CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Brief historical sketch
4.3 General studies on the fisherfolk
4.4 Sociology of Education : Perspectives on the study
4.5 Influence of home and related variables
4.6 Influence of School, Teachers etc.
4.7 Merit, Equality and Opportunity
4.8 Economy, PoHtics and Education
4.9 Education and Inequality
4.10 Education and the Political System
4.11 Education and Social Change
4.12 Education and Economic Development
4.13 Disadvantaged Communities and Educational attainment
4.14 Conclusion
References CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
4.1 Introduction
In studying the educational backwardness of the marine fishworkers of Kerala, relevant literature was identified in the following areas. From a general perspective, history of the fisherfolk of Kerala and general studies on the fisherfolk are looked into. Sociology of education, with particular reference to home and related variables, School, teachers and other related variables, and
Merit, Equality and Opportunity debate is the second major part of the review.
Economy, politics and education is another major area of interest wherein specific issues such as education and inequality, education and the political system, education and economic development, and education and social change are discussed. Studies on the educational standards and problems of various dis- advantanged communities especially of the Fishworkers is of most relevance and has been referred to. The one problem any researcher in this area is bound to face is the paucity of literature particularly on the history and the educational problems of the marine fishworkers. Hence, the review necessarily will not be a total coverage of all related literature. A spurt of interest in the fisheries sector has generated a lot of studies in the techno-economics of fisheries.Revie w of it appears in the introductory part of the study and hence is not repeated in this section. 4.2 Brief Historical Sketch
A sense of history is essential for any community . Lack of it leads to the drying up of its roots
" To live without history is to be a waif, or to use the roots of others.
It is to renounce the possibility of being oneself a root for those who
come after— for somewhere beneath the ashes of the past there are
embers instinct with the light of resurrection."'
The community under study, the fisherfolk, has very little sense of their own history. Consequently they have not been able to acquire a unity which other communities have been able to muster. There is not any serious history written of them. One attempt at writing their history has been N.K.Jose's
"Children of the Sea", part of which has been published. What is presented here is primarily based on this author and hence does not have any claims of bemg a total picture.'^
Generally the fisherfolk are called Dheevaras but the term does not include all fisherfolk. There are mukkuvars, Arayas, Valars, Marakkans,
Mukayar, Nulayars etc. Today, the Hindu categories of fisherfolk have come under the general name Dheevaras. The Christian and Muslim fisherfolk are not included in the Dheevara category. The Christian categories of fisherfolk probably have only a history of 3-4 centuries, though some Christian authors would claim the tradition to 13th century/' Similariy , Islam has claim to a tradition of nine centuries and Hinduism about 8th,9th century Prior to the influence of these major religions it is Hkely that the fisherfolk had their own gods and ways of worship They probably worshipped their own predecessors and exhibited tribal characteristics.
56 Fishing as a profession probably originated right at the beginning of
human civilisational history, prior to the evolution of agriculture. Among the
primitive people of Kerala, where history can be traced to B.C. 3-4, Kerala must have had categories who took to fishing. It must be from them that the
fisherfolk as a category emerged. The historians also claim that the fisherfolk fi-om Tamilnadu and Kerala have been a common people and that a good chunk of them have come from the Sind culture and that there have been a mixture of original fisherfolk of Kerala and the Dravidas fi-om Sind region.
The fisherfolk who came fi-omth e Sind civilization were never slaves like the hill inhabitants. Pulayas, Kuravas, Parayas have been slaves, but Mukkuvas,
Arayas or Parathavas have not been slaves. The bondage that has been forced on the hill inhabitants by the Aryan Brahmins based on religious beliefs and legends, have not been felt on the coast. Hence, the coastal fisherfolk have always been a fi^eepeople . Even as late as 1869 fisherfolk are not included among the lower castes. In 1847 when the European, missionaries appealed to the Travancore Govt to prohibit slavery none of the fisherfolk are mentioned.
In the letter of Devan peshkar to Travancore, Devan Sir Madhava Rao, there is mention of lowest castes, but fisherfolk are not included. So too in the memo of 16 April, 1872 fi-om the British Resident to the Devan. But the Malabar
Manual of 1887 refers to the 24 ft. distance untouchability of Mukkuvas."*
Kerala is known for its age-old contact with merchants and their contact has always been through the coast. Hence it is but impossible that the fisherfolk had the initial contact with foreign merchants. There was a time in history where fishing was more profitable than the other occupations That surely was the golden period of the fisherfolk. Some of the fisherfolk would have been
57 merchants and the mediators for the foreign merchants. This was a time when the fisherfolk were happy about their situation, occupied as they were with fishing business and salt making. Fishing was a technically superior occupation and a prestigious one. Though the Aryans would have ostracized the fisherfolk as well as those who crossed the sea, this did not at all affect the fisherfolk.
As merchants in bargaining with both the foreigners and the hill inhabitants the fisherfolk would have achieved a remarkable degree of skill and expertise. N.K. Jose remarks that if the Roman Empire had got so apprehensive of endangering their economy and in buying up pepper at exorbitant rates, those merchants who bargained with them would have been none other than the fisherfolk. They would also have learned foreign languages suflficiently to communicate with the foreigners.
Both Islam and Christianity entered Kerala coasts primarily through business interests. The Arabian merchants slowly settled down here. They married local women and a mixed population emerged. They established themselves on the Malabar coast. Between 12th and 16th centuries the Muslim community was at its glorious period. With the arrival of Vasco Da Gama in
1498 the Muslims lost their predominance in business and many of them left the coast. Theoe who remained took to fishing The Christian invasion on the other hand, particularly, with the conversion efforts of the Jesuit Francis Xavier and their educational efforts, the Christian Fishermen community was on a rich course. The Hindu counterparts again probably vvdth the Aryan invasion brought in also the varna system and its accompanying burdens. But the picture that emerges in the eariy history up to 13-14th century is one of a community
58 culturally superior, economically self sufficient and exposed to the international
intrusions. Their occupation was considered noble. Kunjali Marakar built up
his naval force on the fisherfolk strength. In Travancore, Marthanda Varma
relied on the fisherfolk to replenish his army to fight the Dutch. Thus in brief,
the fisherfolk had a flourishing period.
But since then, there has been a sharp decline, the forces of which
have not been sufficiently inquired into. Already with the insistence of
Namboothiries no other lower castes were allowed to be educated.^ The
educational efforts of Christian missionaries on the coast slowed down or even
died. The fisherfolk slowly and steadily declined in their education, cultural
levels and life styles. As the inland progressed the fisherfolk remained in the
sea, and paradoxically the very progress of the inland and hill land made the
fisherfolk vulnerable to exploitation. Once the Kings of the sea and the land now they are fast becoming the slaves of modem techno-scientific growth.
Today, fishing is more and more considered a low job and the fisherfolk are clamouring for inclusion in the lower castes. Historically there is a gap wherein this process of deterioration and decline has to be explained. What is of relevance to us is that fisherfolk once a socially economically powerful group has become a depressed group , exploited and backward.
4.2.1 The Dheevara Community
Dheevara, literally, means clever fisherman. The early inhabitants of the river valley of the Nils and the Dravidian aborigines were considered to be the precursors of the Dheevaras of Kerala. They were good navigators and
59 soldiers, who secured the fidelity of the native rulers and paid respect to them.
They lived together in separate class or gotras, controlled and disciplined by able chieftains and their economy mainly depended on occupational income.^
Today, the Dheevaras consist of a variety of fisherfolk like Arayas,
Mukkuvas, Nulayas, Mugeyas, Paravas, Valars and Marakkan, These categories with varying skills and tradition have come together under the banner of
Dheevara Sabha. Some of the precursors of the Sabha were the foUowing-
'Samastha Kerala Araya Mahajan Yogam' (1919), which was established during a convention of the Dheevaras of Travancore, Cochin and Malabar. 'Araya
Agitation League' was founded in 1929. The All Travancore Hindu Backwoard
Communities Federation of 1946 in which the Travancore arayas actively participated was another step in the history. In 1924, Sri. Velukutty Arayan organized a 'Matsya Thozhilali Union.' In Malabar, the 'Akhila Kerala Mukhaya
Sanghom' was established in 1920. By 1933 there were many local organisations in Calicut. They were all aflRliated to the Samastha Kerala Araya Maha Jana
Yogam, which became defunct later. In 1927, the Araya Vamsodharin Maha
Sabha was initiated. 1947 saw the Pandit Karuppan Memorial Mahasabha In
1957, a new organisation called 'Akhila Kerala Dheevara Sabha' was formed with Sri.K.V. Karunakaran as President. Till 1984, the common name was
Arayan. But in 1984, the Govt of Kerala brought all subcastes of the Hindu fishing community under the "Dheevara" Category. In 1975, with the formation of 'All Kerala Dheevara Sabha' along on the formation of DLP which was disbanded later, there was a better consolidation of the community, with the increasing demand of including the community among the scheduled castes
60 But as Udayabhanu remarks, "... the Hindu fishermen community in
Kerala is by no menas homogeneous. The members of the community
pay allegiance to many political parties and thus lose their electoral
strength. The factions in the community are hostile to each other. The
Hindu fishermanlac k financial resources and are backward in education.
The occupational stigma is also a dead weight on the community.^
The Karayogams are the community's base units. According to its
leadership there are over 304 branches. The Karayogam handles local level
issues, even that of education, occupational problem etc. One of the reasons why Non-Govermental organisations may not have flourishedamon g the Hindu fishfolk is that the Karayogam have been a powerful force. But other factors
like financial crunch may have played a role.
The Dheevara Sabha like other pressure groups in Kerala has chosen the path of agitation. "The Sabha is less eflfective than the other communal groups since the Hindu fishermen are economically, politically and intellectually weak."^
4.3 General Studies on the Fisherfolk
Mathur's descriptive study is on the fisherfolk of North Malabar,^ It is a detailed study of the life style of the Muslim fisherfolk The analysis of the organization and technology of fishing is insightfijl The book brings to light the vast area of knowledge handled by the fisherfolk with regard to the fisheries, the different organisms and their environment. Adoption of various technologies
61 is discussed in detail. Their zoological knowledge is commendable according to the author. Their knowledge of the climatic conditions and cosmology too are discussed in detail. Interestingly the transfer of knowledge seem to be totally informal. Mathur does not describe any form of formal educational factor, except may be in the religious area.
Ame Martin Klausen's "Kerala Fishermen and the Indo-Norwegian project' is an analytical study of the factors that led to the acceptance of the
INP (Indo-Norwegian Project) by the Christian villages of Sakthikulangara, and the rejection of the same by the Araya Hindu village of Puthenthura. He points that social change demands something more than techno-economic variables.^
Hinting at the educational process the author points out that the catholics think of money and education and unlike the Hindu counterpart have no rehgious sanctions against attempts at climbing upwards in the system. The author mentions the distance and extra cost of arayas in educating their children.
He remarks "the internal structure of the Araya community is thus characterized by a population with a low level of education."^'* About the catholic contmunity he remarks that investment in education and dowry is one of the most important methods for social mobility in the catholic community. The catholic priest has an essential responsibility for the educational sector in the village
The sociological study by Platteau, Murickan and Delebar" on the interlinkages between 'Technology,Credit and Indebtedness in Marine Fishing' was based on the villages of Poovar in Trivandrum , Purakkad in Alleppey and
62 Sakthikulangara in Quilon . The three villages have different levels of technology and corresponding income variations. The study is an analysis of the social structures of these villages by understanding the correlations between credit structures, income/expenditure patterns, indebtedness, their causes and institutionalization. Their conclusions and consequent policy implications are major insights into the fishermen community.
4.4 Sociology of Education : Perspectives on the Study
The emphasis in the whole discipline of Sociology of education is on using one's sociological imagination rather than using sociology as a collection of universally accepted facts which just have to be learned. Ball, Stephen traces the history of sociology of education fi-om a western perspective.^^ In the
1950s the London School of Economics conducted studies on education and social mobility. Two best known proponents in the discipline have been Jean
Flond and A.H.Halsey. Until the late 1970s research on social class inequalities in education focused almost exclusively on the relationship between home background and educational achievement. Initially, it was the material environment that was explored eg. poor housing, over crowding, povert\ and malnutrition etc , Then came a series of studies, demonstrating the value difference which existed between working class and middle class parents.
Working class children, it was adduced, were unable to defer gratification while the middle class children were brought up in a milieu which stressed status achievement and individual competition . Hence researches were conducted into child rearing and socialization processes within the family It was found that findings in this area were often contradictor^' and causal relationships were
63 difficult to establish. Basil Bernstein, Hargreave, MFD Young , Alfred schultz are traced as key figures in the history of sociology of education. Young proposed that sociology of education should take as its primary concern the political character of educational knowledge- the school curriculum-through research into the ways in which it is controlled. Educational knowledge, Young argued, is socially constructed and as such it is a reflection of certain political interests."'^
The book also refers to neo-marxist studies especially Althusser and the
American research done by Bowles and Gintis.
The sociology of education as Demaine remarks is "concerned with
the family, the education system, the economy and the polity, and with
relation between them. It is concerned with social institution and with
the socialization process with which they are involved".^'*
4.5 Influence of Home and Related Variables
Shah, Beena( 1984) Ball, Stephen (1986) Zayone,P (1983), Shrivastva
(1984) and many others have gone into the home and related variables as influencing educational achievement. Shah Beena in her study concluded,
"another significant conclusion that can be drawn from this study is the
role of family in determining the nature of education of their children
The family encouragement, coupled with its educational and vocational
background, is found to be much more effective than economic and
caste factors".'^
64 Bail, Stephen locates various studies on material environment, parental attitudes, child rearing studies, culture and community, linguistic development and social learning. Halsey and Martin are quoted by the author as saying that material differences are of minor importance when compared with family size and the attitudes and aspirations of parents. Plowden study is unequivocal.
"Educational deprivation is not mainly the effect of poverty, parental
attitude and maternal care are more important than the level of material
needs—. The 'good home'is an aid to success in our school system'''
Bourdieu has been one of the few marxist sociologists of education to
take seriously the relationship between home and school. In his terms
failure is a process, a gradual" cooling out'of the working class pupils
involving learned ignorance. For him families lacked "cultural capital"'.
Cultural capital provides educational advantage and economic capital
provides financial advantages. Chinnappan. G (1987) concluded in his
study that " family background is the most important factor affecting
the educational attainment of SCs and non SCs "'^ Bhatia (1982) traces
the relation between education and socio cultural disadvantage He looks
at the living conditions, lack of variety in interactional situation, parents'
inability to provide material etc.'* Ayres and Taylor (1970) listed the
following factors among others '^
1. The level of health, physical and mental, enjoyed by parents and children
2. The standard of housing which affects children's health etc.
65 Shrivastava (1984) is categorical when he says that the disadvantaged children are reared in a pre-school ewironment which fails to develop entry behaviour necessary for beginning the formal education. Thus in brief all the above studies state the positive relation between the quality of home life and educational backwardness of students. Zagone R.B. (1976) found that birth- order and the spacing of children affect I.Q., with oldest children and -widely spaced children having the advantage. Studies at Harvard University by Burton
White (1973) and his associates have evaluated the influence diflferent types of mothers have on their children. Middle class children not only adopt a set of values which encouraged educational success but also receive the support and encouragement needed to do well. Even the language used in home corresponds to school language. The Coleman report, one of the most extensive studies, establishes that the eflfects of the home environment far outweigh the effiects of the school program on achievement. Christopher Jencks (1972) reached the same conclusion: family characteristics are the main variable in a student's school
70 environment.
4.6 Influences of School, Teachers etc.
Ballantine (1983) cites many studies to illustrate that school policies can influence groups negatively. Testing tends to favor middle class, white students, ability grouping falls along race and class lines Teacher behaviorus and expectation can also affect student achievement Ballantine cites the influence of school from 3 dimensions: kindergarten attendance, day-care attendance and school utility rating.'^' Bhatia (1982) critically looks at the
66 urban bias, the socio-economic bias and the retarding effects of schools on the
learning of children.'^^
In a contradictory note, Peter H.Ross analyzes teacher characteristics
and student achievement and also educational practices and student
achievement. He concludes,
"we may conclude that the teacher's contribution to his student's
achievement does not arise directly out of his background, training,
sex or marital status. By and large, no clear picture emerges from the
research to indicate that a particular type of school pursuing a particular
type of educational policy has a higher record of student achievement
than other kinds of schools pursuing different educational policies."'^
4.7 Merit, Equality and Opportunity
A number of studies have been conducted in the area of merit, equality and opportunitv' Our purpose will only be to scan through a sample of these with a purpose to highlight the issues involved. As Shah, A.B points out, these discussions are held in the social context of demands for distributive justice.
And he asserts that it is only when a massive program of education is initiated that any serious attempt at reorganization of society is realized. Thus arises the demand for equal opportunity for everyone to receive education and training commensurate with his natural talent, i.e equality of opportunity^"*
Wood and Stevens summarises the whole range of researches done in the U S and says that three basic concepts have guided the thinking about education and justice Merit, Equality and Opportunity Merit is important 67 because just rewards are made proportional to merit. But the question is, is
merit/talent mostly a matter of genetics or environment—how can you reward
when one is disadvantaged already at the outset?^^
The proponents of meritocracy will insist that approximation of equal
opportunity to win the race should exist. Educational opportunity is seen as a pre-condition for equal opportunity in general. The authors point out that there has been a shift from providing students with equal educational opportunities to outputs (effect) of schooling. John Rawls (1971) argues for a new thinking where we must move beyond equal opportunity to a system that compensates or corrects for the social and cultural disadvantages.^^
Evetts, Julia (1973) points out that there is disagreement and lack of clarity about what is equal educational opportunity. Majority of the educationists will agree that so far as diflFerential educational achievements are not solely reflective of differential abilities, the education system is socially unjust, economically wastefiil and the quality of intellect which education aims to maintain and improve is likely to suffer. Evetts traces the history of the various emphases. The author distinguishes three possible interpretations of the notion of equality of opportunity in the educational context. (1) Each individual should receive an equal share of educational resources irrespective of'potential ability'.
(2) Treat all those children of the same measured ability in the same way irrespective of environmental factors, (3) positive discrimination in favor of educationally under-privileged children.•^^ In the 1950s lot of sociological research tried to show that children of low social class were outplaced in educational race because their material and social environments were inadequate.
New concepts like 68 "Cultural deprivation" " restricted linguistic codes" "the educationally
disadvantaged" etc. were developed. In England the Plowden Report and in
US Project Headstart were notable attempts to bring about equality. The
conclusion of the survey by the author is interesting.
"The concept of equahty of educational opportunity has become a
universally accepted but almost completely misunderstood. The
confusion that at present exists among teachers, parents and children
and in the structure and organization of our schools and colleges is a
challenge to all educationalists to elucidate their goals and classify our
progress towards them"-^^ Chinnappan and others shed light on this
issue. Chesler and Cave (1981) list the indicators of the outcome which
finally determines equality.-^^ They are:
1. Tenure and length of time in school
2. Cognitive achievement on standardized test or localized grades.
3. Rates of dropping out or being suspended
4. Political and economic attitudes,
5. Student satisfaction with schooling
6 Effects of education on later life achievements and opportunities. Chester
and Cave go on to analyze the theoretical paradigms which are most
prominent.
Gore et al (1970) in their Field Studies in the sociology of education from an all India perspective and also in their papers on sociology of education discusses equality of educational opportunity, primarily through a study of the social background of the teachers and students Typical questions asked were.
69 "what are the groups from which they are primarily drawn"^ Do they
tend to be drawn from one group than another"^ Which are the groups
that tend to be over represented or under represented etc. They
investigated the major social backgrounds like father's education,
occupation, caste, religion, rural-urban residence etc.^*^
Moonis Raza and Agarwal look at the inequities in the levels of literacy
in India. Their examination of causal relationship corroborates the finding that
the economic base of the region exerts a strong impact on the spread of literacy,
and the process of urbanisation and industrialisation strongly influence the levels
as well as the inequities in the distribution of literates. Their analysis highlights
that universalization of alphabetization is intrinsically linked with the
development process as a whole and a narrow sectoral approach of educational
planning would not be sufficient in achieving the national objectives.^^
4.8 Economy, Politics and Education
In the reader edited by Shukla and Krishnakumar they bring together a series of essays under the above title. In their introduction they point out how there is a serious re-examination of once accepted arguments regarding the ameliorative capacity of education. The points of view brought together seems to bring out from the Western and Eastern experience that education ot only has little power to equalize the career chances of individuals bom in different socio-economic classes, in fact the education system ser\ es the social order by perpetuating its heirarchical structure/'^ Althusser's suggestion that education is one of the Ideological State Apparatuses and Bourdieu's concept of cultural
70 re-production are used to bring out the fact that schools serve the prevaiHng
social order by training the children of different class backgrounds to internalise
the roles social destiny has allotted for them.
4.9 Education and Inequality
Education has always been viewed as a great equaliser. Through
imparting of skill, knowledge and attitudes it is expected to bring about parity
in wealth, power etc. It is a predominantly a reformist view that supports this.
Much of the sociological research have denied this. Its finding has been that
'education tends to express and re-aflfirm existing inequalities far more than it acts to change them' .^^ Coleman's study of inequalities in American Education, conducted in the 1960s and on a mammoth scale had surprising results and significant impact on policy making. The purpose of the report was to report on the educational inequalities resulting fi^om differences of ethnic background, religion or national origin. Coleman report discovered segregation of black and white students. Almost 80 per cent of schools attended by white students contained only 10 percent or less black students. Whites and Asian Americans scored higher in achievement tests than blacks or other ethnic minorities. There were not significant differences with regard to facilities, type of building etc. between Blacks and Whites.
His own conclusion was that the material resources provided in schools made little difference to the educational performance, the decisive influence was the children's backgrounds. To quote Coleman,
71 "inequalities imposed on children by their home, neighbourhood and
peer environment are carried along to become the inequalities with
which they confront adult life at the end of school."^'*
Coleman report suggested that children from minority groups would do better in school if they are allowed to mix with students from more affluent backgrounds.
Michael Ruller's study was an improvement on Coleman's methodology and covered 1970-1974. Rulller identified factors like the quality of teacher-pupil interaction and atmosphere of co-operation and caring between teachers and students, and well organized course preparation. Later research of Coleman and Ruller concluded that improvements in teaching quality, the social climate of the school and patterns of school work can help deprived children improve academic performance.
Christopher Jencks reviewed the empirical evidence on education and inequality from the American experience. He reaffirmed that educational and occupational attainment are governed mainly by family background and non- school factors and that educational reforms on their own can have only minor effects on existing inequalities Jencks' methodology has been criticized but his conclusion remains relevant.
A.H.Halsey and colleagues (1980) developed various comparisons between educational opportunities open to working class boys and those available to boys from the 'service class' The latter group was ten to eleven times in an advantageous position Bernstein (1975) studied linguistic skills, 72 how the different codes or forms of speech developed during their early lives
affect school experience. Bowles and Gintis (1976) claimed that modem schools
only reproduce the feelings of powerlessness individuals experience elsewhere.
Under the current system, schools are destined to legitimize inequality-, limit
personal development to forming compatibihty with submission to arbitrary
authority and aid in the process whereby youth are resigned to their fate.^^
According to them only if there is secular democracy in the workplace and
more equality in society at large, the system of education can provide greater
individual fulfilknent.
The concept of 'cultural reproduction' put forward by Bourdieu is
useful in illuminating the issue of inequality. 'Cultural reproduction' refers to
the ways in which schools, in conjunction with other social institutions, help
perpetuate social and economic inequalities across the generations.Through
the hidden curriculum schools influence the learning of values, attitudes and
habits Schools reinforce variations in cultural values and outlooks picked up
early in life. As children leave the school these have the effect of limiting the
opportunities of some while facilitating those of others.
Tackling the question whether education facilitates economic growth by wiping out illiteracy and upgrading technical skills and promoting economic equality and equality of educational opportunity, as supposed by the third world educational policy makers, Bowles and others argue that the character and degree of economic inequality are built into the economic system itself 'Tar from mitigating inequality, the educational system has, in the advanced capitalist countries served to legitimize the prevailing inequalities and thereby to facilitate
73 the perpetuation of the very institution which generate the inequality."^^ They
point out that despite educational equalization in educational opportunity there
is no evidence of income distribution in the US. Black experience is taken for
illustration . They conclude " clearly mechanisms other than educational
equalization determine the personal distribution of economic reward in this
country"^^
4.10 Education and the Political System
Education and the political system are so inextricably linked that one
cannot be comprehended without the other. The relationship is not of a simple
one to one interaction. R Murray Thomas (1983) argues that schools influence
a nation's political system in seven ways.
1. Political socialization or citizenship training
2. Political legitimization
3 Manpower production
4. The sorting of persons for the heirarchy
5. Social assessment
6. Social control
7. The stimulation of change.
Conversely, the political system controls the schools through its provision of support for access to education, its influence over curriculum content and teaching procedures and latitude of social and political actors it permits in the schools. The basic interaction between schools and political system occur in all societies and it is possible to categorize schools accordingly
74 Wallace (1975) claims froma n anthropological perspective that cultural tradition, political structure, social class, historical tradition and other factors influence the type of learning emphasized in a society and the subject matter taught in schools. Three contrasting value orientations can be taken in education (1) the revolutionary or Utopian (2) the conservative or ideological (3) the reactionary.
The author in an incisive analysis details further dimensions of this important field.^*
Hartog (1939), Basu (a) (1974) Biswas and Agarwal (1986), Rudolf and Rudolf (1972) have all discussed the political dimension of educational system. The ideological functions of the educational system have been much more emphatically presented by left-oriented theoreticians. Althusser(1977) presents education as a part of the Ideological State Apparatus which is essentially part of the Repressive State Apparatus. The basic difference between these is identified as that the Repressive State Apparatus functions by violence, where as the Ideological State Apparatus functions by ideology. Pierre Bourdieu and Jean Claude Passeron (1977) too elaborated on the Ideological flinction of the educational system. They opine that "the most hidden and most specific function of the educational system consists in hiding its objective function, that is, masking the objective truth or its relationship to the structure of class relation"^'^
Perhaps the one thinker who made the debate on ideological flinction of education a current and popular topic is Paulo Freire Through his works,
"Pedagogy of the Oppressed", "Cultural action for Freedom" and others he exposed the domesticating and (1973) liberating roles of education.''*' In order
75 to release the liberative power of education and consequently to humanize society
one needs to bank upon the ideological and critical education. Conscientization
is the word He equivocally declared that education is a political activity and
that it is in learning to read and write the world, the total reality, that education
becomes truly liberative. Similar thoughts are echoed by Reimer, Ivan Illich
and Others,^'
4.11 Education and Social Change
In a significant work by A.R Kamat (1985) the range of views on
education and social change are discussed, views ranging fi"omth e total inability
of education to bring about any change to the most idealistic view that education
alone is the harbinger of change. He quotes the Education Commission as an
illustration of this point of view: "Change on a grand scale... there is one instrument and one instrument only that can be used: Education"^^ Education is seen as the prime mover of economic development and social change. He lists the four positions usually taken with regard to education and social change as the following:
1. Education is for itself and has nothing to do with social change
2 Education is determined completely by social factors and can have no
role in changing society, if at all education follows social change
3 Education is an autonomous or relatively autonomous factor and therefore
can and does induce social change.
4 Educational change and social change must take place simultaneously,.
76 Kamat does a historical analysis of Indian education with this framework in mind. To him education can help social change as a necessary and vitally important collateral factor. It can help to stimulate and accelerate the process Education may also help by using its literary and renovatory role."*^
MSA Rao (1967) distinguishes two fiinctions of education: differentiation and selection. Thus education helps in the process of startification and social mobility. It is widely recognized that formal education plays a vital part in social mobility, both horizontal and vertical.'*^
Mujoo, Ramesh Kumar (1990) in his study of higher education and social mobility in Jammu and Kashmir does a historical survey of the mobility studies beginning with Sorokin(1927) Davis and Moore (1945) Glass David
(1954), Lispet and Bendix(1959) and M.Miller and Heath Antony (1981).
Whether it is individual or group mobility, education does seem to have a role in social mobility. But our survey definitely shows that the nature of relation between education and social mobility is defined variously by social scientists according to the political and ideological stands that each one has taken.''^
4.12 Education and Economic Development
The most common and popularly held view over the centuries has been that education is an important catalyst in the economic and social development of a country Empirical studies have also in certain instances confirmed that educational development can take place in economically
77 backward societies, with the society enjoying direct and indirect social benefits.
There is the other extreme case of the 'Kerala Model' where there has been dramatic social development but which has neither been preceded or accompanied by economic development."*^
When we review early economic history we see that,
"... Early mercantalists like John Hales and Gerald Malynes were in
favour of education being confmed to specific privileged groups in
society who would assist the rulers in the formulation of correct policies
for national economic development... while another group of
mercantalists advocated mass education for rapid economic program"*^
The classical economists stressed the relation between education and personal efficiency. Adam Smith held the view that education would lead to the development of intelligent and disciplined behavior among the people and that would consequently lead to rapid economic growth. Malthus and others pointed to the power of education to reduce population growth and promote savings.
Karl Marx too considered education as an important means to socio-political development. Neo-marxists asked questions like ,what kind of education was appropriate for what sort of development and in whose interest"^ Keynesian economics apparently was not interested in this problem.
Later studies, especially in the post war period has shown that a
" .. a large part of the increase in aggregate production over a long
period cannot be explained in terms of an increase in the standard
physical inputs of 'capital' and 'labor' alone This implied that apart
78 from capital and labour there are some unisolated factors contributing
to economic growth alone".'"' Solow (1957) attributed this to as much
as 50 to 85% of the increase in the total output of advanced countries.
What was called the "human investment revolution" in economic thought established that education was an investment and an important component of human capital. Economists such as Schultz (1961)
Denison (1962) and Becker (1964) and others have acknowledged that formal education is highly intsrutmental and even necessary to improve the production of a population. Sociologists ascribed a direct relationship between education and socio-economic development. Studies by Goel(1975) Kothari and
Panchmuki (1975) and others were of the opinion that education directly influences economic development through enhanced productivity and employment, changes in the composition of the labour force, division and mobility of labour and so forth. Education also indirectly influences economic development through savings, limitation of the size of the family and by inculcating the right kind of attitudes and skills and an overthrow of the obstacles to development.'*^ Studies by George Psacharopoulous (1979,1988) and others showed a direct relationship between school and labour market. He called it
"external efficiency of education".^'* The relation between family background, schooling and learning outcomes as the " internal efficiency of education ."
Studies by the UNESCO indicated some key dimensions as the percentage of adults who were literate, the percentage of enrolment ratio in primary, secondary and higher education and the percentage of involvement in vocational education relative to total enrolment in secondary education. Bowman and .Anderson
(1963) concluded that literacy was a necessary but not a sufficient condition for development -'''
79 Goel's (1975) study inquired whether there existed a direct and significant relationship between growth of education at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels on the one hand, and economic development as measured by the per capita income at current prices on the other He found a high and positive correlation between education at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels and per capita income at current prices. He opined that education cannot be regarded as a determinant of economic growth. According to him, education is only one subset in a complex of factors such as natural resources, labour, physical and human capital that brings about economic growth. Gopinathan Nair (1978) inquired into the influence of educational development on the course of educational, demographic and occupational change. He found a positive relation between education and social development in Kerala. The social awakening of
Kerala, once called, 'a mad house' by Swami Vivekananda, was the result of education. So too the demographic changes in Kerala. But the growth of education has not led to any significant change in the inter sectoral distribution and occupational structure of the population. ^^
Tharakan (1984) in his analysis on the 'Socio -economic factors in educational development - Case of 19th century Travancore', challenges some of the commonly held views. For him socio-economic factors were more important than the relative merits of the educational policies followed by the government or the private agencies . He identified three factors of that period in Kerala. a. Commercialisation of economy and the resultant demand for literacy. b. Change in the social structures and hence the rise of an elite ft-om castes
and communities which were not allowed so far to lay claim to bureaucratic
positions linked to educational qualification 80 c. The peculiar settlement pattern which made it possible for a larger
proportion of people to make use of schools."
4.13 Disadvantaged Communities and Educational Attainment
Hasheen and Brewer (1986) presents the indicators of social disadvantage in their analysis of ethnicity. They identified that at the level of employment the father figure has low skill jobs, and has non-regular employment.
Educationally, neither the father figure nor the mother figure has any educational qualification. Incomewise the gross income figures are less than $ 50 a week.
The family has received supplementary benefit during the previous year. With regard to housing there were more than one person per room; accommodation lacked bathing room. In their investigations the above indicators of social disadvantages are almost identical. Hence, their recommendation that there is a need for investigating in depth the school,home and other factors which enables children from different ethnic groups to achieve educational success . They substantiate their recommendations with statistical evidences.'"*
Kareem, Abdul (1988) examines the developmental implications of the educational backwardness of the Muslims. The study is an inter-district comparison. The author looks into the extent of backwardness, the factors that account for it and its impact and implications for the development strategy of the State Socio-cultural taboos affect enrollment Absence of middle class leadership which could fiinction as a link between the upper and lower strata of the community is identified as a major factor Of relevance to the present study, is the assesment of backwardness in terms of literacy rate, enrollment in primary', secondary and higher education, drop-out rate, performance in S S L C 81 examination, technical and professional educational levels etc. Listing the
reasons for educational backwardness the author highlights the following,
a) Lack of proper guidance b) poverty, c) seclusion of Muslim women and d)
migration to the Gulf countries. Consequences of educational backwardness
are traced. Occupational stratification, income level, ownership of land holding,
housing patterns, marital status and assistances are variables that are looked
into.
With reference to the marginalised communities in Kerala, studies"
have been conducted on the tribals particularly the tribal economy. The
educational problems of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes students were studied by George(1975), as part of an I.C.S.S.R project. P.R.G.Mathur
(1979) studied the fijnctioningo f the government residential basic Tribal schools
in Wyanad. He articulated the interrelationship between economic development
and tribal education.
One of the few studies on the educational problems of the fisherfolk by Jessy asserted that in the three villages studied by her the problem was not primarily one of illiteracy but rather the inability, for a variety of factors,to be able to rise above a 'threshold level' of the educational attainments, (i.e above secondary and matriculation level of schooling) which will facilitate movement into gainfijl employment outside the sector. ^^ The author has gone into the role of religion, family background, including an analysis of family income, educational level of parents and their involvement in their children's educational activities and associative physical surroundings listed as housing conditions, lighting facilities, drinking water facilities and the like
82 Interestingly, her study demonstrated that neither Hindu religion nor
its religious leaders seemed to influence the educational activities of the
fisherfolk. Using Coleman's classification, she concluded that fisherfolk's low
financial capacity and lack of sufficient human social capital were the major
factors that hindered their educational attainments. Inter village variations were
noticed in this . The study also looks into the welfare measures of the
government.
Regarding the linkage of education and productiveness, her conclusion
is that in the case of marginalised communities due to the low quality of formal
education provided to them it is difficult to assess the improvement their
education brings to their production capacity as mainly envisaged by
Psacharapolous and the Human capital theorists.
She concluded,
"... the low financial capital, weak social and human capital of
marginalised communities and unfavorable physical surroundings along
with the low quality of education provided to them, always hindered
their educational development, thereby continually leaving them at a
socially and economically disadvantaged position in the State".^^
In a small but significant study Kattikaran(1987) looks at the determinants of the meaning system among the artisanal fisherfolk of Quilon town. The study looked at the emerging value system of the fisherfolko f Quilon and at the determinants and shapers of this emergent ideology The role of an
83 N.G.O is gone into in detail. The study points out that a new kind of collective
subservience is developing in the community. The fisherfolk have surrendered
the responsibility for rationality to the priest. The base of leadership must pass
from the priest to the community. The study points out to the need to make the
fisherfolk critically aware of the real position of the erstwhile artisanal fisherfolk
as pauperised workers in the modem eocnomy. The conclusions of this study
have tremendous impact on any meaningfiil analysis of educational goals and
standards. ^^
4.14 Conclusion
The review of literature has looked into the multifarious aspects which
have a bearing on the present study on the educational backwardness of the
marine fishworkers. Beginning with a look at their history, the review surveyed general studies on the fisherfolk,sociolog y of education and the relevant insights particularly in the areas of home and related variables, school and related variables etc. Particular attention has been paid to the debate on Merit, Equality and Opportunity. Other issues looked into are education and inequality, education and economic development, education and social change. Studies on disadvantaged communities have an immediate relevance to the present study and hence they have also been reviewed. Finally, though not many studies on the community, the few available have been reviewed.
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2 N K. Jose, Children of the Sea in ORA, Kundra : FRCS 84 3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Udayabhanu, K.M. \99Q. Dheevara Community atidSocial Change
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7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ame Martin Klausen, 1968. Kerala Fishermen and the Indo-Norwegin
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10. Ibid.
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16 Quoted in Halsey et al. 1961. Education, Economy and Society:Reader in the sociology of education. New York: the free press of Glancoe.
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85 19. Ayres and Taylor. 1970. Born and Bred Unequal. London; Longman.
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28. Ibid.
29 Chesler, Mark. A. and Cave William, M. 1981. Sociology of Education. New York:Macmillan.
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32. Krishna Kumar and Shukla, Op.cit.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Halsey et al. op.cit.
36 Bowles, Samuel and Herbert Gintis. 1976 Schooling in Capitalist America London: Routledge and Keagan Paul.
37. Ibid
38 Murray, Thomas.R 1983. Politics and Education. Oxford: Penguin Press
86 39. Passeron, Jean Claude. 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and cul ture. London: Sage publications.
40. Freire, Paulo. 1968. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press
41. Ivan niich. 1971. De-Schooling Society Harmonds Worth Penguin.
42. Ka.maX,A.B.\9?,5. Education and Social Change in India. Bombay: Somaiya Publications.
43. Ibid.
44. Rao.M.S. A. 1967. "Education Stratification and Social Mobility" in Papers in the Sociology of Education in India. New Delhi:
45. Mujoo, Ramesh Kumar. 1990. Higher Education and Social Mobility. An Interdisciplinary study of the Impact of University Education on the career and attitudes of graduates in Jammu & Kashmir. Pune:nE. Ph.D. Thesis.
46. Kuriakose, K.P. 1994. "New Development Strategy for Kerala" in Indian Express 24th March.
47. Quoted in Jessay Thomas. 1989. Socio-Economic factors influencing educational standard in a marginalised community. A case study on Ma rine Fisherfolk of Kerala, Dissertation, JNUCDS.
48. Ibid.
49. Goel.op.cit.
50. Psacharapolous, G. 1988. "Education and Development: A review" in World Bank Research Observer Vol.3.No. 1 Jan p.99-115.
51 Ibid.
52 GopinathanNair, 1978,
53 Tharakan, Michael. 1984. "Socio-Economic factors in Educational Development-Case of 19th century Travancore" in EPW Wo\X\X ' N0.45&46.
54 Hasheen and Brewer, 1986, "Ethinicity. The Experience of socio-eco nomic disadvantage and Educational Attainment" in Journal of Sociology of Education Vol.7 No. 1 pp. 19-34
87 55. Kattakayam, 1983, Luiz, 1962. Kunhamen, 1982 etc.
56. Jessy, Thomas, op.cit.
57. Ibid.
58. Kattikaran. \9'&1. Determinants of the meaning system among theArtisanal Fisherfolk ofQuilon Town, Unpublished MA Dissertation submitted to Kerala University.
88