.31 3477 11.03 17647 55.97 10404 33.00 Tanda 2,72,551 12.87 23,755 8.72 2208 9.29 10861 45.72 10686 44.98 Baskhari 2,00,610 9.48 15,107 7.53 1353 8.96 6845 45.31 6909 45.73 Ramnagar 2,29,839 10.86 19,582 8.52 1705 8.71 10192 52.05 7685 39.25 Jahangirganj 2,10,657 9.95 19,986 9.49 2774 13.88 9049 45.28 8163 40.84 Jalalpur 3,00,387 14.19 20,684 6.89 4295 20.76 7971 38.54 8418 40.70 Bhiyaon 2,08,260 9.84 23,646 11.35 3617 15.30 11639 49.22 8390 35.48 Total 21,17,158 100.00 1,89,898 8.97 24502 12.90 92209 48.56 73187 38.54 Source: District Statistical Handbook, 2011 and Personal Computation.

Fig. 3

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and its interlinkages to poverty determinants severity of poverty mostly concentrated show positive with differential impacts. On the amongst lowest social group as SC/STs basis of degree and magnitude three categories population than other social groups, as OBCs are identified, extreme poverty, moderate and Generals. The study also illustrates the poverty and low poverty region and that are availability of various amenities, like health determined by various socio-economic and facilities, transport and communication, political factors. It has also been observed that approach by metalled roads etc. that are not the spatial pattern of poverty mostly followed distributed equally among various social groups. by prevailing nature of social hierarchy while

References De Haan, A., & Dubey, A., 2005, Poverty, disparities, or the development of underdevelopment in Orissa. Economic and Political Weekly, 2321-2329. Desai, A. R., 1994, Rural sociology in India. Popular Prakashan, Bombay. Dhamija, N. and Bhide, S., 2010, Dynamics of Poverty in India: A Rural Data Analysis. Economic and Political Weekly, 45(13): pp. 91-96. Gupta, S. P., 1987, Structural dimensions of poverty in India. Mittal Publications., New Delhi. Kurien, C. T., 1978, Poverty, planning and social transformation.Allied Publication, New Delhi. Mamoria, C. B., 1979, Agricultural problems of India. Kitab Mahal, Allahabad. Mishra, A. P., 1988, Rural Poverty in India: Problems in Planning and Strategy for Poverty Alleviation.Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi. Mundle, S., 1983, Effect of Agricultural Production and Prices on Incidence of Rural Poverty: A Tentative Analysis of Inter-State Variations. Economic and Political Weekly, A48-A53. Reddy, G. N., 1991, The Rural Poor. Chugh Publication, Allahabad. Reddy, S. S., Galab, S., & Rao, P. P., 2003. Trends and Determinants of Poverty: 1973-74 to 1999-2000. Economic and Political Weekly, 1262-1273. Sen, A., 1981, Public action and the quality of life in developing countries. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 43(4), 287-319. Shergill, H. S., 1989, Agrarian structure as a factor in rural poverty: Some cross-section evidence. Economic and Political Weekly, A9-A12. Thorat, S., & Mahamallik, M., 2007, Human poverty and socially disadvantaged groups in India. New Delhi, UNDP-HDRC. Thorat, A., 2010, Ethnicity, caste and religion: Implications for poverty outcomes. Economic and Political Weekly, 47-53.

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Baiga Settlements in the Environs of Maikal Range of Central India Janki Prasad and R. S. Yadava Baiga is one of the particular vulnerable tribe groups in India which generally inhabits in hilly and forested tracts of central highlands of the country such as ranges of Maikal and Satpura. It is argued that the remote and inaccessible areas are occupied by the Baigas which is attributed to their security concerns from the interactions by the other societies. Their simple ways of life and nature loving personal traits reflect harmonious relationship of Baiga tribe with natural environment. Various spheres of their life are intimately associated with the forests and forest products. The study reveals that Baiga settlements are somewhat different from rest settlements of region in terms of its location, morphology and housing structure. In this study an attempt has been made to explore the relationships between natural environment and tribal society. Focus has been led to analysis of socio-cultural processes that shape and alter cultural landscape in a unique and specific manner. The study will be useful for the researchers interested in settlement geography as well as the scholars of social, cultural and environmental studies. Key words : Maikal range, Baiga settlement, empirical study, village morphology, cultural practices settlements especially Baiga’s dwellings are Introduction more closely associated with the natural Settlement is an important component of environment. The location of Baiga settlements the cultural landscape which consists of the in the region is more affected by the three basic human needs- food, shelter and topographical features, sunshine, availability of cloth. “Settlements reflect not only man’s water and the cultivable land. Thus, the Baiga response to his environment but also the villages reflect that specific physical, cultural religious and social customs of his society” and ecological characteristics which are related (Leong and Morgan, 1982: 43). Settlement to its topography and climate. “Man makes geographers are concerned with the description choice to mould space according to his cultural and analysis of spatial arrangement of buildings, values, hence variations in habitations in morphology and functions. The tribal response to environmental stimuli. He, Dr. Janki Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Earth Science, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak- 484887, Madhya Pradesh. E-mail : [email protected] Dr. R.S.Yadava, Professor, Department of Geography, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005. E-mail : [email protected]

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consciously or unconsciously, through forests of Jharkhand, Sonbhadra district of settlements relates himself and his way of life, Uttar Pradesh, and adjoining parts of to the prevailing environment. Thus, settlements Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh and finally become physical embodiments of an ideal confined in the environs of Maikal range. At environment” (Singh, 2006:56). present, the environs of Maikal range is having Baiga tribal people are inhabited in the largest concentration of Baiga tribe. The ‘Highlands of Central India’, inaccessible areas evolution of Baiga settlement in this range is of the Maikal and Satpura ranges and the largely affected by its topography, dense forests Narmada trough. “The Maikal range, forming and climatic conditions because these people so to say a connecting link between the have fascination with nature. The Baiga people Vindhyas and the Satpuras, is a large plateau who inhabit the environs of Amarkantak are which was once well populated but is now much affected with the rapid deforestation and highly forested” (Krishnan, 1960:6). These two exploitation of land resources by the agrarian ranges join with Maikal hills at Amarkantak, society and others. As a consequence, Baigas the place is known for the origin of holy river are under force to move inside the forest from Narmada. The river traverses through a rift their present home but the department of valley that lies between Vindhyan and Satpura forests/administration restricts such ranges. The valley and the connecting area of encroachments in the deep forests. all three hill ranges is the chief habitat of Baiga Baiga people belong to Proto-Austroloid tribe. This region/ habitat is having a rich stock. They speak Baigani dialect, eastern biodiversity and covered with dense forest of Hindi and Chhattisgarhi which belong to Indo- Sal (shorea robusta), teak, bamboo, fruit Aryan stock and Indo-European Phylum. The trees, scrubs, grasses, medicinal plants and population of Baiga tribe in India is 5, 52,495 roots. The main concentration area of Baigas that is distributed in States of Madhya Pradesh, settlement encompasses districts of Madhya Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Pradesh and Chhattisgarh namely Mandla, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar and Maharashtra Dindori, Shahadol, Anuppur, Umaria, Balaghat (Census, 2011). The sex ratio of the tribe is and Bilaspur. The Baiga chak of Dindori district 993 females per thousand male. In general, is known for major concentration of Baiga Baigas are daily wage earners in this area. people. “The chak consists of 52 villages of They are restricted from collecting required the development blocks of Bajag, Karnjiya and forest produces excepting some minor Samnapur of Dindori district. The centre of the Baiga chak is a forest village Chanra” produces. They prefer to do the work where (Chaurasia, 2009:8). daily wage payment system is under operation Baiga tribe is known as an offshoot of as their economic conditions still remain from the Bhuinyas of Chhota Nagpur plateau region hand to mouth. Thus, they purchase food items- of India. Thus, they continue to inhabit in khanda (broken rice), spice, salt and oil daily. Jharkhand and adjoining areas of Odisha State The lack of connectivity, water supply and also. They spread towards south from the absence of electricity are common problems region of origin and followed a path from dense in the Baiga settlements that is mainly due to

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their isolated locations and poor attention/ explanation of the geographical facts. The indifference by the concerned administration. historical and ecological approaches are Objectives accorded due significance in the study. The interpretation of Baiga settlements is made in  To describe salient features of the terms of influence of topographical conditions Baiga settlements and environmental factors and socio-cultural  To reveal settlement morphology of the processes that have gradually shaped and Baiga villages altered its spatial pattern, morphology and  To describe housing structure and functions. Terrestrial photographs of the ground plan of houses and its changing scenario houses and settlements are taken from the and field. The relevant literature and information  To identify the main problems are gathered and consulted from gazetteers, regarding the settlements and suggest amicable census handbooks, other different books and remedial measures journals. Database and Methodology Baiga Settlements: An Overview The study is primarily conducted on field- “A typical Baiga village gives an based survey of various Baiga settlements of impression of a strong and vital corporate life. the Maikal range. These settlements included It is not bound together by an exacting code of villages in the periphery of Amarkantak and reciprocal obligations between kin, nor by a the Baiga chak such as Jamna dadar, Kabir common loyalty to some dictatorial chief; but it chabutra, Baigan tola (Farri semar), is vitalized by a vivid consciousness of the tribal Sarhakona, Baigan tola (Amarkantak), Lanka idea, a devotion to Mother Earth, and an tola (Omarguhan), Jaleshwar, Amanala, adherence to Baiga law” (Elwin, 2002: 22). Thadpathra, Durgadhara, Mekal pahar, Baiga settlements have separate identity as Chanra, Dhurkuta, Saila tola of village Ajgar, either a village or a part of any village because etc. The various ideas concerning settlements they inhabited in a tola which is located and houses came out from the field study which generally far away from main settlement. Baiga is mainly based on field observation and people live in a group and prefer to live in small interaction with help of open ended tolas (hamlets) which are known Baigan tola. questionnaire from individual person or focus ‘Whole Baiga village is a tola of 8-10 houses’ group discussion with knowlegible persons of (Nirgune, 1986:25). Baiga community. The unit of measurement of Generally, Baiga villages are commonly length and width of the ground plan of their seen as a group of 5-25 houses. These tolas houses is taken with help of measuring tape. are made up on flat-topped situation of hills by The pattern of the settlements, structure of the nature that is a major tendency of Baigas. houses and construction materials are Sometimes, their settlements are seen on hill considered as these have its socio-cultural and slopes which are found in the areas receiving environmental implications. sunshine. The Baiga settlements are generally The study is based on empirical methods. located in inaccessible areas in this territory Investigators have attempted at systematic

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and people follow pagdandis (footpaths) that phunk and use of tantra-mantra. is generally a path of cattle. The systematic Dahyan is another feature of their Baiga villages came into existence much later. settlement which is constructed away from the Earlier, they used to practice shifting cultivation main settlement on the top of the mound close ‘Bewar’ without using the plough by clearing to agricultural fields where they keep cattle in forests for this purpose; they used to shift night and a macha is also made for the nearby area after a few years. Even today, the collection of paira of kodon, kutki and paddy forests are the first choice to live. Bari is an e.g. village Farri Semar. Some temporary important adjacent part and parcel of their Baiga huts are made nearby the agricultural houses that usually covers an area of half an field during the growing seasons of the crops acre. The bari lie over back side of their house like kodon/ kutki and paddy which are seen but sometimes it may be on one side or front of in small patches mainly in low lying areas, e.g., the house which depends upon the availability the village Maikal Pahar. Thus, the seasonal of cultivable land and the nature of slope of the migration has also been seen among the Baiga terrain. communities. The dwellings of Baiga are varying in its Baiga people are living with very limited size and composition. Various evidences of space. Shortage of resources is common extended family are found in the study area phenomena in the tribal habitat. Most of the which constituted- father, mother, elder son and things necessary for survival are taken from his wife, younger son and his wife. They have nature directly and indirectly and vital domestic a very little amount of domestic goods and cloths goods and agricultural implements are prepared due to their poor economic conditions and the by themselves. The useful domestic things are simple way of life. The headman of Baiga also very limited that are made up with bamboo, village is known as Mukaddam and the earthen material, aluminium, brass, and bronze. representatives belong to each tola who help The leaves of mahlon have much importance the headman. As per their tradition, three in their life as it is a source of earning for persons of different social backgrounds are meagre income. It is used in home for settled in the village with the permission of preparation of plate and bowl and has Mukaddam, deeban, kotwar (panika/ importance on the occasions of marriage pathari) and samrath they are Ahir, Agariya ceremony. Women pick the leaves from the and Sahis. These people provide service to the jungle. Presently, its picking is auctioned on Baiga community as to graze their cattle and lease that is taken by other people. Various supply of water and the works of blacksmith items are prepared from bamboos by Baigas and making madar (musical drum). A Guniya at home for making some earning in excess. may be either from the village community or Morphology of Baiga Settlements any other settled in the settlement because he The term settlement morphology refers performs his duty as worship to God/ Goddess to form, function and layout of the settlements. and conducts various rituals. Besides, he also Thus, the settlement morphology may be gives the treatment to patients suffering from described into three ways- physical, social and ailment/ diseases with the jadi-buti, jhad-

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functional. “Internal arrangement of lanes, vacant land for further construction of a new houses, with varied relationship, provides house with extension of the family for newly another aspect named as settlement married couple. These settlements were morphology” (Singh, 2006:203). constructed near the source of water such as Baigas are settled in small villages which banks of river/nala. These tolas were settled are called tolas. These tolas consisted a group in square with the erections of 3-4 huts/ houses of houses. It may be in square or a linear pattern in its periphery and sufficient space was left in along the important street. These squares are the centre which is known as courtyard. There generally inhabited by the members of a family; was some gap made between houses for using it may be called a large and extended family. calls of nature, etc., but it was covered by Sometimes, their relatives are also found fencing. The gates/ doors of the each house inhabited in these tolas while the other persons were opened in front of courtyard. The gates like Agariya and Sahis are settled at some were only three and half or four feet high which distance from the main settlement, but within does not only protect from oblique/ heavy the mero (village limit). Thus, the houses of rainfall in the area but also vital from security Agariya and Sahis are located separately on point of view. The whole tola is looked after the available vacant land or personal land by a single person from the centre of the provided by Baigas. The separation of the square. It was also quite helpful to take care houses of Sahis is based on the concept of of playing children by grandmother in the purity because they involve in leather work. courtyard. All the social gatherings, rituals and The houses of Ahirs were developed separately cultural activities are smoothly run in the with sufficient space available for animals. At courtyard. Apart from above, the making of present, their houses are generally found where earthen pots and ovens, ropes, baskets are also they continue to live since long. Most of them made in the courtyard. Drying corn, roots, have left out their business of grazing animals flower, fruits, leaves and any other item of Baiga people. Thus, the new pattern of prepared by raw material is also done in the grazing animals has emerged which is called courtyard as well as sunbathing in winter. Saar ‘oshari’ one wherein owner goes to graze (cattle shed) was also included in the part of village cattle on his turn. the courtyard. Security concerns and the joint Earlier, the Baiga settlements were quite families were possible to maintain and secure with a unified construction pattern. They strengthen relationships by using the common settled in a square that was surrounded/ fenced space for living. The concept of square pattern with the Sal woods. There was an entrance to settlement has been changed in course of time go inside the tola which was in the east and if and uncommonly seen as pattern of settlements. there was need of second gate it was At present, the process of dispersal of houses constructed in the north while baries were is going on with the increase of population and associated with each house by a small gate that breaking of joint families. They made their was made in the side of the house. Initially, houses other side of bari or in the field. After there were only three sides of the square marriage young son either use to the partition occupied by houses and one side left over as the same house or make a separate house close

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to main house. When second son gets married, scrub. The chautara of Mata maharani is definitely he made another house within the visualised with the long pillar of Sal wood in same premise of the bari or in the agricultural the centre and surrounded by four small pillars field. with flags at corners. The location of villages is affected by the At present, the individual houses of the availability cultivable land and water. Besides, settlements are detached structures and they also consider aesthetic value and relatively connected by pagdandi and narrow streets. more isolation for villages. Shri Arjun Singh These houses are constructed with streets after Dhurwe (teacher, 60 years) and Thanu Lal some open space. In Dadar tola of Chanra, Baiga (78 years) of Dhurkuta village (July 12, the houses are made along the strait roads of 2015) confinded that the selection of site to 15 feet wide which intersect each other at right settle a new tola requires the availability of angle. This phenomenon may be attributed to water source as river for drinking and fishing, its plain topography. Houses of the tola and availability of land for making bari as well as the main road were very neat and clean. Each agricultural fields, useful (consumable) roots house had a guava tree with some ornamental available in nearby jungle while pahune climbers and scrubs. The houses apart from (relatives) like mama/ fufa or samidhi live in main tola are generally attached with nearby tola. The puhune play an important agricultural land. It happens mainly due to the role when death of any family member takes wave of deconcentration. Shri Andhuru place as they support and supply food for the Kurakiya (52 years) of Dadar tola of Chanra family under grief. Thus, people are seriously village accepted that the increasing population concerned in relation to access the land. The initiated the process of decentralization and location of Baiga villages varies from hills and construction of houses towards the agricultural jungles to valleys but the top of the hill with fields. He informed that the direction of access only by pagdandi is preferred. The entrance of the houses is mainly affected by village boundary is called mero that is delineated the road only. Cattlesheds are made of wooden by sporadically placed plenty of stones. The structure and thatched by locally available village limits are also resistant and intended with grasses. It constitutes a part of the house which the magic wall for the protection from wild may be just distinguished by the human house. animals, devils and diseases. At present, the The guda (pig house) is attached with each mero is delineated by erecting a long pole of house in the Baiga chak which is made at the Sal wood with the support of stones. Two side of the street. The bari is an important successive poles are placed at the distance from feature of the homestead that surrounds the where next pole is clearly visible. The cemented builtup part. It consisted a partial source of munars are seen on the village boundary also. livelihood as the production of corn, sweet The chautara (platform) of Mata maharani potato, tobacco and turmeric confine in this (Goddess of village security) is placed at the area. Baigas grow turmeric because there is a entry point of the village within the mero. belief that they are not bound to service while Thakur dev is also placed near Mata another point is the climate is suitable for its maharani and Khutpat placed near a tree or growth. Besides, they are unable to purchase

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everything from the market due to their poor panchayat construction of a small bridge has economic conditions. A small part of bari is been done on Dubkuchua nala and made a devoted to bathing place, i.e. known as koliya. metalled road to a length of half a kilometre the part where they grow the tomatoes, chillies, on the foothill towards the western side of the and coriander leaves. The macha is totally made tola. up of wooden structure that stands on four The society of the tola consists of people thuna (pillars) which is used to put paira of belonging to three different backgrounds kodon/ kutki and paddy. Another feature of namely Baiga, Ahir and Gond. Twenty seven the settlement is Chatty. A small compound families are inhabited in this tola out of which was made in the village during British period Baiga community consisted the largest group which is called bungala. After the British, this (20 families) while four families belong to Ahir bungala is used by forest officers. At present, and three to Gond. The two families of Ahir its importance is over because official personnel are inhabited a bit away from the main tola, do not stay in the village after the development other side of the nala, while rest two families of means of transportation.These are used for occupy central area of the tola. Gonds in entertainment by Sarpanch or secretary of general occupy peripheral area of the tola. village panchayat. These chatties either are Although all the families of three social occupied by the people or got deteriorated in backgrounds are closely associated both absence of its upkeep and maintenance. Any culturally and economically, due to other structure (house) or temple is absent in environmental conditions, their social systems the Baiga villages. The marghat (burial ground) are quite different from one another. is located outside the tola but within the village The pattern of houses does not follow any limit. road/ street excepting hill top road. The houses Morphology of Lanka tola of the are connected by narrow lanes (footpaths). Umarguhan village Each house of the tola is connected with pagdandi that goes till the margin of the baries. The fig.1 shows salient features of the All the houses of the tola are made of morphology of the Lanka tola of village rectangular shape and followed by their baries Umarguhan. The tola is located at 220 45l ll 0 l ll and other agricultural fields. The dug well is 49.35 N latitude and 81 46 22.14 E longitude the main source of water for both drinking and and has its elevation 3,269 feet above mean domestic purposes. A hand pump is available sea level. It is located on the flat topped hilly within the school premises. The well is dug terrain which is away from main settlement of towards the valley side of the nala situated in the village. The tola is surrounded by the two the eastern side of the tola. nalas namely- Dubkuchua and Katahua. The Most of the houses are erected on the location of the tola reveals that it is an flat topped hill and on the eastern slope which inaccessible area and is connected with a receives plenty of sunshine in the forenoon as pagdandi (narrow lane) only which remains well as day time. Exceptionally, a few houses cut-off from the village during the rainy season. are built on western slope also. The school is With a small effort, made by the village located on the north western slope along with

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Fig. 1

the main/ metalled road. Each house of the such as woods, soil and grasses while roofing village is made/ developed with a bari which is made-up by burned tiles. I and L shapes are is closely associated with the house as per the the prominent ground plans of the houses while availability of space. Thus, each house is made some of them are square shaped with the separately excepting two/ three houses of the erection of cattlesheds. Agriculture is a partial extended families. Some houses are constructed source of livelihood of the village dwellers while in linear pattern/ fashion along both sides of they largely depend upon their daily wage the road of uppermost part of the tola while earnings. The separate agricultural fields in the majority of the houses are scattered on eastern north-eastern side are located after a thin strip slope and rest in the western part. The tola is of Sal forests which are owned by the all-around surrounded by the agricultural fields. Gonds of the Umarguhan. The owners have The houses of the tola are made of mud/ made their dahiyan in the fields to kept cattle kutcha and other locally available materials in night.

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Ground Plan and Housing structure the inner part the dwelling is devoted to Gods Baigas live in simple houses which are such as Dulha dev and Dulhi devi, and devoid of modern architectural design and Ajadadi where entry of outsiders is restricted. artefacts, and houses are surrounded by the The kotha is generally warmed in winter and meagre collection of livestock and fowls. remain always dark due to absence of windows Sometimes, houses showcase traditional and ventilation. Separate provision of kitchen primitive drawings painted in gray colour. These in the house is absent as they do not maintain paintings in general are related with wild it. The first part of the dwelling is used to keep animals such as tigers, elephants, pigs, etc. The water pots and fire that kept house warm where common feature of nador (curvilinear symbol people sit and bite cold which is called manjha of snake) while fuliya (rack point) is made for dwari while inner part is used as cooking hearth placing burning lamp that are made on the wall (randha khana). The Goddess Ratrani is of main entrance. Baiga houses appear to be assumed to rest beneath the water pots while quite sober but are eco-friendly in nature as the God Narayan dev at the entrance of the those are made of locally available materials. house. Masvasi is a God of hunting and the Traditional architect and design of house Matiya dev is placed in front of gate for the include length, width, height, door and roofing protection of home. These Gods assume safety that are given due considerations in conformity of people back home when they go out. with prevailing environmental conditions. “The Goddess Bhawani is placed in rear part of ground plan means internal structure of houses home and worship is performed by the people and dwellers are benefited in different ways of kusariya clan. The water pots are known by from it and is affected by various social, different names such as paniya handi (earthen economic and cultural factors” (Tiwari, pots) and bhatwa kans (bronze handa). 2009:110). Tumbi (dry gourd) was used as tumbler A typical Baiga house is made in but it is replaced with modern metal tumbler. rectangular shape and is surrounded by earthen Courtyard is an open space made between platform where elders sit and discuss on their house and cattleshed that is encircled and local as well as regional socio-political affairs. protected by Sal, saj (terminalia elliptica) and Most of the houses of the tribals consisted of tendu (diospyros melanoxylon) woods which single room dwellings that have single entrance is called rundna (fencing). The courtyard is in the front of the house with a small veranda generally found to be rectangular in shape. It which is known as parchhati. The extended assumes greater importance during their socio- part of the roof around the house is called cultural functions as well as collection and parchhi and aroti that protect its walls as well threshing/ processing of grains, pulses, and as platform. The parchhati of the house other edible items also. The entrance of house contains the domestic rice husker, pestle, and is generally facing towards water source grindstone. The house is divided/ bifurcated (nullah/ river) or in the east. The house is into two units with the help of bamboo wall or always maintained by usual mud plastering and kothi (grain bins). Baiga people believe that kept clean with regular brooming by women. The fowls freely wander in the courtyard while

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(marshy land). The well drained conditions restrict growth of flies and mosquitoes. There should be sufficient space for bari. These people prefer to make entrance of their houses in the east direction. If there is some obstruction like hill, steep slope, trench, etc., they prefer to make their entrance in the north. But the place should be free from any negative sources of energies/ power. They consider that the place should be plain, free from the risk of subduction and secure from fluvial erosion/ landslides. Advice of Vaidya/ Guniya is taken to Fig.2 Baiga house: Ground plan Baigan tola of perform kari chhatna (measuring stick) for village Farrisemar, Anuppur District (MP) selection of suitable site for making new house. It is a common assumption that the land is not suitable for making house if it is longer than previous measurement and is known for negative forces. The napti/ bagai (measurement) is made before the construction of new house. The napti, (a thin strip) is used to join the four wooden pegs at the corners with a perimeter of 44 (15+7+15+7) hands long or 64 (21.5+10.5+21.5+10.5) feet. The accuracy of length and width is checked with triangle method with help of other rope. In case the measurement does not accurately match at four corners, then they select new site within Fig.3. Baiga house: Ground plan of Sundary the bari because that site is not auspicious for Bai Bundariya, Saila tola (Ajgar village) better life. This process of measurement and Samnapur, District Dindori (MP) worship of mother earth is conducted by occasional movement of pigs do also take Guniya who used to fix a thuna (wooden pole) place. The rearing and conservancy at the point where gate will be made. The arrangement of pet animals is quite good. coconut, wine and flame sticks are offered in Opinion concerning criteria for the the worship. Baiga people make their house selection of new site for making house was themselves. They collect hard woods, bamboos, sought with Shri Arjun Singh Dhurwe (teacher, mahlon leaves and grass from jungles and 60 year) and Thanu Lal Baiga (78 year) of prepare soil for mud walls. Works such as Dhurkuta village (July 12, 2015). They confided erection of walls and wooden structure of that the place should be free from chikhal houses, transplanting and harvesting of paddy

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are made by corporate works which is called intermingling of woods of bamboos, sarai, ‘Bigar’. The owner of the house has pleasure amera, kharia kathi and barmasia. The mud of arranging special feast to all persons engaged is used to filling gaps of trellis that is known as in the bigar. kud bharna. It was plastered with the chhuai In the environs of Amarkantak, Baiga mitti and leepan of cow dung. The chhirra people consider a length of 30 feet and width and moha grasses are usually used for thatching of 12 feet for the construction of new house. purposes. If the old grass has been damaged, First of all, they erect the wooden structure as it is replaced with new grass or new grass is the entire load of the roofing material falls on covered upon the damaged grass. At present, the pillars only. Soil is used to raise the mud Baigas are widely using burned muddy tiles for walls that support the house. Thus, house is roofing their houses. prepared with the amalgamation of soil, paira People make entrance of their house in and water that is used for raising walls after at the east. They believe that this led visualisation least twenty four hours. The main materials/ of first ray of sunbeam, plenty of sunshine in items of house construction are thumhi (pillar), the courtyard and the protection from western myanr (cross garters) supported by thumhi and monsoon winds. The house is generally made the patiya (long garter), balli and chaili. The from two sides and the third side is occupied entire wooden structure of houses is made up by saar. The front of the house consisted the with hard wood of Sal, saj and bamboos. The gate and a row of woods encircled their process of erecting wooden structure is courtyard. The roof of houses are tilted at 600/ performed with three thamba (pillars) of 12 620 angle from the horizon that joins the wall. feet length placed at a distance of 10 feet and This shows a moderately steep slope of roofing then three barendi (cross wood) are fitted into to reduce impact of higher rainfall in the area. it. Three thuniyas (small pillars) of 8-9 feet “A small hut, 6 or 7 feet high at the ridge, made height are erected in front of thamba and 3-3 of split bamboos and mud, with a neat veranda patas are put over it. There are various malga/ in front thatched with leaves and grass, forms danda bind with the barendi of thamba and the Baiga residence, and if it is burnt down, or thuniya. Barendi and malgas are bound with abandoned on visitation of epidemic disease, chhal of bakkal tree which is very strong and he can build another in the space of a day” does not need replacement over more than 10 (Russell and Lal, 1993 and 1916). As per the years. The process of making house is measurement, the height of walls of the houses something different in the Bajag and Samnapur are generally made 7 feet and in the centre of areas as they built the mud walls first followed roofing material it is raised 3 feet extra with by putting myanr upon walls and patiya are the help of churlas which are fitted on the supported by churlas. Subsequently, roofing myanr and patiya supported by it. materials and tiles are put to give house proper A separate room is made for sitting and shape. Thus, it is not necessary to use the pillars staying guest by prosperous Baigas which is to support roofing materials excepting parchhi. known as bungala. The walls of bungala are Earlier, the walls of Baiga houses were made made up, properly designed and maintained up by the tattar that was prepared with very neat and clean. Some domestic articles

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like kunaita, jata, kumani, dali, tagira, to be strengthened for better and timely khumari and tangia are seen inside that room. treatment of diseases and institutional deliveries The majhota is made up on one side for keeping to reduce natal and maternal mortality rates in water pots with beautiful wooden structure. the area. Tribal tourism may be promoted in Place for collection of firewood is made either the area that will help in the betterment of separately or close to the house wall as per economic conditions of tribal people. Proper availability of space. The open doors are access to the market-based economy of Baiga commonly seen in the houses of Sarhakona people will reduce their exploitation from the village. It mainly happened due to the fear of middlemen. forest guards as they take action against people Concluding Remarks who use jungle woods. These people are not Baiga settlements are usually found in financially well to purchase finished/ readymade inaccessible locations and characterised with doors from the market. undulating terrain of central highlands. They Problems and Prospects prefer to make their settlements close to the Baiga people were exploited by other forest on flat-tops of hills. These settlements people as well as official personnel for long. In are devoid of basic facilities like potable water, general, there is lack of potable water supply, all weather roads and electricity. The electricity and all weather roads in their settlements are made in square form but settlements. Level of education is very poor scenario is changing with the increase in the among people of Baiga tribe. There is general population, deforestation and interaction with lack of schools/ colleges. If there are schools other societies. Thus, the deconcentration those do not have adequate teaching staff. process is affecting the making of new houses. Financially, they are very poor due to utter The tola of Baiga tribe consists of a group of unemployment in the area. People in general 5-25 houses and is inhabited by the close depend upon natural sources of water. They relatives along with the other persons. These suffer from shortage of water supply and face tolas are located at considerable distance due crisis of water during summer and muddy water to meagre availability of resources. Houses are during the rainy season. Many a times they very simple in make-up and rectangular in suffer from chronic/ water borne diseases shape, and are prepared with the locally which are not easily cured. Many of Baiga available raw materials. There is a gradual people died without any treatment during change taking place in making new houses. epidemics in the area due to non - availability They select the site for dwelling either within of medical and health facilities in the area. the bari or in the agricultural field due to The employment generation reduces increase in the population. Earlier, they selected dependency of tribals on forests and improves suitable place for house construction than their livelihood. The improvement in the developed bari. The use of construction enrolment and containing drop-out ratio at all materials is constantly under change with the level with provision of the quality of education allotment of Indira Avas and supply of electricity are urgently needed. Health institutions need in some Baiga villages. Baiga people grow

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certain necessary items within their own settlements or transport routes through valleys premises. The dependency on forests is and nullah due to security concern. The gradually getting reduced and they are getting settlements followed the acess to sources of employment as daily wage labour in the water and land for cultivation. The houses of constructions of roads, digging ponds, building Baiga are separated with each other through a construction, plantation, etc. under MANREGA small piece of land (bari) that has importance scheme. The habitat of Baigas is under in their life as a partial source for the production encroachment by the other societies and of maize and selected vegetables during rainy commencement of developmental activities. season and use the place for bathing (koliya) The threat of displacement is major cause of and collecting compost, woods and paira. concern among Baigas. Generally, houses are constructed with the local The empirical field study of Baiga villages available materials in a simple architectural in the environs of Maikal range, made us derive design of wooden structure and mud walls and certain conclusions and also conceive repair seasonally. theoretical views of the settlements. The close association with forests of the Theorizing Baiga Settlements tribe clearly shows the dependency on forests and less interference by the other group of Baiga settlements are generally found in people. Earlier, their settlements were well the forest areas or close to the forests. It is a protected but at present deconcentration group of 5-25 huts/ houses of same clan and/ process is seen at many places with the or close relatives that is commonly known as restrictions in the forest areas and increase of Baigan tola. These settlements are located on dependency on agricultural activities and daily the flat-topped hills or mounds. Settlements are wage earnings. generally situated in inaccessible areas of uneven topography and cut - off from the other

References Census of India, Primary Census Abstract, 2011. Chaurasia, V. ,2009, Prakriti Putra Baiga (in Hindi), Madhya Pradesh Hindi Granth Academy, Bhopal. Dhurwe, A. S. and Baiga, T. L., July 12, 2015, Personal interview in their village Dhurkuta. Elwin, V. ,2002, The Baiga, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi. Krishnan, M.S., 1960, Geology of India and Burma, CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi. Kurakiya, A., July 12, 2015, Personal interview in his village Dadar tola, Chana. Leong, G. C. and Gillian C. M., 1982, Human and Economic Geography, Oxford University

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Press, United Kingdom. Nirgune, V., 1986, Baiga (in Hindi), Adivasi Lok Kala Parishad Prakashan, Bhopal. Russell, R.V. and Lal, R.B.H., 1916, The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, J. Jetley Asian Educational Services reprint, New Delhi 1993, 2 Vols, 88. (First published in 1916 by Macmillan and Co. Limited St. Martin’s Street, London). Singh, R. Y., 2006, Geography of Settlement, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Tiwari, R. C., 2009, Adhivas Bhoogol (in Hindi), Pryag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.

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Determining Poverty and Quality of Life in Slums of Varanasi City Darshan Kumar Jha, Rahul Harshwardhan and V. K. Tripathi This paper is an attempt to re-imagine Varanasi from the slums of the city. The paper also attempts to determine the quality of life in slums of Varanasi city and present a spatial pattern of Quality of Life across different slums. To understand and analyse poverty at the micro level, 10 variables were chosen and detailed survey of 180 households has been conducted in six slums located in different parts of the city. Z-score of the variables has been calculated, and composite Z-score has been determined by adding them for every slum. Based on the Z -score, slums were grouped into three categories of Quality of life ( Moderate, Low, and Very Low). The study unfolds that there is another Varanasi, which is poor, unhygienic and lacks basic services. Besides, this city co-exists with its spiritual milieu and cultural mosaic of the city. The study reveals that low quality of life exists in the slums of Varanasi city, but it varies from one slum to another. Keywords: Quality of life, Slum, Urban Poor Introduction Varanasi is popularly known as cultural challenges such as inadequate urban capital of India. It is famous for its arcade ghats, infrastructure, poverty and rapidly temples, spirituality and traditional lifestyle. It mushrooming of slums. is a famous site of pilgrimage for Hindus, The magnitude of slum population in India Buddhist and Jain. This city is associated with has increased from about 33.1 million in 1985 the diverse faith of spiritualism, mysticism and to 35 million in the early 90s and 40 million in traditional Indian knowledge and has earned 2001 (Mallick, 2001). Further, the slum repute of a great centre of learning for ages. population has increased from 52.3 million This spirituality and greatness of the city only (2001) to 65.9 million in 2011. The decadal portray a picture of one side of the story. As growth rate of slum population during 2001-11 Varanasi represents one of the million plus cities was 25%. The main reason for slum of India, it is also facing similar types of proliferation is rapid and non-inclusive patterns

Darshan Kumar Jha, Senior Research Fellow, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, [email protected]. Rahul Harshwardhan, Senior Research Fellow (Corresponding Author) Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, [email protected]. and V. K. Tripathi, Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005,[email protected].

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of urbanisation catalysed by increasing rural the most deplorable conditions. Jha and Tripathi migration to urban areas (The State of Slum in (2014) argued that the situation of slum dwellers India, 2013). According to 2011 Census, 70% is miserable in developing countries like India of the slum population of India is found in million and presents a pathetic condition of life in slums cities. Varanasi is one of the million plus cities of Varanasi due to uncontrolled and rapid of India, and it is also facing similar type of urbanisation. They also argued that there is challenges such as inadequate urban spatial variation in the quality of life across infrastructure, poverty and growing slums. different slums. During the last seven decades, the population Nowadays, quality of life seems of the city has grown almost six folds from necessary to understand and explain the socio- 207,650 (1931) to 1,201,815 (2011). The rapid economic conditions and well-being of a society growth of the city has resulted in emergence and its strata. Various international and growth of slums due to the absence of organisations, credit agencies, economists, affordable housing and basic amenities. In 1941, sociologists and geographers took interest in the slum population constituted 9% of the total the process of identifying parameters for city’s population that increased to 33.86% in assessment of the quality of life and 2011. Due to rapid growth in the population development of the quality of life indices. Morris housing needs of the city also grew, that could has tried to study the Physical Quality of Life not be met by the formal housing market. Index (PQLI) with the help of three indicators Varanasi City has total 209 slums out of which namely infant mortality, life expectancy and 176 were built on land belongs to private basic literacy. PQLI is called a direct forerunner ownership, 29 slums were situated on land of HDI and is classified under economic belongs to local body, three slums on the land perspectives to QOL (Sirgy et al. 2006). HDI, belong to the state government and remaining as developed by United Nation Development one slum on the land belong to Government of Program (UNDP), is the most popular index India. The slums of Varanasi present a pathetic of quality of life. It summarises the level of picture of the life of slums dwellers. (RCUES, human development attainment by a country. 2013) It is composed of sub-indices relating to health, Hundreds of study and researches have education and income at the national level of been carried out on the quality of life in slums aggregation (Narayana, 2008). The of India, still, it demands more study to reveal Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is an the reality. Status denotes the position of a index designed to measure acute poverty on person vis-a-vis the person’s rights and the basis of the methodology of Alkire and obligations (Pande, 2005). Goswami & Manna Foster (2008, 2011). The significance of quality (2013) discussed the strong linkage between of life was realised by modern thinkers quite economic prosperity and enriching the quality recently, particularly in the last quarter of the of life, which is reflected in form of social 20th century. indicators namely health, longevity, literacy and Social problems, disparities, well-being environmental sustainability that present a and quality of life are the new domains of pathetic picture of slums dwellers life under geographic study in this post-modern era. This

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paper is an attempt to reimagine Varanasi from city in the world, with a continuous history dating the slums of the city. The paper also attempts back 3,000 to 5,000 years. Varanasi (82°56’E– to determine the quality of life in slums of 83°03’E and 25°14’N-25o23’ N) is located on Varanasi and present a spatial pattern of Quality the left crescent-shaped bank of the Ganga of Life across slums of the city. river. The city is a part of ‘Varanasi Urban Objectives Agglomeration’ (VUA). Due to increasing population growth and rapid urban The major objectives of this paper are: development, Varanasi became a million city 1. To examine the existing facilites and by 1991. Rapid urbanisation has added to the infrastructure in the slums of Varanasi city. urban problems in the city. Lopsided 2. To understand poverty at the micro urbanisation, faulty urban planning, and level and determine the Quality of Life of slum urbanisation with poor economic base and with dwellers. poor urban functions in the city led to some Database and Methodology basic problems in the city namely housing, The study is based on secondary as well slums, transport, water supply and sanitation, as primary data. Secondary data are collected water pollution and air pollution, inadequate from Census of India 2011, District Urban provision for social infrastructure etc. Development Authority (DUDA) 2006, and Slums in Varanasi City: Existing Situation Slum Free City Action Plan of Varanasi (Rajiv Slums in Varanasi city have been Awas Yojna2013). Primary data are collected continuously increasing from 1941 to 2011. With through an interview schedule by a field-based the increase in the population, housing needs survey of 180 household. To understand and of the city also grew, that could not be met out analyse poverty at micro level 10 variables were from the formal housing market. Migrating chosen and detailed household survey has been population, which could not avail the facilities conducted in six slums located in different parts of the formal housing market get satisfied their of the city. Z-score of the every variable has needs building temporary shelters on vacant land been calculated and composite Z-score has that culminate into the formation of slums. been worked out by adding them for the Another factor, which contributes to the selected slum. Slums were grouped into three formation of slums, is proximity to the categories based on the composite Z-score of workplace and low level of income and un- the Quality of life (Moderate, Low and Very affordability of pucca houses (CDP, Low). The discussion starts with existing JNNURM, 2006). People living in the slums of situation of slums in this heritage city followed the city are poor working as labour, rickshaw by micro-level analysis of poverty and quality pullers and thela keepers. These poor people of life in the slums. are unable to afford formal housing (Tripathi, Study area 2010).Total wards in Varanasi Metropolitan Varanasi (also known as Kashi or Corporation are 90, amongst these, the slum Banaras) is known as the cultural and spiritual dwellings do exist only in 61 wards. According capital of India. It is one of the oldest living to Census 2011, the population of urban poor

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Table 1. Varanasi City : Population and Slums (Tripathi, 2011). Varanasi has 227 slums spread all over the city, either on government or private Percent of (slum population to city 34% lands. About 50% of slums are located in population) central city, 13% in old city while 37% in City Area (Ha) 7997 peripheral areas. The average density in slum Total Area under slums (Ha) 522.74 areas is approximately 330 persons per hectare Percent of slum area to city area. 7% in the city. The slum population of the city is Slum Density (Persons/Ha.) 779 consistently increasing after independence. In Source: Census of India, 2011 1951, the slum population comprised 13% of the city’s population but in 2011 it has increased and slum dwellers in Varanasi account for about to 37% of the city population. The total area 33.86% of the city population. under slum (522 ha) constitutes 7% area of Slum locations are spread all over the city the city. According to the report of Slum Free but major concentrations occur in the old city City Plan of Action (2013), slums are found in areas, near the Ghats, industrial units and the every area or zone of the city but the majority Rajghat area due to proximity to the workplace. of them are located in the core of the city. The Employment due to tourism and availability of core of the city consists of 75% of the total open land led to indiscriminate squatting slums. In Varanasi, 93% slums have grown near Table 2. Physical Infrastructure Available in Slums Particulars Varanasi City Frequency Percentage Sewage Connected 172 82.30 Not Connected 37 17.70 Total 209 100.00 Source of Water Supply Individual Tap 36218 46.28 Public Tap 13486 17.24 Hand Pump 15871 20.28 Open Well 3343 4.28 Tank 20 0.02 Pond/River/Canal 25 0.03 Water Tanker 2 0.002 Others 9288 11.87 Total 78253 100.00 Latrine Facility Public Community 4300 5.49 Shared Latrine 4153 5.32 Own Latrine 50989 65.16 Open Defecation 18807 24.03 Total 78249 100.00 Source: Slum Free City Plan of Action, Varanasi, 2013

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middle and high-income residential areas. The vulnerability, 38% of the slums are moderately slums are spread over the small and large area vulnerable and have the moderate but 30% of the slums are spread in areas infrastructure, while 7% are most vulnerable ranging from 1-2 Ha and 16% of slums are and have the worst infrastructure. About 25% spread over the area more than 4 Ha. About of the slums are least vulnerable and have the 34% of the slums are spread over an area less moderate infrastructure and only 1.5% are least than 1 Ha. which reveals that the slums of the vulnerable and have better infrastructure. city are congested with meagre opportunity for Parameters of quality of life infrastructural development. In Varanasi, 97% In the present study, altogether 10 of the slums emerged 40 years ago which lack variables representing various dimensions of life basic infrastructure and amenities, many of have been carefully chosen to understand slums are prone to flood and water logging ( poverty at the micro level and determine the 47% of slums are prone to flood and 4% are existing quality of life in slums of Varanasi city located on hazardous sites). According to the (Table 3). report of Slum Free City Plan of Action (2013), the majority of houses in slums of Varanasi are Source of lighting (X1) pucca (59%), while semi-pucca and kutcha Electricity is considered as an indicator houses (41%) are less. In the context of of development and quality of life (Jha and demographic characteristics, 44% of slum Tripathi, 2014). In the slums, there are two population is below the poverty line and 79% major sources of lighting i.e. electricity and of the slum dwellers belong to backward social kerosene lamp. In six surveyed slums, Nagwa communities. It is also found that 43% of the has the highest household (76%) having household of slums have an average income electricity as the source of lighting followed by less than Rs. 1500 per month. In general slums Durgakund (72%), Rajghat (70%), Sigra are deprived of basic services. In Varanasi, (68%), Bajardiha (66%) and Omkaleshwar 82% of the slums are connected with full or (64%). It is notable that most of the households partial water supply system (Table 2). About have illegal electricity connection. 54% of the slum population depends on public There are significant household users of taps, tube wells, open wells, hand pumps and the kerosene lamp in the slums. Omkaleashwar wells for drinking water. Only 46% households is at the top where 36% households were using do have access to individual tap connections. Kerosene as the source of lighting, followed In terms of sanitation, 76% of the slums are by Bajardiha (34%), Sigra (32%), Rajghat not connected to the city sewage system that (30%), Durgakund (28%) and Nagwa (24%). contributes to pollution and makes them The main cause of household not having inhabitable. The report of Slum Free City Plan electricity connection is lack of money and non- of Action (2013) reveals that in Varanasi 24% availability of valid documents required for of the slum households do not have an individual seeking power connection. toilet (Table:2). The slums also lack cleaning Fuel used for cooking (X2) of open drains, such as drains of 46% of slums frequently remain choked. In terms of Slum dwellers have many options of

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Fig. 1

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cooking fuel ranging from LPG to cow dung of Sigra slum depend on municipal tap because cakes but it mainly depends upon their this slum is located near the drinking water economic status to afford it. In surveyed slums, pipeline of the city. Sigra (48%) has the highest household using Housing condition (X4) LPG followed by Bajardiha (44%), One billion people of the world live in Omkaleshwar and Durgakund having 40% miserable housing, mostly in slums and squatter households, Nagwa (36%) while in Rajghat settlements. The housing condition in the slum only 26% households were using LPG. is inhabitable and pathetic, lacking very basic Electricity has been also used for cooking in amenities. The types of houses basically depend sample slums. Nagwa is at the top having 32% upon the geographical environment as well as household using electricity as fuel for cooking. economic and social structure of the people Though many of households do have legal LPG (Sahay, 2006). In five surveyed slums, highest connection, they use small cylinders of 2 kg or pucca houses are found in Durgakund (30%) 4 kg. The 32% slum dwellers use the illegal because the slum dwellers of this slum have electric connection for illuminating their heaters. enough income to construct concrete houses. Source of drinking water (X3) Many of the dwellers are beneficiaries of Safe and pure drinking water is the basic government schemes as well. Sigra slum has need of human being. Slum areas, have limited 20% pucca houses followed by Bajardiha sources of safe drinking water. In sample slums, (18%), Omkaleshwar (12%), Rajghar (10%) there are two major sources of drinking water; and Nagwa (8%). The slum dwellers of municipal tap and hand pump. In surveyed Nagwa are extremely poor; they hardly have slums, hand-pump is found as the major source enough money for their food and medicine. The of drinking water. The sample survey reveals semi-pucca houses are also found in large that 64% residents of slums use water of hand number in the slums. Out of 180 dwelling units, pump, while 36% use water for drinking 138 houses had only one room. Kachha houses purpose from municipal tap. The highest which are a characteristic feature of the rural number of households depend on hand pump area are abundantly found in slums. The highest in Nagwa (72%) followed by Rajghat (70%), number of kachha houses is found in Durgakund (64%), Bajardiha (60%), Omkaleshwar (36%) because dwellers have Omkaleshwar (56%) and lowest being found migrated to this slum and they do not have their in Sigra (52%). As Varanasi is located on the own land to build their house. The dwellers living bank of river Ganga, the water table remains in kaccha houses are landless people and they high. Therefore, hand-pump is a popular source are living on rent in unhygienic and temporary of drinking water. But the quality of hand pump dwellings. water does not meet the safety norm. The hand pumps are very old but functional. The local Sewage disposal facility (X5) authorities are unable to provide the tap water Sanitation is not only important for healthy to the larger population of slum areas. living but also ensuring a non-polluted Municipal tap is the second popular source of environment.The slums are characterised with drinking water. About 44% of the households the spread of solid waste, choked drains, litter

E:\BHU\BHU.PM5 (383) 384 Darshan Kumar Jha, Rahul Harshwardhan and V. K. Tripathi Table 3. Varanasi city : Urban Poverty at Micro level & Quality of Life Vari- Parameters Indicators Percent of HH ables Rajghat Omkale- Sigra Durga Nagwa Bajardiha shwar kund X1 Source of Electricity 70 64 68 72 76 66 lighting Kerosene 30 36 32 28 24 34 X2 Fuel used LPG 26 40 48 40 36 44 for cooking Electricity 24 16 12 20 32 18 Kerosene 18 16 20 16 12 14 Coal 12 16 12 8 8 10 Cow-Dung- 20 12 8 16 12 14 Cakes X3 Source of Municipal 30 44 48 36 28 40 drinking Tap water Hand Pump 70 56 52 64 72 60 X4 Housing Pucca 10 12 20 30 8 18 condition Semi Pucca 60 52 62 64 70 58 Kaccha 30 36 18 6 22 24 X5 Sewage Average 56 36 40 35 55 52 disposal Poor 44 64 60 65 45 48 facility X6 Place of Area Fixed 28 28 24 24 12 26 waste By Municipality dumping On Roads 60 56 64 68 48 46 Near Water 12 16 12 8 60 28 Bodies X7 Medical Govt. 40 40 36 16 36 34 facilities Hospital Private Clinic 50 44 48 56 40 42 Traditional 10 16 16 28 24 24 Practitioner X8 Literacy Literate 19 20 30 18 25 22 (% pop. ) Illiterate 81 80 70 82 75 78 X9 Female Literate 10 12 20 15 18 16 literacy Illiterate 90 88 80 85 82 84 (% pop.) X10 Ration Yellow Card 52 40 36 44 16 42 (APL) card type Red Card (BPL) 32 36 32 32 36 34 Without Card 16 12 32 24 48 24 Source: Personal Survey 2013-14

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on roads etc. In sample slums, sewage disposal Medical facilities (X7) facility is not satisfactory. Rajghat (56%) is at Around half of the urban population in the top in terms of availability of sewage developing countries is suffering from one or disposal facility, followed by Nagwa (55%), more of the diseases associated with Bajardiha (54%) Sigra (40%), Omkaleshwar inadequate provision of water and sanitation (36%) and Durgakund (35%). There are still (DFID, 2001). The slum dwellers are more large numbers of household which have poor vulnerable to diseases due to unsafe drinking and insufficient sewage disposal facility. The water and unhygienic housing conditions. They condition of Durgakund is worst where more are also not economically sound to afford best than half of sample households had poor or no medical treatment. So, they largely depend on sewage facility. Highly congested, poorly built government and traditional medical practitioner. and narrow lanes of Durgakund and In sample slums, availing good medical Omkareshwar do not allow the construction of treatment is a tough task for slum dwellers. In drains. Nagwa and Rajghat slums are located Rajghat and Omkaleshwar about 40% of the in close proximity to river Ganga and therefore, households depend on government hospitals for their maximum solid waste and sewage waste medical treatment followed by Sigra and is being thrown in river Ganga. Nagwa (both 36%), Bajardiha (34%) and Durgakund (16%). The slum dwellers of Place of waste dumping (X6) Durgakund earn enough to afford private clinic The risk to human health is compounded treatment and hence 56 % of dwellers used in those slums, where garbage collection is non- private medical facilities. existent and drainage tends to be poor, Literacy (X8) promoting the growth of insects and other Due to widespread poverty in the slum diseases vectors (Sundari, 2003). Solid waste areas, illiteracy prevails and even it can be said disposal is a challenge in the slum of Varanasi that poverty exists because illiteracy exists and poses the problems for dwellers. It is the (Tripathi, 2010). The slum dwellers are deprived task of the municipality to provide amenities of basic education because of economic for waste disposal but Municipal Corporation constraints and children are engaged in is unable to provide such facility to this large economic activities to support their family and scattered population. There is no proper financially. In surveyed slums, highest instance arrangement for the dumping of domestic of illiteracy is found in Durgakund (82%), wastes. Only one-third households used the followed by Rajghat (81%), Omkaleshwar place fixed by the municipality for the dumping (80%), Bajardiha (78%), Nagwa (75%) and of domestic wastes. The highest number of Sigra (70%). In all the slums, the majority of households using such site are found in Rajghat slum population is illiterate because they do not and Omkaleshwar (28%). The water bodies consider that education is necessary for their (ponds and rivers) have been used for waste children. Nowadays due to increasing dumping which subsequently pollutes these awareness, slum dwellers are sending their water resources. children to school. Though literacy rate is very

E:\BHU\BHU.PM5 (385) 386 Darshan Kumar Jha, Rahul Harshwardhan and V. K. Tripathi poor in slums of Varanasi city, comparatively Table 4. Level of Quality of Life Sigra and Nagwa wards are better in literacy Slum Z-Score Level of rate than other wards. The local government Quality bodies and non-governmental organisations are of Life running community programs to educate slum dwellers. Night classes are being organised for Rajghat -1.74487 Very Low working adults and mid-day meals and other Omkareshwar -1.63345 Very Low scheme are running to attract children to school Sigra 5.13166 Moderate along with the provision of free books and Durgakund -1.34064 Very Low uniform to children. Nagwa -2.29828 Very Low Bajardiha 1.88558 Low Female Literacy (X9) Female literacy is not only an indicator of Source: Computed by authors development but also the status of women in Type of Ration Card (X10) society. In six surveyed slums, the highest instance of female illiteracy is found in Rajghat Ration card is a significant indicator of (90%), followed by Omkaleshwar (88%), poverty in India. Red ration card holders are people living below the poverty line while yellow Durgakund (85%), Bajardiha (84%), Nagwa card holders are people above poverty line. In (82%) and lowest in Sigra (80%). The women sample slums, both types of card holders are residing in slums are deprived of basic education found. The highest numbers of red card holders because of the burden of family responsibilities, are found in Omkaleshwar and Nagwa (36%). early marriage, and engagement in work to There are many households in slums which do support the family financially. The biased not have any type of card. These household mindset of males that women should not get are devoid of getting government subsidies in educated as they have to bear children and form of entitled issue of grains, pulses, sugar family responsibilities is another major cause etc. of illiteracy among women. In Omkaleshwar, Rajghat, Bajardiha and Nagwa majority of the Levels of quality of life slum dwellers belong to Muslim and dalit To determine the level of quality of life, a community who are socially backwards, quantitative analysis of data has been done. orthodox in thought and not support the cause Aggregates of Z-score of all the variables have of women education. The local authorities and been taken. A composite Z-score has been non-governmental organisations are running calculated by adding up the total of all Z-score community education programs and separate of the variables for different slum separately. night classes for working women in Bajardiha The level of quality of life on the basis of their and Omkareshwar slum. The sample survey Z-score has been grouped and three levels of shows very poor female literacy which quality of life have been found in the slums. indicates the inequality of condition of women Though three level of quality of life has as compared to the male folk in these slums. emerged, the condition of all sample slums was quite poor. Sigra attained highest Z score and

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this slum lies into the moderate level of quality Varanasi city which is poor, unhygienic and lacks of life. The condition of slum dwellers of Sigra basic services and this city co-exists with the slum was better than other slums. Bajardiha spiritual and cultural city of Varanasi. The study slum has low quality of life which is dominated reveals that low quality of life exists in the by Muslim community. Many community slums of Varanasi city but it varies from one development programs are going on that slum to another slum. The housing, literacy and contributed to improvements in the quality of medical facilities are poor. The lack of piped life in this slum. water supply in the slum areas is leading to Therefore, despite social backwardness high dependence on ground water, the lack of and poor condition of female slum dwellers, proper waste disposal facility and poor sewage Bajardiha slum lies in the category of low system leading to pollution and health-related quality of life. The quality of life in Rajghat, problems. All these dismal facilities and Omkareshwar, Durgakund and Nagwa are disparities are obviously related to the socio- worst and the residents of these slums are economic setup of the city. The suggestion, experiencing the very low standard of living. therefore, is to improve the socio-economic Some basic facilities, such as drinking water, condition, which would improve the Quality of sanitation and housing condition in Durgakund life of slum dwellers. There are spatial and Omkareshwar slums were better than variations in problems that exists in the slums; others. There were inadequate medical and therefore each and every slum needs the drinking water facilities in Rajghat slum. The different and exclusive strategy. In-situ up- study highlights that low and very low quality gradation of slums, wherever possible, with the of life exists in the slums of Varanasi city. provision of basic facilities, need to be taken Conclusion up. To make Varanasi cultural and spiritual capital of India in the real sense, there is a need The study unfolds that there is another of inclusive planning for the city as a whole.

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