Heroes Fighting Snake Demons: Problems of Identification in Panjikent Paintings
Matteo Compareti School of History and Civilization Shaanxi Normal University
ince its discovery in the 1950s, the so-called king and another that depicts a fight scene near a S“Blue Hall” at Panjikent has been considered a giant yellow bird, possibly a simurgh . masterpiece of Sogdian art. Its paintings include a On an archaeological basis, the Rustam painted continuous program developing along the four program should be dated to around 740 C.E. Al - walls, dedicated mainly to the great eastern Iranian though the paintings contain Sogdian inscriptions hero Rustam, who is immediately recognizable by of epigraphical importance, their content does not his leopard skin garments (Marshak 2002; Grenet refer to the scenes represented there. The first, a 2015). Rustam is always represented atop his red - formulaic inscription, is addressed to the king, dish horse Rakhsh while fighting demons or mov - while the second is a writing exercise, most likely ing into mysterious lands populated by strange left by a student from a nearby school in an at - Shahnameh creatures, as described in the by Fir - tempt to vandalize the painted room during a visit dousi. The painted program of Rustam is fairly well (Lurje 2014). preserved on three walls, and seven scenes of the sequence can still be observed clearly [ Fig. 1 ]. One scene is a representation of Rustam fighting Cleaning by the Hermitage restorers of fragmen - with a snake demon that does not appear in the tary parts of the Blue Hall, which are still unpub - Shahnameh [Fig. 2 ]. There is a missing frame in lished, revealed at least two more scenes, including the sequence, since the left portion depicts Rustam one in which the hero is received at court by the about to be swallowed by the monster while the
Fig. 1. Schematic reproduction of the Rustam painted program in the Blue Hall at Panjikent, sector VI/room 41 (ca. 740). After: Marshak 2002, fig. 14, 16-17.
The Silk Road 16 (2018): 91–99 Copyright © 2018 Matteo Compareti 91 Copyright © 2018 The Silkroad Foundation Fig. 2. Line drawing of Rustam fighting a female snake-demon at Panjikent. Sketch by Li Sifei. right portion shows him moving forward, with the tion qaghan (Kurbanov et al. 2017: 11) . A late 8th to human snake lying on the ground already dead. early 9th century burnt wooden frieze, found at Pavel Lurje has suggested that the missing frame Shahristan (Ustrushana or eastern Sogdiana) in should have depicted the killing of the monster the shape of a semi-circular tympanum and origi - from inside of its belly—the weapon Rustam holds nally installed above the entrance of an important in his right hand behind his back in the first part room (possibly the throne hall), also presents sev - of the sequence would have been used to cut open enteen decorative roundels containing fighting the monster’s belly (Lurje 2014). scenes. At least two of these scenes include a The story of a hero swallowed by a monster, usually a giant sea creature or dragon, represents a very well-known topos in world mythology: it can be found in ancient Greece, the Hebrew Bible, and also in the Christian world (Angelini 2010; Kuehn 2014; Miller 2018). Representations of a hero fighting with a dragon can be found sometimes in pre-Islamic Persian art (Magistro 2000). Sasanian seals embellished with the scene of a haloed mounted knight fighting with a multi-headed giant snake, which could re - semble the Hydra of Herakles’ trials, appear some - times in museums and private collections [ Fig. 3 ]. In at least one example, the man fighting the multi-headed snake is not on a horse ( Ritter 2010: pl. X, A2019) . During some recent excavations at Panjikent, the Russo-Tajik team also found a seal with the same scene of an armoured horse rider adorned with a helmet killing a snake monster. Fig. 3. Sasanian seal kept in the British Museum (acc. no. 119387). The scene is accompanied by the Sogdian inscrip - After: Harper 2006, fig. 96. Sketch by Matteo Compareti.
92 mounted warrior fighting a snake dragon (Bub - Rempel’ (1986: 136) has already noted this curious nova 2016: 176). 1 Though these kinds of images pre - similarity between the two Iranian dragon slayers, sent some similarities with the scene in the Blue and G. Azarpay (1981: 96-97) considered that Hall at Panjikent, they are not exactly the same. In dragon fighter as not connected to any specific fact, the Sasanian and Sogdian monsters do not in - hero. In the painting of the Blue Hall at Panjikent, clude any human body parts. Moreover, the entire however, the hero wears panther skin garments scene looks more like an icon of Saint George, with typical of Rustam—not of Isfandyar, his fiercest clear allusions to the fight of good against evil, and enemy. figured, as usual, in the shape of a Biblical tempter These stories were fairly popular in Islamic book il - (Rempel’ 1987: 136; Kuehn 2014). lustrations. Illustrated copies of the Shahnameh As was mentioned some even include embellished time ago by Boris Marshak images of Rustam and (2002: 40), the monster in Rakhsh fighting a dragon. the Sogdian painting is a fe - One of the oldest illustra - male one. This fact is evi - tions of this specific dent in her long hair and episode can be found in a pointed breasts. Legends manuscript preserved in and stories including the State Public Library of women connected with St. Peterburg (ex Dorn, monstrous snakes call to 329, cf. Adamova and mind the three Gorgons of Gjuzal’jan 1985: pl. 9 ). Greek mythology and espe - Pre-Islamic representa - cially Medusa, the only one tions of snake monsters of the triad who was mortal. can also be found in Sog - Reflections of the story of dian paintings. For exam - Medusa can also be found ple, a haloed person in Islamic Persia and Cen - wearing a crown with tral Asia (Compareti 2018). snakes on his shoulders, A large number of represen - possibly identified with tations of monstrous snakes Zahak, appears in one or dragons can be found in 6th-century Sogdian Islamic book illustrations. painting located on the Among the most famous northwestern corner of stories involving dragon- the portico of the princi - slaying heroes preserved in pal hall of Temple I at Firdousi’s Shahnameh , one Panjikent ( Belenitskii and could also mention the sto - Marshak 1981: 68-69; ries of Zahak; Feridun Mode 1987) . These drag - transformed into a dragon ons, however, do not to test his sons’ courage; Fig. 4. Turkish manuscript kept in the Pierpont Morgan Li - evince any significant an - Ardashir pouring molten brary, New York ca. 1582 (suppl. turque 242, fol. 90v). After: thropomorphism or femi - metal into the mouth of a Schmitz 1997, 83, fig. 120. Sketch by Matteo Compareti. nine aspects. giant worm; and the drag - There are at least two ons killed by Gushtasp, Bahram Gur, and others. Turkish book illustrations that reproduce a hybrid Curiously enough, under further examination, the human-headed snake who looks into a mirror held Shah - third trial of Isfandyar, as described in the by a man standing in front of him. One of them nameh , represents a possible parallel with the [Fig. 4 ] is dated ca. 1582 (suppl. turque 242, fol. scene depicted at Panjikent. In that story, Isfandyar 90v) and is at present kept in the Pierpont Morgan is swallowed by a dragon but is able to defeat the Library in New York ( Carboni 1988a: 108-10, pl. 8; monster by cutting its belly open from inside. L.I. 93 Schmitz 1997: 83, fig. 120) . The second illustration book illustrations noted above, the images of [Fig. 5 ] (M.788, fol. 89v) is dated to the same pe - snake women in Ottoman miniatures represent riod and is kept in the Bibliothèque National de the only parallel with those Sogdian paintings in France in Paris ( Stchoukine 1966: pl. 46) . In both the Blue Hall that might demonstrate the presence miniatures, Medusa is evoked by a giant snake, of female snake-demons in the Iranian milieu at whose head, adorned with long hair, could be that the dawn of the Arab invasion. It is not entirely of a woman. In the upper part of both illustrations clear if this section of the Sogdian paintings at there is also a label identifying them as “the laugh - Panjikent is connected to the story of Medusa; ing snake and the mirror” ( Shekl-i mar-i qahqaha after all, Rustam does not hold a mirror in his va ayne ). It is worth observing that, at least in the hands. However, at least from an iconographical Turkish miniature kept in point of view, the Sogdian the Pierpont Morgan Li - monsters and the human brary, the human head of snake from the rare Islamic the giant snake is smiling. book illustrations could be Despite the lack of textual considered female and thus explications, the “laughing very similar. snake” could be associated Creatures with deadly gazes with Zahak, another (male) are well known in Islamic serpentine heckler or literature and are not nec - mocker in Iranian legends essarily connected with who was rooted in more snakes. Birds are also de - ancient Indo-Iranian myths picted with similar pecu - (Schwartz 2012). The fe - liarities, and may be male creature in the book considered to be another illustrations preserves all reflection of Medusa’s off - her negative traits. In fact, spring. One page of the the walled city in the back - early fifteenth-century ground suggests that her “Book of Wonders” ( Kitāb very presence constitutes a al-bulhān ) ( Bodleian Li - threaten to humans. For brary, Oxford, MS. Bodl. this reason, one man Or. 133 ), also includes a emerges from the group of “Discussion on the Moun - people, bringing with him tain of Fire and Salaman - a mirror to prevent her as - der-Birds” ( Al qawl ‘ala sault. The expectation is jabal al-nar wa tayr saman - that the human-headed dar ) (Carboni 1988b: fol. snake will die or run away 42v). Though the birds after looking into the mir - mentioned in the text do ror, since recognition of her not evince fantastic peculi - own image will cause her to Fig. 5. Turkish manuscript kept in the Bibliothèque Na - arities, it is clear that they laugh herself to death. In tional de France, Paris ca. 1582 (M.788, fol. 89v). After: can survive on the moun - Stchoukine 1966, pl. 46. Sketch by Matteo Compareti. addition, the idea of killing tain of fire exactly like the another being with its own Phoenix ( ‘Anqa ). For this reflected gaze presents some connections with ser - reason, they might have been confused with the pentine monsters such as Medusa. It also emerges salamander ( samandar ), an animal commonly as - later, however, in Islamic book illustrations that sociated with the igneous element in the ancient may possibly be rooted in more ancient Indo-Ira - world. Some Turco-Iranian legends include the nian myths (Compareti 2018). story of a hero who is transported by the Simurgh Despite the lack of human arms in the Islamic to the land of the “mountains of fire.” In order to
94 pass through the fire without burning, the hero obvious that all these legends deal with Medusa’s had to cover his body with the fat of the samandar , deadly gaze—and that this deadly gaze was even - which is described as a winged horse (Melikoff tually transmitted to her equine son. In the Turk - 1962, 39). G. Scarcia collected some eastern Iranian ish illustrations examined above, the only part of legends about odd creatures that killed people and the human body that is preserved is the long- animals just by looking at them. These creatures haired head, with the rest of the body subsumed could even kill themselves just by looking at their into serpentine form. Might it be possible, how - image in a mirror and laughing themselves to ever, to consider the Islamic renderings of the Gor - death (Scarcia 2003: 20). gon as connected to the story of Rustam at One Islamic legend tells the story of the Prophet Panjikent? Muhammad, who saw a pillow belonging to his Despite the fact that the story of Rustam and wife decorated with winged horses. The sight of Medusa share interesting points of overlap, many this decoration caused Muhammad to break into of which survive in both Islamic texts and visual hysterical laughter until he nearly died (Noja 1983). arts, they also exhibit certain differences with the This seems to be a re-reading of the myth of Blue Hall scene at Panjikent. One of the first objec - Medusa, who gave birth to Pegasus from her be - tions would be grounded in the story reported in headed neck. Even if it is not expressly stated as “The Red Intellect.” Zal, a sorcerer, along with his such in any written source, it is highly probable son Rustam, are both described as allies of the that the Greek Medusa not only petrified people, Simurgh , thus evincing some common traits with but also provoked in them such a strong laughter, Medusa and Pegasus (who is also conflated with prompted by sight of her hideous face, so as to the Phoenix and salamander). Moreover, the story cause their death ( Vernant 1985 [2014]: 40-41) . of Medusa does not refer to her as a devouring Hence the Islamic Pegasus is both renamed as monster, and her connection to snakes could be samandar —i.e., Phoenix—and superimposes its considered just a pretext to stress her monstrous own image onto the functions of the Simurgh from nature. Turco-Iranian legends. As a result, Pavel Lurje (2014) has drawn upon In the twelfth-century mystical treatise “The Red Tajik folklore to propose a different reading of the Intellect” ( ‘Aql-i sorkh ) by Shihāb al-Din story of Rustam fighting a female snake demon, as Sohravardi, there is an interesting description of depicted in the Panjikent paintings. He shows that the famous battle between Rustam, the eastern there is in fact at least one Tajik fable about a snake Iranian heroic defender of tradition, and Isfandyar, demon who was the mother of monstrous off - the champion of Zoroastrianism. According to this spring. In this fable, all of the offspring would story, Rustam’s father, Zal, knew that anyone who eventually devour people. In other words, the rea - looked at the reflection of the Simurgh in a mirror son why the Sogdian paintings seem to be inde - would be dazed. For this reason, he had the ar - pendent from the Persian text is likely because mour and helmet of his son thoroughly polished. they were following eastern Iranian traditions of Zal then made sure that the Simurgh cast his re - which Firdousi was either unaware or ignored. flection upon Rustam’s armour. As expected, dur - Sogdian texts from China include descriptions of ing the battle, the reflection of the Simurgh on epic heroes and other figures from the legend of Rustam’s armour dazed Isfandyar, who, thinking Rustam. The longer episode, which survives in a he was wounded in the eyes, subsequently died fragment from the British Library, does not appear (Yarshater 1998: 588) . in the story included in the Shahnameh (Sims- 2 This episode does not appear either in Islamic Williams 1976; Sims-Williams 2004). book illustrations nor in the earlier representation Sogdian paintings from Panjikent also include the of Rustam’s trials from the mid-eighth century very first representation of Rustam, but not yet in Sogdian painted program in Panjikent. However, if his “canonical” form, which would be adopted the Simurgh is identified with the Phoenix, and the some centuries later by Firdousi. Though Rustam’s Phoenix can be confused with the salamander and name—literally “strong as a river”—should be con - Pegasus in the Islamic world, then it seems quite sidered western Iranian in origin (Sims-Williams 95 2004; Compareti 2016a: 26), Rustam himself was In any case, such considerations do not completely an eastern Iranian hero from Zabulistan whose sto - explain the female nature of the monster at Pan - ries and legends were well known in Central Asia jikent. It is possible that some elements were de - before the Islamic era. Variations of Rustam’s story, rived from stories of a monster connected with which were incorporated into the Shahnameh , are Medusa, which were very popular in eastern Iran - to be expected among the Sogdians, whose litera - ian lands. Tajik fables mentioned by Lurje also res - ture and figurative arts probably preserved aspects onate with similar well-known stories from ancient of local traditions now found only in Tajik fables. Greece, in which a monster associated with snakes From an iconographical point of view, the snake bore responsibility for the death of newborn chil - demon at Panjikent does not present any clear par - dren. As is well known, the figure of Medusa was allel with illustrations of the trials of Rustam or Is - connected with Baubo (a personification of female fandyar, as are sometimes included in Shahnameh sex), who appears in the myth of Demeter, as well manuscripts. In fact, when those heroes are repre - as other creatures such as the ogress Lamia Lamashtu sented as fighting with snake dragons in Islamic (Mesopotamian ) and the chthonian book illustrations, the iconography of the monster goddess Hecate, who was known as a kidnapper of children (Childs 2003: 65; Ogden 2013: 95). All of is always the Chinese long 龍, a serpent-like crea - these creatures also seem to be connected with the ture imprecisely rendered as “dragon” in Western snake-women depicted in the Turkish illustrations literature. As is well known, Chinese iconographi - mentioned above. In fact, it is highly probable that cal traditions established during the Song period the monster was intended to represent a menace to (960-1279) were introduced into Persia at the time the inhabitants of the walled city in the back - of the Mongol conquest under the Ilkhanids (1256- ground. This menace was embodied in one of two 1353). These Song artistic traditions were used to ways: either by looking at them, or, possibly, de - represent not only fantastic creatures of the Iran - vouring them—as snakes usually do. ian mythological canon, but also those of natural elements such as mountains, trees, and clouds Apart from the image of the female snake dragon, (Vogelsang 2013). Chinese stylistic features were there seems to be at Panjikent some confusion re - also incorporated into depictions of other crea - garding the main character of the story. Is it Rus - tures. In the case of the Simurgh , which is usually tam or Isfandyar? As noted above, in the (and imprecisely) rendered as “phoenix” (Com - Shahnameh it is Isfandyar who is swallowed by the pareti, 2016a), the external iconography was mod - dragon. In the Panjikent paintings, however, the eled on the Chinese fenghuang 鳳凰 . dragon-fighting hero wears the leopard skin gar - ments typical of Rustam. As is well known, one However, a small group of Persian miniatures, feature of the Isfandyar trials is the killing of the mainly dated to the early fourteenth century, still Simurgh . Curiously enough, at a certain point in presents an image of the Simurgh that appears to the narration of the Shahnameh , Rustam also be based not on Chinese prototypes, but rather on shoots the Simurgh with an arrow after the magic an image of an owl included in one of the Pan - bird exhibits an aggressive posture. Even though jikent paintings (Compareti 2016b: fig. 21). We thus this episode might be considered “marginal” (Dur - cannot rule out the possibility that the paintings of ing 1988-89: 34), it is still included in the story of the Blue Hall at Panjikent might still constitute a Rustam and represents a further convergence of kind of “genuine Iranian prototype” not only for the characteristics of Rustam with those of Isfand - the Simurgh , but also for the image of the “Iranian yar. Just like the Shahnameh narrative, the trials of dragon” as well. Such a hypothesis can not be sub - Rustam as depicted in the Panjikent murals in - stantiated, for the simple reason that there are no clude several incongruous details. The story of Is - Islamic book illustrations for the dragon as there fandyar, too, exhibits some inconsistencies. The are for the Simurgh . From the Mongol period on - death of the Simurgh , which will later prompt Rus - ward, nearly all dragons that have been repre - tam to prepare a magic arrow to be shot in the eyes sented in book illustrations are adaptations of the of Isfandyar, is narrated, illogically, in a previous Chinese long , with the exception of the two Turk - part of the Shahnameh . For this reason, popular ish miniatures noted above. 96 traditions of this story seem to have invented a ABOUT THE AUTHOR couple of Simurgh s: one female and one male. The Matteo Compareti currently teaches the history Simurgh reason why the male helped Rustam in of pre-Islamic Central Asian art at Shaanxi Normal his duel can be found in this version of the story, University in Xi’an, China. Previously he was Gui - Simurgh since the female just wanted to avenge the tty Azarpay Distinguished Visiting Professor at the death of her “husband” (Yarshater 1998: 588). University of California, Berkeley. His research in - In a section of the Rustam program that has been terests include the iconography of so-called recently restored in the State Hermitage, one can Zoroastrian deities in Sasanian art and pre-Islamic recognize a duel between the hero, adorned in Sogdian paintings. He has published in Italian, leopard skin, and an opponent whose shoulders English, and Chinese. Among his more recent pub - exhibit vivid flames (Compareti 2016b: fig. 9). This lications are Samarkand the Center of the World: is a common way to represent an important char - Proposals for the Indentification of the Afrāsyāb acter in Sogdian art. In this scene, the leopard Paintings (Mazda: Costa Mesa, 2016) and “The skin-adorned hero uses a bow that in other parts of Late Sasanian Figurative Capitals at Taq-i Bustan: the painted program is portrayed as still in its case. Proposals Regarding Identification and Origins,” in As a result, it seems clear that this scene represents Yuka Kadoi, ed., Persian Art: Image-Making in a depiction of the duel between Rustam and Is - Eurasia (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, fandyar. In front of the hero identified with Rus - 2018): 20-36. E-mail:
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