CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction This research is an investigation into the linguistic issues (stylistic and semantic) that are involved in literary translation. The main focus of the work is the study of aspects of style in relation to the functions of language as portrayed in the translated proverbs and idioms in three of D.O. Fagunwa’s novels. The research sought to establish the appropriateness or stylistic equivalence of the English translations and to explore the implications of the choice of style adopted since style is always a source of interest to readers, especially school pupils. The target novels are: (1) Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo Irunmale written in 1938 (henceforth Ogboju Ode) translated as Forest of A Thousand Daemons by Wole Soyinka in 1968 (henceforth FTD); (2) Irinkerindo Ninu Igbo Elegbeje written in 1940 (henceforth Irinkerindo) translated as Expedition to The Mount of Thought by Dapo Adeniyi in 1994 (henceforth Expedition) and (3) Igbo Olodumare written in 1946, (henceforth Igbo) translated as In The Forest Of Olodumare by Wole Soyinka in 2010 (henceforth Forest). The importance of translation is expressed in its ability to extend the spread of knowledge-society-index by effectively linking all the parts of the world together for greater multi-cultural access. The long and tortuous journey of the conception, gestation, growth, development and birth of translation studies span over two thousand years from the last century of Before Common Era to the 20th century of the Common Era. As the frequency of human interaction increases, owing to growth in population, the need to carry information from one place to another also increases. There were a myriad of issues and problems associated with translation in its early days. Some 1 oif the striking ones include untranslatability, free versus literal translations and the all-writing-is-translation debate. Equivalence, which came with the campaign of Luther, was canvassed as similarity in meaning to the translated texts across any two concerned languages. Doctrinal words and concepts in religious faiths were held as sacred, holy and therefore needed not be translated or were simply held untranslatable. The highly literal or word-for-word technique, which canvasses for lexical correspondence was considered acceptable for such sacrosanct texts. This was directly against the sense-for-sense translation tradition option which was basically literary or message-oriented. Another campaign bore the “all-writing-is- translation” idea. It was held that whether writing directly from one’s mind or across languages, it was translation in one form or another. These were some of the features of the gestation period of translation studies. The works of Cicero, St Jerome and Luther formed the bulk of what is now known as the ancient era of translation. The same era which was dominated by controversies over the sanctity of scriptural texts; these being the commonest types of materials meant for translation as at the period. Apart from the problem of cognition or mental capability which is traditionally associated with translation, there also arose an issue with reductionism. No two translators seemed to agree over what the most basic should be in any translation exercise. This often played out especially where the materials did not find an easy access into the target language. The emphasis of the source language (SL) author was sometimes different from the emphasis of the target language (TL) author. 2 Also was the problem of terminological inexactitude. Translation then still being at its infancy, there were no ready materials to refer to in times of vocabulary shortage. The two common languages at the beginning of transaltion studies, Greek and Latin, were related. This similarity in their early stages is traceable to their common ancestral Proto-Indo European (PIE) roots. They could borrow easily from each other including their metalanguages. The case is not the same with English and Yoruba , being the languages in this present study. In the case of Nigeria which is the environment of this research, issues of cultural diversity and language multiplicity are very rife. In this research, such issues are discussed and dealt with within stylistic provisions. The non-religious text of St. Jerome was translated freely based on the sense-for- sense technique. It greatly lauded rhetoric. This work was very prominent as the era of stylistic translation was just beginning and it gained prominence in the 16th and 17th centuries. Following this era was the movement of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS). This movement emphasized a concentration mainly on the target language production. In the place of should-be translation, the campaign insisted on a high manifestation of the original intention of the source material. This later formed the basis for the manipulation school of thought, which suggested the supremacy of the source message. This is what dominated the modern era of translation from between the 1960’s and 90’s. The Problem of what goes on in the head of the translator or interpreter, what translators experience while translating and what informs the decision-making effort constitute the problem of cognition in translation. All these processes must be consciously harnessed (or manipulated) to reflect what is understood to be the 3 original intended message of the source writer. An obligation to optimize communication and a wish to develop an appropriate relationship between the source and target readers was the central philosophy. This was the genesis of each of the norms of translation that evolved among the society of translators over the centuries. As the debate developed over what should be translated and what should not be translated, so was the expectancy norm also a major issue to contend with at the early stages. The commissioner of a translation project reserved the due right to demand accountability and satisfaction, which were the necessary conditions for the fulfilment of financial obligations. Such was the rough terrain at the early stages of the translation industry. Over the decades, the translation industry has become bigger and other issues have been accommodated in it. In some countries these days, development has been influenced by translation in its various forms to the extent that the industry has become a major contributor to the national economy. Likewise, if consciously developed, the translation industry is capable of generating massive revenue to the Nigerian economy and will also reduce the impact of unemployment by providing sustainable jobs for certain categories of the populace. Also, the in-depth understanding of other people’s cultures through faithful translation of their texts will facilitate better communication among the various peoples of Nigeria as well as the peoples of other nations of the world. The stabililization of the polity can also be enhanced through minimization of conflicts and insurrections. Militarized agitations and armed struggles are oftentimes a result of lack of trust and lack of fair hearing and fair sharing of the common wealth of the nation, which in turn are reflections of poor communication and poor understanding among the different 4 tribes in the country. Many of these failings can be addressed if and when our desires and aspirations are understood across land and psychological borders through adequate translations and effective communication of other people’s ideas and practices. 1.2 Background to the Study Human beings have been identified with highly developed and complex language system or systems. These systems have been codified into the spoken and written forms. All over the world, according to the Summer Institute of Linguistics International publication of 2009, and a recent report by Ethnologue World Languages, there are over seven thousand languages spoken on the Earth planet. Within the African continent alone, there are between 1800 and 2000. Among the ones that have fully developed orthographical patterns, there are about five hundred and fifty languages in Nigeria alone. It is quite obvious that without translation (and interpretation), it would be impossible for these vast and diverse populations to communicate successfully with one another. On the global linguistic landscape, some languages are very different from one another. As examples, Chinese, English, Spanish, Arabic, Yiddish etc are not mutually inclusive. In the continent of Africa also, Arabic, Swahili, French, Yoruba, Ibo and Hausa etc have various dialects and tones. There are proverbs and idioms in addition to other peculiar figures of speech typifying linguistic variations and dichotomies between any two communities. This situation is further complicated by the fact that there could be several dissimilar varieties of the same language; this is very common within the Yoruba 5 language. The Oyo Yoruba, for example, is different from the Ijebu Yoruba. This is also slightly different from the Egba Yoruba which is not the same as the Ekiti Yoruba, Owo or Akoko Yoruba as the case may be. All these complications do constitute a dilemma for language curriculum planners, policy makers, writers and translators. At the level of government too, language multiplicity continues to pose problems. Every community in Nigeria is multicultural and highly diversified. Making appointments into public offices or recruitment exercises are always bedevilled with ethnic colorations and suspicions. This is because any failure to communicate across cultural borders is enough reason for mistrust and suspicion. Public health campaigns and social responsibility awareness programmes are always done in various languages in order to reach the grassroot communities. There is always a gap for the translator to fill in the country to raise the communication level among the people. A classical situation of the importance of translation for communication purposes is demonstrated in a Wikipedia story, “Prisoners of Dilemma”, often credited to Anato Rappapor. The story has a polish Jew, a British Jew, a German Jew and a Spanish Jew who were docked in the same condemned cell awaiting execution during the World War II occupation of Europe by Germonso.