• What was the result of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, & what happened to each side? Most importantly how could these results effect future relations with China & the U.S.? The Communists won & claimed mainland China. The Nationalists went to Taiwan. The UN & U.S. accepted Taiwan’s Nationalist government as the legitimate government of China. • What is Pan-Africanism? An ideology & movement that encourages the solidarity of Africans worldwide, based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, & political progress & aims to "unify and uplift" people of African descent. • Explain Apartheid in South Africa during much of the 20th century. Which leader & ANC member strongly opposed this? After South Africa had gained its independence from Great Britain, several white-minority governments, passed a series of laws that drastically curtailed the rights of Africans and other non-whites to vote, go to university, etc.; these governments also instituted laws requiring the separation of whites and blacks. Nelson Mandela, 1st African President of South Africa. Struggles for Democracy 1945-present Free elections, Citizen participation, Majority rule, Minority rights, Constitutional government! Brazil: From Dictators to Democracy • Gained independence from Portugal in 1822; became a monarchy. • 1889 Republican gov’t controlled by wealthy elites • 1930s Vargas became dictator • 3 Presidents try to steer Brazil toward democracy and are unsuccessful • 1964 Army seizes power in a military coup • 1980s recession gripped Brazil finally allow direct elections of local, state, and national officials • 1985 indirectly elected civilian president, Jose Sarney fails to solve the country’s problems • 1994 and 1998 Brazilians elect Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who achieved some success in tackling the nation’s economic/political problems • 1990s and onward Brazil continued on the path of democracy Mexico: One Dominant Party • 1911 Mexican Revolution (giving peasants more rights and land) • After the Mexican Revolution, the government passed the Constitution of 1917 (outlining a democracy & promising reforms) • 1920-1934 Mexico elected several generals as president which led to the creation of the National Revolutionary Party • 1934-1940 President Lazaro Cardenas tried to improve life for peasants/workers & enacted many reforms • 1946 the dominant party changes its name to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) • 2000 Mexican voters ended 71 years of PRI rule by electing center-right party candidate Vicente Fox Quesada as president Argentina: Casts off Repression • 1946 Argentinean workers supported an army officer, Juan Peron, who won the presidency and then established a dictatorship He and his wife created a welfare state. • 1955 Military ousted Peron & sent him to exile; they rule for the next 3 decades • Mid 1970s Argentina is in chaos! – Economy in ruins & terrorism on the rise! • 1976 Generals seize power again establishing a brutal dictatorship/hunting down opponents • Early 1980’s several thousand Argentines had simply disappeared— kidnapped by their own government! • 1983 Elect Raul Alfonsin as president in the first truly free election in 40 years; he worked to rebuild democracy and the economy. • Late 1990s Democracy seemed established in Argentina Democratic Challenges in African Nations NIGERIA: • Won its independence from Britain in 1960, but the country was ethnically divided • Nigeria sets up a federal system with three states, one for each region & ethnic group, with a corresponding political party in each • 1967-1970 Eastern Region seceded from Nigeria, declaring itself the new nation of Biafra; causing a Civil War. Biafra surrenders in 1970 and Nigeria was reunited. • 1970s – Military governs Nigeria • 1979 Military hands power back to civilian rulers • 1983 Military overthrew the civilian gov’t allowing a military regime, dominated by the Hausa-Fulani to take charge carrying out a policy of discrimination against other ethnic groups • 1993 Army held elections, resulting in the victory of Moshood Abiola. However, officers declared the results invalid & handed power to dictator, General Sani Abacha • 1998 General Abubakar seized power promising to end military rule • 1999 Nigerians freely elected their first civilian president, Obasanyo, in nearly 20 years Democratic Challenges in African Nations South Africa: • 1910 – Gains self-rule as a dominion of the British Empire. • 1931 – Became an independent member of the British Commonwealth • 1948 – National Party came to power in South Africa, promoting Afrikaner, or Dutch South African, nationalism and apartheid • 1959 – Minority gov’t set up reserves for the country’s majority black groups • 1960 – At an ANC demonstration, police killed 69 people, banned the ANC, & imprisoned many members (e.g. Nelson Mandela) • 1976 – 600 black students are left dead after riots in the township of Soweto • 1986 – Protests are on the rise & the government declared a state of emergency – under pressure to change • Many nations imposed trade restrictions on South Africa and even banned it from the Olympic games • 1989 – White South Africans elect a new president, F. W. de Klerk in 1990 he legalizes the ANC & released Nelson Mandela from prison! • 1994 – President de Klerk agreed to hold South Africa’s 1st universal elections, in which people of all races could vote! Mandela was elected president. • 1996 – A new, more democratic constitution was passed; guaranteeing equal rights for all citizens. • 1999 – Mandela retires from office Gorbachev Moves Toward Democracy • 1960s-1970s Censors decided what writers could publish & such basic rights as freedom of speech & worship were restricted by then leader, Leonid Brezhnev & his communist party – Brezhnev dies in 1982 • 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became general secretary & then, President of the Soviet Union in 1990. • 1985 Gorbachev announced a policy known as glasnost (political openness); encouraging Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society. This allowed for churches to open, dissidents to be released from prison, and for previously censored authors to write. He also announced the policy of perestroika (economic restructuring) • 1987 Gorbachev signs the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty with U.S. President, Ronald Reagan. The treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles. Reforms in Poland & Hungary Poland Hungary • 1978 A Polish archbishop • Inspired by Poland, Hungary also became Pope John Paul III & lent launched a reform program; support to the anti-communist encouraging private enterprise & movement allowing a small stock market to • 1980 Shipyard workers strike, operate demanding gov’t recognition of • 1989 Radical reformers took their union, Solidarity over a Communist Party • 1989 Solidarity defeats congress; dissolving the party Communism when military • 1990 National elections are leader, Jaruzelski legalized held & voters put a non- Solidarity and agreed to hold Communist gov’t in power Poland’s 1st free elections since • 1994 A socialist party formed the Communists took power a coalitionn w/a democratic party to rule Communism Falls in East Germany • 1989 Hungary allowed vacationing East Germans to cross over into Austria, & from there they could travel to West Germany (=escape route) • Protestors in East Germany demand the right to travel freely & hold free elections! • November 9th the collapse of the Berlin Wall • October 3rd, 1990 Germany is officially reunited! • 1998 German voters elect a new chancellor, Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Party Democracy Spreads! Czechoslovakia Romania • 1989 10,000 people • 1989 Romanians begin a gathered in Prague demanding democracy protest movement of their own & freedom! • December a popular uprising Then, 3 weeks later gains the support of the army & 25,000 students do the same! together they overthrow the Finally, on Nov. 24, Communist dictator, Ceausescu! 500,000 people crowd • 1990/1992 Romania held into downtown Prague general elections • One month later a new parliament • Government made economic elected Vaclav Havel as reforms to introduce elements of president! capitalism Collapse of the Soviet Union • 1980s Nationalist groups such as those in Georgia, Ukraine, and Moldavia began to demand Yugoslavia self-rule • Six major ethnic groups (Serbs, Croats, • 1990 – Lithuania declared its independence Muslims, Slovenes, Macedonians, and resulting in Gorbachev ordering a blockade of the Montenegrins) republic • Jospi “Marshal” Tito, led Yugoslavia from • June 1991 U.S.S.R. dissolved & Voters chose 1945 to 1980, holding it together until Boris Yeltsin, a member of Parliament, to become his death the Russian Republic’s 1st directly elected president. • Serbian leader Milosevic asserts Serbian • Late 1991 Latvia and Estonia declare their leadership over Yugoslavia independence, with other republics soon following • 1991 – Slovenia and Croatia declare • Gorbachev pleads for unity, but by December, 1991, independence all 15 republics had declared independence • 1992 – Bosnia-Herzegovina declared • 1992-1994 Boris Yeltsin implements “shock therapy” independence which was an abrupt shift to free-market economics. This plan backfires when prices soar, the inflation • Bosnian Serbs launched a brutal war in rate averaged 800%, many factories had to shut March, using “ethnic cleansing” down and thousands of people were out of work (genocide) as a means to rid Bosnia of its • 1991 – Chechnya (a largely