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Social Media a critical introduction 22nd edition CHRISTIAN FUCHS 00_Fuchs_Prelims.indd 3 1/27/2017 4:53:28 PM SAGE Publications Ltd Christian Fuchs 2017 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road First edition published 2014 London EC1Y 1SP This second edition published 2017 SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or Thousand Oaks, California 91320 private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of Mathura Road the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, New Delhi 110 044 in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the 3 Church Street publishers. #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016949804 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data Editor: Michael Ainsley Editorial assistant: John Nightingale A catalogue record for this book is available from Production editor: Imogen Roome the British Library Copyeditor: Neil Dowden Proofreader: Leigh C. Timmins Indexer: Silvia Benvenuto Marketing manager: Lucia Sweet Cover design: Jen Crisp Typeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed in the UK ISBN 978-1-4739-6682-6 ISBN 978-1-4739-6683-3 (pbk) At SAGE we take sustainability seriously. Most of our products are printed in the UK using FSC papers and boards. When we print overseas we ensure sustainable papers are used as measured by the PREPS grading system. We undertake an annual audit to monitor our sustainability. 00_Fuchs_Prelims.indd 4 1/27/2017 4:53:28 PM 1 What Is a Critical Introduction to Social Media? 1 1.1 What Is Social about Social Media? 6 1.2 What Is Critical Thinking and Why Does it Matter? 8 1.3 What Is Critical Theory? 11 1.4 Critical Theory Approaches 20 I FOUNDATIONS 31 2 What Are Social Media and Big Data? 33 2.1 Web 2.0 and Social Media 34 2.2 The Need of Social Theory for Understanding Social Media 37 2.3 Explaining Social Media with Durkheim, Weber, Marx and Tönnies 44 2.4 A Model of Social Media Communication 49 2.5 Big Data 52 2.6 Conclusion 61 3 Social Media as Participatory Culture 65 3.1 The Notions of Participation and Participatory Culture 66 3.2 Online Fan Culture and Politics 72 3.3 Social Media and Participatory Culture 74 3.4 Henry Jenkins and Digital Labour 76 3.5 Jenkins’s Response to Criticisms 78 3.6 Conclusion 81 4 Social Media and Communication Power 85 4.1 Social Theory in the Information Age 86 4.2 Communication Power in the Network Society 88 4.3 Communication Power, Social Media and Mass Self-communication 90 4.4 Communication Power in the Arab Spring and the Occupy Movement 98 4.5 Conclusion 110 00_Fuchs_Prelims.indd 5 1/27/2017 4:53:28 PM Contents II APPLICATIONS 119 5 The Power and Political Economy of Social Media 121 5.1 Social Media as Ideology: The Limits of the Participatory Social Media Hypothesis 122 5.2 The Cycle of Capital Accumulation 129 5.3 Capital Accumulation and Social Media 131 5.4 Free Labour and Slave Labour 144 5.5 Conclusion 149 6 Google: Good or Evil Search Engine? 153 6.1 Introduction 154 6.2 Google’s Political Economy 155 6.3 Googology: Google and Ideology 162 6.4 Work at Google 165 6.5 Google: God and Satan in One Company 169 6.6 Google and the State: Monopoly Power and Tax Avoidance 171 6.7 Conclusion 179 7 Facebook: Surveillance in the Age of Edward Snowden 183 7.1 Facebook’s Financial Power 185 7.2 The Notion of Privacy 186 7.3 Facebook and Ideology 190 7.4 Privacy and the Political Economy of Facebook 194 7.5 Edward Snowden and the Surveillance-Industrial Complex 198 7.6 Conclusion 207 8 Twitter and Democracy: A New Public Sphere? 217 8.1 Habermas’s Concept of the Public Sphere 218 8.2 Twitter, Social Media and the Public Sphere 227 8.3 Political Communication on Twitter 231 8.4 Uncivil Communication on Twitter 240 8.5 Twitter’s Political Economy 242 8.6 @JürgenHabermas #Twitter #Publicsphere 244 8.7 Conclusion 246 9 Weibo: Power, Ideology and Social Struggles in Chinese Capitalism 251 9.1 China’s Capitalism 254 9.2 Weibo’s Political Economy 269 9.3 Weibo and Social Media Ideologies 273 9.4 Chinese Social Struggles in the Age of Weibo 277 9.5 Conclusion 279 vi 00_Fuchs_Prelims.indd 6 1/27/2017 4:53:28 PM Contents 10 Airbnb and Uber: The Political Economy of Online Sharing Platforms 283 10.1 Uber: The Pay per Service Sharing Model 284 10.2 Airbnb: The Capitalist Sharing Economy’s Rent-on-Rent Model 292 10.3 The Sharing Economy: A Capitalist Ideology 300 10.4 An Alternative Sharing Economy Beyond Capitalism? 306 10.5 Conclusion 313 11 Wikipedia: A New Democratic Form of Collaborative Work and Production? 317 11.1 The Communist Idea 319 11.2 Communication and Communism 323 11.3 Wikipedia’s Political Economy 325 11.4 Criticisms of Wikipedia 329 11.5 Conclusion 335 III FUTURES 339 12 Conclusion: Social Media and its Alternatives – Towards a Truly Social Media 341 12.1 Social Media Reality: Ideologies and Exploitation 341 12.2 Social Media Alternatives 345 12.3 Towards a Truly Social Media and a New Society 355 References 357 Index 377 vii 00_Fuchs_Prelims.indd 7 1/27/2017 4:53:28 PM 7 Key questions • How does Facebook’s political economy work? • How has Facebook been criticized? • What ideologies exist on and about Facebook? How does Facebook present itself to the world? What is the reality behind Facebook ideologies? • What are the implications of Edward Snowden’s revelation of the existence of a surveillance-industrial complex in the age of social media? • Are there alternatives to Facebook? Key concepts Digital labour Targeted advertising Privacy Instant personalization Social media and privacy Commodification Facebook ideologies Private property Privacy fetishism Alternative social media Privacy policy Surveillance-industrial Opt-out complex Overview Facebook is the most popular social networking site (SNS). SNSs are web-based platforms that integrate different media, information and communication technologies that allow at least the generation of profiles that display information describing the users, the display of connections (connection list), the establishment of connections between users displayed on their connection lists, and communication between users (Fuchs 2009b). 07_Fuchs_Ch 07.indd 183 1/27/2017 4:53:56 PM Facebook 3800 3600 3400 3200 3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 −200 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 −138 −56 229 606 1000 53 1500 2940 3688 FIGURE 7.1 The development of Facebook’s profits, 2007–2015, in million US$ Source: Data from SEC filings, Form-S1 Registration Statement: Facebook, Inc., Form 10-K: Annual Reports Mark Zuckerberg, Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz and Chris Hughes, who were then Harvard students, founded Facebook in 2004. The movie The Social Network (Columbia Pictures, 2010) describes the history of Facebook as a bunch of talented Harvard students, who because of a good idea made it to be billionaires and realized the American Dream of becoming rich and famous. The movie frames the story in individualistic terms, neglecting to show that it, like most large Silicon Valley tech companies, received millions in venture capital, from Peter Thiel, Accel Partners, Jim Breyer and others, which allowed its expansion as a company. The movie advances the ideological view that in the American Dream a good idea such as Facebook can make anyone famous and popular. In reality, of course only a very small elite has the luck of becoming rich and famous precisely because others are not wealthy. In 2006, Facebook was turned from a college network into a general social network open to everyone. From then on the users of Facebook increased rapidly. This chapter’s task is to discuss the power of Facebook, the role of surveillance and impli- cations for privacy. First, I discuss Facebook’s economic development (section 7.1). Section 7.2 introduces the notion of privacy. Then, I criticize the dominant kind of analysis of Facebook privacy by characterizing it as a form of privacy fetishism (section 7.3). In section 7.4, I analyse Facebook’s political economy. Section 7.5 discusses Edward Snowden’s revelations. Finally, I draw some conclusions and outline strategies for alternative online privacy politics in section 7.6, and the alternative social networking site Diaspora* is introduced. 184 07_Fuchs_Ch 07.indd 184 1/27/2017 4:53:57 PM Facebook 7.1 Facebook’s Financial Power Facebook’s Profits Facebook became a public company on 1 February 2012. Facebook says that it generates “a substantial majority” of its “revenue from advertising”: 98.3 per cent in 2009, 94.6 per cent in 2010, 85 per cent in 2011, 84 per cent in 2012, 89 per cent in 2013, 92 per cent in 2014 and 95 per cent in 2015.1 It says: “We generate a substantial majority of our revenue from advertising. The loss of marketers, or reduction in spending by marketers with Facebook, could seriously harm our business.”2 Facebook’s self-assessment of this risk shows that it is coupled to the broader political economy of capitalism: an advertising-based capital accu- mulation model depends on a constant influx of advertisement investments and the belief of companies that specific forms of advertisement on specific media can increase their profits.
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