Initial Geologic Provenience Studies of Stone and Metal Artefacts from Rakhigarhi Amarendra Nath1, Randall Law2 and Tejas Garge3 1. Former Director, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, India (Email: [email protected]) 2. Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA (Email: [email protected]) 3. Archaeological Survey of India, Aurangabad Circle, Bibi ka Makbara, Aurangabad, Maharashtra – 431004, India (Email: [email protected]) Received: 30 August 2014; Accepted: 24 September 2014; Revised: 17 October 2014 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2 (2014): 74‐100 Abstract: Rakhigarhi was the largest settlement in what Gregory Possehl defined as the “eastern domain” of the Indus Civilization. However, there are no rock or mineral resources whatsoever within 50 km of the ancient city. All stone or metal object recovered during excavations at the site – from the tiniest bead to the largest grindingstone – were made of raw material that had to have been imported from distance sources. Geologic provenience studies can provide compelling evidence that an exchange network once existed between the ancient inhabitants of Rakhigarhi and those in the region where the raw material the artefact is composed of originated. In this paper, we present the initial results of the several ongoing geologic source provenience studies – instrumental neutron activation analysis of steatite and agate production debris, Pb isotope analysis of lead and silver objects and a large scale comparative study of grindingstones. Keywords: Rakhigarhi, Geologic Provenience Studies, Steatite, Agate, Lead, Silver, Grindingstone Introduction Rakhigarhi was one of largest Harappan settlements. Located in what Gregory Possehl (1992) defined as the “eastern domain” of the Indus Civilization, the ancient city could reasonably be considered the “provincial capital” of that domain. The site was surrounded by network of subsidiary settlements in a densely populated zone that provided its residents with ample agricultural surplus, forest products, and other resources from the local alluvial plain (Garge 2011). However, there are no rock or mineral resources whatsoever within 50 km of Rakhigarhi. Excavations there have revealed, among other things, a broad range of stone and metal artefacts made from raw materials that had to have come from sources outside of this local zone. The study of these objects allows us to reconstruct non‐local resource acquisition patterns at Nath et al. 2014: 74‐100 Rakhigarhi and, by doing so, examine its residents’ connections with other “domains” and/or resources areas across the Harappan realm and beyond. In the absence of historical accounts of trade, geologic provenience studies can provide compelling evidence that an exchange network once existed between the ancient inhabitants of a region where a stone or metal artefact entered the archaeological record and those in the region where the raw material the artefact is composed of originated. The soundest provenience determinations are ones based on analyses of artefacts composed of unadulterated rock or mineral rather than processed metal, which could contain metal from multiple sources as well as various alloys and additives. With unadulterated stone, “specific types of raw materials can be related to an objective geologic reality that is derived from natural (as opposed to cultural) processes” (Odess 1998: 419).There have been several major broad‐scale studies (Fentress 1976; Lahiri 1992; Ratnagar 2004) of Harappan trade networks that examined multiple varieties of stone and metal to construct models of proto‐historic resource access and exchange. Randall Law (2011) built upon these earlier studies by, using a variety of analytical methods, conducting large‐scale direct comparisons of artefacts from Harappan sites to samples collected from potential stone and metal sources throughout the greater Indus region. In 2007, he was invited by the Rakhigarhi’s excavator, Dr. Amarendra Nath, to begin geologic provenience studies of that site’s stone and metal artefact assemblage1.The report herein is a summary of the progress and preliminary findings of the geologic provenience analyses undertaken to date for this project. Rakhigarhi and Its Local Physiographic Environment The site of Rakhigarhi was excavated for three seasons – 1997‐98 (Nath 1998), 1998‐99 (Nath 1999) and 1999‐2000 (Nath 2001). Multiple mounds were identified and numbered as RGR 1 through RGR 7. Of these, RGR 1, RGR 2 and RGR 6 were revealed to have, in addition to Harappan Period occupation, a formative stage followed by an Early Harappan settlement stage. RGR 7 is a necropolis. The settlement lies on the flood plain of Sarasvati‐Drishadvati basin. The most up‐to‐ date picture of the local physiographic environment around Rakhigarhi was compiled by Tejas Garge (2011). In the past, the Drishadvati (or Chautang) River flowed through the modern districts of Karnal, Jind and Hissar before meeting the Sarasvati near Suratgarh in Rajasthan. Topographically, this area is a, monotonous upland terrain that is part of the alluvial of Satluj‐Yamuna plain; the western portion of which gradually transitions into the Thar Desert. Prominent features are aeolian sand deposits of variable shapes and thicknesses overlying the Pleistocene alluvium. The patches of older alluvium are either exposed or occur at shallow depth beneath a veneer of sand in tals or topographic depressions enclosed by fossilized dunes known as tibbas. Silted‐ up river channels with continuous or intermittent levee undulations occupy a relatively lower position. The general gradient of the terrain is from north‐east to south‐west and then west. 75 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2: 2014 In terms of this study it is important to note that the bedrock of this area is deeply buried and is wholly concealed under alluvial and aeolian deposits. There are no accessible sources of stone or metal whatsoever available anywhere within the local area. The nearest outcrops of rock are located in southern Haryana approximately 50 km (Tosham area) to 75 km (Kaliana Hills) south of Rakhigarhi. The main part of the Aravalli Range beings some 125 km to the south while the foothills of the Himalayas begin to rise around 175 km to the northeast. Therefore, all stone or metal object recovered during excavations at Rakhigarhi – from the tiniest bead to the largest grindingstone – was made of raw material that had to have been imported to the site from one of these sources or even more distant ones. Observations, Analyses and Results Steatite Artefacts Steatite –a rock composed mainly of the mineral talc – was one of the most important types of stone in the Harappan corpus of raw materials. It was used to create common items, such as disc beads, as well as important objects like stamp seals and inscribed tablets. Although steatite occurrences are found in many parts of South Asia (Law 2002), geologic provenience analyses of artefacts from sites across the Indus Civilization (Law 2011: Chapter 7) indicate that Harappans mainly acquired this type of stone from sources located in what today is northern Pakistan, primarily those in the Hazara District (Figure 1). Deposits in some other areas, such as northern Rajasthan, were also exploited but to a much more limited degree. Steatite objects from Rakhigarhi were examined and/or analyzed in an attempt to determine what sources residents at that site utilized. Raw steatite exhibits a wide range of colors and patterns. However, the vast majority of objects made from this stone at Rakhigarhi and other Indus Civilization sites appear solid white due to having been heated at high temperatures and/or covered with an applied white surface. At sites like Harappa and Mohenjo‐Daro, thousands of raw steatite debris fragments and unfinished steatite objects have also been recovered. In contrast, only a handful of such artefacts were observed among the Rakhigarhi materials. Perhaps more will come to light as studies of the collection continue. The examples examined are composed of types of raw steatite that are identical in appearance to types documented by Randall Law at Harappa (see Law 2011: Figure 7.4). Below are three examples. Figure 2 compares two fragments – one from Rakhigarhi [A] and one from Harappa [B] – of khaki‐colored steatite. In Figure 3, an unfinished stamp seal from Rakhigarhi [A] carved from an olive‐green and black‐ banded type of steatite is compared to a large debris fragment from Harappa [B] composed of identical looking stone. Figure 4 shows stamp seal RGR 7230 [A] and a detail of its side [B] where the surface has partially worn away to reveal the black steatite from which the object was carved. A sawn piece of black steatite manufacturing debris from Harappa [C] is shown for comparison. 76 Nath et al. 2014: 74‐100 Figure 1: Steatite sources of the Greater Indus region and Harappan steatite trade networks 77 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2: 2014 Figure 2: Fragments of khaki‐colored steatite debris from [A] Rakhigarhi (RGR 573.B) and [B] Harappa Figure 3: [A] An unfinished stamp seal (RGR 1731) from Rakhigarhi carved from an olive‐green and black‐banded steatite. [B] A debris fragment of the same material from Harappa. Figure 4: [A] SealRGR 7230 from Rakhigarhi.[B] The side of the seal where the surface has partially worn away revealing the black steatite beneath. [C] A sawn black steatite debris fragment from Harappa. Visual examinations, while informative, are generally not sufficient for identifying the geologic sources of steatite artefacts (the reason being that identical macroscopic types of stone can and often do occur at different steatite deposits). That task is best undertaken using instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). This highly 78 Nath et al. 2014: 74‐100 accurate and precise method for quantifying the major, minor and trace element compositions of materials has been employed by researchers around the world in efforts to identify the geologic sources of a wide range of archaeological stone.