“WE DON'T WANT ANOTHER BLACK FREEDOM MOVEMENT!”: AN INQUIRY INTO THE DESIRE FOR NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS BY COMPARING HOW PEOPLE PERCEIVED BOTH THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT VERSUS THE BLACK LIVES MATTER MOVEMENT Isaiah Hicks A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS May 2020 Committee: Tyler DeWayne Moore, Advisor Thomas Edge © 2020 Isaiah Hicks All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Tyler Dewayne Moore The Civil Rights Era of the 1960s has helped America transcend and grow above its racist past, at least that is what we have been led to believe. However, the past decade has made it all too clear that there is still a deep racial divide within America. Tragic events such as Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown’s death, and the details that surrounded them, were heavily polarized topics that made clear America’s racial divide. Those events also spawned a new movement, the Black Lives Matter Movement, which draws heavily from its predecessors of the past. Due to the current memory of the Civil Rights Movement, Black Lives Matter and its supporters, have and continue to fight an uphill battle against the national media, which has attempted to denounce the new movement and portray it as contrary to American values, much like they have portrayed groups associated with the Black Power Movement. This study explores how people perceived the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement and examines whether that has any relationship with how other movements such as the Black Lives Matter Movement are perceived. Although there is a vast amount of literature covering the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movements, individually and collectively, there is not a lot of work that examines them both as part of the continuous Black Freedom Movement. Due to popular memory of the Civil Rights Movement, new developing movements have been grossly distorted to ensure the failure and public denial of subsequent movements meant to validate the continuance and longevity of the Black Freedom Movement. This thesis will argue that Black Lives Matter is proof that the Black Freedom Movement is continuous, and is ongoing today. Catastrophic events such as Trayvon Martin’s and Michael Brown’s death acted as a rallying point for many Blacks to become involved in the new movement, much like Emmitt Till’s death acted as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to offer my most sincere gratitude towards my thesis committee, Dr. Tyler Dewayne Moore and Dr. Thomas Edge. Both stepped in and offered an immense amount of assistance, constantly standing by my side and guiding me through this thesis process and for that I am grateful. I would also like to recognize the invaluable assistance that Dr. Benjamin Greene, Dr. Nicole Jackson, and Travis Wright provided during my study. Dr. Benjamin Greene offered an immense amount of morale support and helped me to stay on track throughout this process. Dr. Nicole Jackson provided rich and fruitful critique which at the time may have been the last thing that I wanted to hear but in the end helped me to produce this work, and for that I am truly grateful. I would also like to thank Travis Wright for peer editing my thesis when I was stressed out about not being able to submit on time. I am also indebted to Maureen Barry who assisted me in accessing a number of primary and secondary sources that assisted me in my research. Without her assistance none of this would be possible. My deepest gratitude also goes out to Toledo activist, Brother Washington Muhammad who not only gave me an interview offering me firsthand insight into much of my research but opened my eyes do a different perspective as well and for that I am thankful. I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to my fiancé, Maria. Without her constant support and encouraging words, I would have drowned in the stressful process known as thesis writing. She also proved to be an excellent peer editor when I often felt I could make no more changes to my work and for that I am thankful. I would also like to thank my parents and my siblings, the Hicks family, for not only listening to my worries and fears but also encouraging me and keeping me on track throughout this entire process. I would also like to thank my cohort members for the comradery, support and constant advice on improvements. All of these people played a role in helping me to complete this thesis and for that I am eternally grateful. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..... 1 CHAPTER I. THE BLACK FREEDOM MOVEMENT: THE CIVIL RIGHTS AND BLACK POWER MOVEMENTS… ...................................................................…………………… 16 Media Portrayal of the Civil Rights Movement in the South ................................... 22 Media Portrayal of the Civil Rights Movement in the North and West .................... 48 Black Power ............................................................................................................ 54 Civil Unrest ............................................................................................................ 60 CHAPTER II. BLACK LIVES MATTER ………………………………………………… 71 How Black Lives Matter Came to Be……….......…………………………………. 74 Media and Black Lives Matter .................................................................................. 85 Comparing Black Lives Matter to the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements .. 91 The Influence of the President on the Movement...................................................... 105 CHAPTER III. POPULAR MEMORY………………… ...........................................……. 119 Media’s Influence on Popular Memory …………………………………………….. 121 Popular Memory of the Civil Rights Movement……………………………………. 123 Popular Memory of the Black Power Movement……….……………………………127 Ongoing Fallout from the Civil Rights Movement’s Success ………………..……...129 What will the Popular Memory of Black Lives Matter Be?………………………….136 CONCLUSION……………………………………………....................………………….. 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………….………………………………. 150 1 INTRODUCTION On August 26, 2016, in a packed stadium with thousands also watching at home, Black quarterback Colin Kaepernick for the San Francisco 49ers decided to make a bold political statement by sitting during the national anthem. When asked why he sat during the anthem, Kaepernick responded, “I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color.”1 Although the National Football League initially tolerated Kaepernick’s protest, saying, “Players are encouraged but not required to stand during the playing of the national anthem,” the general public’s response came to define its more critical position.2 Kaepernick’s actions, and the statement that followed, infuriated many Americans who believed them un-American and disrespectful to the American flag. The backlash impelled Kaepernick to meet with Nate Boyer, a U.S. Army Veteran and former NFL long snapper, who inspired him to kneel—rather than sitting—during the anthem as a sign of respect for the military.3 After he kneeled at a game against the San Diego Chargers on September 1, the crowd in attendance showered Kaepernick with boos throughout the entire game. He responded to the critics, “Once again, I’m not anti-American. I love America. I love people. That’s why I’m doing this. I want to help make America better.”4 Kaepernick’s message captured the hearts of individuals across the world. Not only did many of his fellow football players begin imitate his protest, but soon professional basketball players in the NBA and WNBA did too. United States Women’s national soccer team star Megan 1 Victor Mather, “A Timeline of Colin Kaepernick vs. the N.F.L.” (The New York Times, February 15, 2019). 2 Ibid 3 Matthew Impelli, “A Timeline of Colin Kaepernick’s Kneeling in Protest to His Upcoming Workout for NFL Teams.” (Newsweek, November 14, 2019). 4 Victor Mather, “A Timeline of Colin Kaepernick vs. the N.F.L.” (The New York Times, February 15, 2019). 2 Rapinoe even imitated him during a national match. 5 The following year Kaepernick opted out of his contract, hoping to obtain better pay, but the 49ers did not resign him. Other NFL teams also did not sign him; he eventually filed a grievance against the NFL, arguing that his protest was the reason that he remained unsigned.6 Despite the fact that Kapernick was unsigned and not playing, protests continued by players throughout the sports world. In 2017, President of the United States Donald Trp criticized the NFL for allowing the protests, declaring that protesters who did not stand for the anthem should be fired.7 Taking to Twitter a number of times, the President lashed out at Kaepernick and his supporters. His efforts to stifle Black voices deepened the racial divide in America. As a result of Trump’s hyperbolic public statements, the NFL team owners ruled that players could no longer kneel during the national anthem. Players who wished to protest had to remain in the locker room instead, or face punishment from the League.8 Many of the team owners believed this new policy would bring a return to normalcy, but the president made an even more bombastic statement, “I don’t believe the players should be staying in the locker room in protest. If a player is not standing for the national anthem, maybe you shouldn’t be in the country.”9 Despite the statements of the president and the NFL’s new policy, a handful of athletes continued to protest. For many everyday Black People in America, Kaepernick’s protest provided further evidence that no matter your position in life Black people did not have an equal chance of being 5 Victor Mather, “A Timeline of Colin Kaepernick vs. the N.F.L.” (The New York Times, February 15, 2019). 6 Ibid 7 Ibid 8 Ibid 9 Ibid 3 treated fairly in America. It was further proof that an establishment that endangered the lives of the citizens it was meant to protect needed an overhaul.