The First Africans: African Archaeology from the Earliest Tool Makers to Most Recent Foragers Lawrence Barham and Peter Mitchell Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-84796-4 - The First Africans: African Archaeology from the Earliest Tool Makers to Most Recent Foragers Lawrence Barham and Peter Mitchell Index More information

INDEX

!Kung, 463 African archaeological record, richness !nara melon seeds, 318 of, 3–5 *Baakaa language, 325, 326 African archaeology //Gana, removal from Central Kalahari Africa’s Three Age system, 9–10 Game Reserve, 438–439 antiquarian phase, 7–8 /Xam people, 429 future frames of reference, 460–461 future methodologies, 455–456 AAR (amino-acid racemisation), 464 future research areas, 454–455, Abatwa, 420 456–460 accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS), 50 literature review, 5–15 Acheulean Industrial Complex, 465 post Second World War, 10–13 Acheulean, as Developed Oldowan, recent decades, 13–15 126–131 African societies, recognition of past, Acinonyx jubatus (cheetah), 40–44 7 AD, use in dating, 2 Afroasiatic languages, 352 adhesives, use in hafting, 219–220 afromontane forest, 44 Adrar Bous, 3 Agulhas Shelf, 31 –32 ceramics, 335, 341 Ahaggar, mountain, 35–37 Aduma industry, 244–246 A¨ın Hanech Afalou Mode 2 artefacts, 134–135 cemetery, 347–348 raw material selectivity, 116–118 ceramic figurines, 347–348 Air, mountain, 35–37 skeletal samples, 348 Aka people, 325, 326–434 Afian industry, 332 Akafula, 420 Africa Akira ware, 408 as humanity’s continent of origin, 2 Alcelaphus buselaphus (red hartebeest), biome distribution, 204–206 40–44 climate and ecology, 32–44 Algeria, Upper Capsian hunter-gatherers, climate fluctuations, 44–45 363 exit from, 292–294 amino-acid racemisation (AAR), 464 physical geography, 29–32 Ammotragus lervia (Barbary sheep), 244, re-entry to, 294–295 295–296, 337, 345–346

587

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-84796-4 - The First Africans: African Archaeology from the Earliest Tool Makers to Most Recent Foragers Lawrence Barham and Peter Mitchell Index More information

588 Index

AMS (accelerator mass spectrometer), 50 Baardale industry, 328–330 anatomical modernity, 211–214 Bab el-Mandab Antidorcas australis (southern springbok), as exit from Africa, 292–294 313 –314 rarely closed, 31 –32 Aqualithic, 334, 341–342, 351–352 baboons (Papio cynocephalus), 35 archaeological record Bailey, R., 19 limitations of. See also African Baka people, 325, 326–434, 473 archaeological record, richness of, Balfour, Henry, 8 109–110 Bambata ware, 422 archaeologists Bamkao, quartz microlithic industry, communication with local 364–365 communities, 447–449 Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), 244, treatment of human remains, 445–446 295–296, 337, 345–346 archaeology Batwa, 420 and ethnography. See also African Bayesian modelling, use in African archaeology, 451–454 archaeology, 50–51 archaic Homo sapiens, 211–214, Baza Basin, 135 216 BC, use in dating, 2 Ardipithecus kadabba, 70 behavioural modernity, emergence, Ardipithecus ramidus, 72 255–257, 270 argon-argon dating, 52 Besaka industry, 327–328 Arkin 2, 241 Bet´ eI,´ 236–237 arrow poison, Swartzia pods, 377 Big Dry artefact typology, use in dating, definition. See also MIS 4–2, 260–262 48–49 Bingerville, 346 Asokrochona, 136 biostratigraphy, use in dating, 54–55 Aterian industry, 241–243 bipedalism Atlas Mountains, 30 and manual dexterity, 74 Au//eisi, Kalahari debate, 431 evolution of, 70–72 aurochs (Bos primigenius), 35 bipolar flaking, 123–124 Australopithecus Bir Kiseiba dental morphology, 84–85 evidence of Sahara occupation, 335 hearing, 466 pottery, 341 species assigned to genus, 72–73 Bir Tarfawi, BT-14, Australopithecus afarensis butchery, 241 as habitual biped, 72 Bir-el-Ater, 468 fossil evidence of voice, 172–173 Birimi, 269, 366 tool making ability, 76–78 black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou), Australopithecus africanus, 72, 84–85 40–44 diet, 88 Bleek, Wilhelm, 21 Australopithecus anamensis, 72 blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas), 40–44 Australopithecus aramis. See Ardipithecus Blombos, 251–252, 270–271 ramidus Blue Nile, river, 30, 334 Australopithecus garhi, 72–73, 76–78 blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), use of tools for butchering carcasses, 40–44 95–96 boats, earliest, 336 autosomal DNA, 206–207 Bodo cranium, 215–216 axes. See handaxes; polished Bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca), 37 stone axes bone apatite, radiocarbon dating Azawad Basin, first settlement, 363–364 problems, 284–285

Index 589

bone, dating of, 57–58 Bushman Rock Shelter bonobo (Pan paniscus) food resources, 318 –320 knapping, 75–76 jewellery, 271 locations, 40 Bushmen. See Botswanan Bushmen; Boomplaas Hukwe Bushmen backed artefacts, 280 Busidima Formation, early knapping, jewellery, 271 82 Border Cave Byneskranskop, 320 dating, 467 early microlithic industry, 280–282 Cabu, Francis, 10 Homo sapiens fossils, 254–255 Cambridge History of Africa, 5 jewellery, 271 Camelus thomasi, 313 –314 Mode 2/3 transition, 232 Cameroonian highlands, 30 bored stone digging stick weights, campsites, and language, 178–179 302 Canis simensis (Ethiopian wolf), 38 Bos primigenius (aurochs), 35 cannibalism Bosumpra Cave, ceramics, 366 Klasies River caves. See also defleshing, Bosumtwi meteor impact crater, use in crania, 217–218, 249–250 dating, 48 Cape horse (Equus capensis), 313 –314 Botswanan Bushmen, 438–439 caprines Boucle du Baoule,´ rock art, 364–365 Aures` Mountains 6500 bp, 362–363 Bouri Enkapune ya Muto, 372 percussion tool use, 122–123 Capsian industry, 348–351 tools and butchered carcasses. See also capuchin monkeys (Cebus spp.,), tool use, Herto Member, Bouri Formation, 61–62 95–96 Cartwright’s Farm, Kinangop Plateau, bp (before present), 2 228 Breuil, Henri, 8 Casablanca sequence, 134–135 Bronze Age, 3 catfish (Clarias), 296 Broom, Robert, 10 Cave of Hearths, 230–232, 271 bubaline engravings, 338–340 Cebus spp, (capuchin monkeys), tool use, Buia cranium, 166–168 61–62 bulrushes (Schoenoplectus spp,), 297 cemeteries, Maghreb, Bundu Farm, 229 Pleistocene/Holocene transition, Burg-Wartenstein conference 347–348 (1965), 14 central Africa burial practices Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 287 Capsian groups, 351 Pleistocene/Holocene transition, Kalemba, 378–380 324–325 Mauritania, 363–364 recent foragers, 415–416 Thandwe, 378–380 central and western Africa burials MIS 5 record, 246 Border Cave, 254 Mode 2 technology, 135–137 Gogoshiis Qabe, 328–330 centripetal flaking, 112, 114–116 Iwo Eleru, 346 ceramics. See pottery/ceramics Mbi Shelter, 366–367 Chad, Lake, 30, 311 MIS 4–2, 279–280 Charama industry, 232 Burkitt, Miles, 8 cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), 40–44 bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), 37 Chencherere, 378–380 Bushman rock art, 388–392 Chesowanja, controlled use of fire, 142

590 Index

Childe, V. G., 3 rock art, 392–393 chimpanzees use of artefact typology, 48–49 locations, 40 use of stratigraphy. See also amino-acid socially learned tool use, 63–66 racemisation (AAR); cosmogenic tool-set use. See also nuclide dating; electron-spin human-chimpanzee divergence; Ta¨ı resonance (ESR); fission-track Forest chimpanzees, 62–63 dating; global marine isotope Clarias (catfish), 296 record, as chronological framework; Clark, Desmond, 5, 10 luminescence dating; Clark, Grahame, 16 obsidian-hydration dating; classification schemes, cores and flakes, palaeomagnetism; potassium-argon 118–120 dating; radiocarbon dating; cleavers, 124–126 Uranium-series dating, 48 climate change, and evolution, 198–200 De Hangen, 384 climate fluctuations Deacon, H. J., 320 2.5–1.7 mya late Pliocene to early Deacon, J., 320 Pleistocene, 146–147 debitage,´ 114 5.0–1.7 mya early Pliocene to early Deep Sea Drilling Project, site 55, 97–98 Pleistocene, 96–100 deep sea record, 45–47 Africa, 44–45 defleshing, crania, 215–216 and tool use, 96 dental morphology, and diet, 84–85, mid-Pleistocene, 161 93–95 common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Developed Oldowan A., 126–127 40–44 Developed Oldowan B., 127 Congo Basin, first human occupation, Developed Oldowan C., 127 236 Developed Oldowan, as Acheulean, Congo, river, 30 126–131 Connochaetes gnou (black wildebeest), Die Kelders, 268 40–44 Diepkloof, jewellery, 271 conservation of African heritage, diet 449–450 and dental morphology, 84–85, 93–95 continental shelf, 31 –32 and stone tool use, 83–84 Conus shells stable carbon isotope analysis, 88 Border Cave, 271–272 digging stick weights, 302 grave goods, 254 DIK-1–1, 156 , 172–173 core types, 114–116 Dinofelis, 133 cosmogenic nuclide dating, 53–54 discoidal cores, 114–116 Crocuta crocuta (spotted hyena), 40–44 Divuyu, 432 Cyperus rotundus (nutgrass), 296–297 Djebel Irhoud, 217 Cyrenaica, mixed farming, 362–363 Dmanisi, Georgia, as Homo erectus place of origin, 144–145 Dakhleh, collector strategy, 340–341 DNA, 206–207 Damaliscus dorcas (blesbok), 40–44 dom palm fruits (Hyphaene thebaica), 297 Dar es Soltan, 467 Dome C ice core, 47 dating domestication, 344–345, 395–398 continual improvements in, 58 Dorobo, 411, 412 glacial/interglacial sequence, 9–10 dotted wavy line decoration, 341, 368 linking African/European records, 2–3 Drimolen, 76–78, 92 of bone, 57–58 droughts, 32 overview, 48–49 Dufuna, earliest boat, 336

Index 591

duikers (Cephalophus spp.,). See also Epipalaeolithic, 349–351 common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), equatorial forests, recent foragers, 40 415–416 Dunefield Midden, 424–426 Equus burchelli (zebra), 40–44 Equus capensis (Cape horse), 313 –314 E71K12, 296–298 Equus oldowayensis, 203–204 early Pleistocene, date range, 108 escargotieres` , 350–351 Eastern Africa ESR (electron-spin resonance), 55 mid-Holocene, 368–369 Ethiopian Blade Tool Tradition, 327–328 MIS 4–2, 299–300 Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), 38 MIS 5 record, 244–246 ethnographic studies, 21 Pleistocene/Holocene transition, 327 exchange, 271 recent foragers, 408 Eyasi, Lake, 217 Eastern Oranian, 295–296 Eastern Southern Africa, recent foragers, façonnage, 114–116 427–430 Fa¨ıd Souar II, possible skull mask, 351 Eburran industry, 327, 371–372 Fakhurian industry, 296 Efe farming frontiers, 402–403 hunting techniques, 473 Fauresmith industry, 229 Kalahari debate, 432–433 fire symbiosis with food-producers, 406 acquisition and management, 140–141 Egypt, MIS 2, 296 and language, 178 Egypt, Western Desert, early Holocene benefits, 141 occupation, 340–341 earliest controlled use of, 143–144 Eibian industry, 328–330 evidence of controlled use of, 141–142 Elands Bay Cave, concept of ‘place’, landscape management, 250 321–322 first Africanus, 443–444 Elandsfontein (Saldanha), 166–167 fishing, Makhadma 2, 332–333 Ele Bor, 370–371 fission-track dating, 52 electron-spin resonance (ESR), 55 flake re-use as cores, 112 Elephas recki, 203–204 flake utility index, 116 El-Hosh,ˆ 333 FLK Zinjanthropus, percussion tool use, Eliye Spring, evolving lineage, 217 122–123 El-Kab, 333 Foley, R. A., 19, 22 El-Kherba, raw material selectivity, Fongoli chimpanzees, socially learned 116–118 tool use, 64–66 Elmenteita, Lake, merged with Lake food-production, early spread of,359–362 Nakuru, 312 forager/food-producer relations, 406 encapsulation, 403–406 foreign language sources, 21–22 endocranial casts, and language, Forest elephant (Loxodonta africana), 40 174–176 fossil record Enkapune ya Muto coverage in this book, 22–23 caprines, 372 importance of. See also hominin fossil Eburran industry, 371–372 record, 19–20 jewellery, 271 FOXP2 gene, 171, 207, 255, 270 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 285–286 FxJj 20 East, controlled use of fire, 5–6, Pleistocene/Holocene transition, 142 327 pottery, 372 G/wi, removal from Central Kalahari radiocarbon dating problems, 284 Game Reserve, 438–439

592 Index

Gadeb, Ethiopia Gona, Ethiopia controlled use of fire, 142–143 stone tool making, raw material mid-Pleistocene travel distances, selection. See also Gawis, 110 196 Goodwin, A. J. H., 9 Gademotta, 228 Goodwin, John, 10 Gafsa, 363 gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), 40 Gamble, C. S., 18 Great Escarpment, 30 Gamble’s Cave, 327 Gregory, J. W., 8 Garba III, 216 Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi), 38 Gawis, 216–217 Grotte Zouhra, 271 Gazella atlantica, 313 –314 Grotte Zouhra, Morocco, bone pendant, gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada), 38 271 gemsbok (Oryx gazella), 40–44 grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis), 40–44 gene-based phylogenies, 206 Gwisho Hotsprings, 377–380 genetic bottlenecks, 204–206, 218, 269–270 Hadar, 52, 156 genetic variation, 206–207 Haddon, A. C., 9 Geometric Tradition. See Red Hadzabe, 209, 413–414 Geometric Tradition rock art situation today, 436–437 gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), 38 Hadzane, linguistic isolate, 375–376 Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel hafting Kombewa flakes, 194–195 advantages, 220–221 pitted anvils, 122–123 at Sibudu, 277–278 soft hammer flaking, 190 backed blades, 221–225 use of fire, 143–144 process of, 219–220 giant buffalo (Pelorovis antiquus), 313 –314 , transition to, 217–218 469 use-wear evidence, 221 giant forest hog (Hylochoerus Hai//om, Kalahari debate, 432 meinertzhageni), 40 Halfan industry, 296 giant hartebeest (Megalotragus priscus), handaxes 313 –314 as focus of lithic analysis. See also gibbons (Bunopithecus hoolock), tool use, polished stone axes, 188–189 62 description, 124–126 Gibraltar, Strait of Hassi el-Abiod, burial practices, 364 rarely closed, 31 –32 Haua Fteah unused as exit from Africa, 135, 292 Eastern Oranian, 295–296 giraffe (Giraffa camelopardis), 37 Iberomaurusian, 347–348 glacial/interglacial cycles Haua Fteah (Great Cave), 243–244 after 450 kya, 166–168, 202–203 Headland, T. N., 13 and Africa, 44–45, 46–47 Heinrich events, 204, 240 evidence from deep sea record, Helix melanostoma (landsnails), 350 45–47 Herto Member, Bouri Formation, mid-Pleistocene, 164 215–216 global marine isotope record, as hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), chronological framework, 17–19 40 glottochronology, 20 Hippopotamus gorgops, 203–204 Gogo Falls, caprines, 372–374 Hippotragus equinus (roan antelope), 37 Gogoshiis Qabe, burials, 328–330 historical linguistics, 20 Gombe chimpanzees, females’ skills hominin evolution, 70–73 transmission, 66–67 hominin fossil record, 166–168, 211–214

Index 593

Homo Human Career, The (Klein), 6, 22 dental morphology, 84–85 human remains, current treatment of, diet, 87–88, 90–91, 92–95 445–446 evolution, 73 human-chimpanzee divergence, 207 population bottleneck, 204–206, 218, hunter-gatherers, responses to change, 269–270 169 tool making, 80–81 hunting, mid-Pleistocene, 185 Homo erectus hxaro gift exchange, 271 ability to thrive, 145–146 Hyphaene thebaica (dom palm fruits), 297 as primary Mode 2 toolmaker, hypoglossal canal, 173–174 127–129 brain size, 149–151 Iberomaurusian, 295–296, 347–348 centrality of meat in diet, 152 –154 ice cores, 47 earliest evidence, 127–128 Idfuan industry, 296 emergence, 108–109, 124 Ileret, evolving lineage, 217 evolution, 73 illustrations, selection of, 22 females, 151 –152 impala (Aepcyros melampus), 40–44 language, evidence of, 172 indigenous, definitions, 444–445 language, evolution of, 179–180 infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL), life history, 154 –155 55–56 physique, 148 Inland Niger Delta, 30 place of origin, 144–145 Inskeep, R. R., 16 weaning, 154 –155 intensification, 393–395 Homo ergaster, 166–168 intentionality, levels of, 171 Homo habilis inter-personal violence, Wadi Kubbaniya, endocranial casts, 174 298–299 evolution, 73 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone hearing, 466 (ITCZ), 32 Homo heidelbergensis Iron Age, 3 emergence, 159 –160, 166–168 IRSL (infrared stimulated luminescence), Garba III cranial fragments, 216 55–56 hypoglossal canal, 173–174 Isaac, Glynn, 11, 55 subsuming archaic Homo sapiens, Isenya, 190 211–214 Ishango Homo helmei, 214, 217–218 lifeways, 300 Homo rudolfensis, 73 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 287 Homo sapiens Ishango bone, 301, 302 defining, 211–214 Isnan industry, 332 earliest specimen, 216 ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Homo sapiens idaltu, 215–216 Zone), 32 Horn of Africa Ituri forest, recent foragers. See also Efe, Mode 3/5 transition, 286–287 symbiosis with food-producers, Pleistocene/Holocene transition, 416–418 327–328 Iwo Eleru, burial, 346 Howiesons Poort industry artefact style changes, 278–279 Jakkalsberg, 423 dating, 266–268, 272–274 Jebel Sahaba cemetery, 298, 333 hxaro-type gift exchange, 274–277 Jebel Uweinat, rock art, 338–340 non-local raw materials, 271–272 jewellery, 270–271, 468 Hukwe Bushmen, 418–420 Jos Plateau mines, Mode 3, 248–249

594 Index

Ju/‘hoansi, 209 understanding length/weight hxaro gift exchange, 271 relationships. See also prepared core situation today, 438 technology; soft hammer flaking, 190–192 Kabwe (Broken Hill) cranium, 217–218 kob (Kobus kob), 37 Kafue Flats, 30 Kokiselei, 128 Kalahari debate, 430–433 Kombewa technique, 194–195 Kalambo Falls, 232–233 Kondoa, rock art, 374–375 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 283 Koobi Fora Kalemba controlled use of fire, 141–142 burial practices, 378–380 flake utility indices, 116 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 282 Kourounkorokale´ rockshelter, quartz Kamzi (bonobo), 75–76 microlithic industry, 364–365 Kanjera South, stone tool making, Kromdraai, Mode 2 technology, 133 112–116 Kubbaniyan industry, 296 Kansyore (Oltome) ware, 372–374 Kudu Koppie, 232 Kapthurin Formation, Mode 2/3 kya (thousands of years ago), 2 transition, 225 Karari scrapers, 131–132 L1a2 mtDNA lineage, 325, 326 Kariandusi, understanding biface L3 mtDNA lineages, 292–293 length/weight relationships, lactose tolerance, in East African 190–192 populations, 370, 414 Kasteelberg, 422 Laetoli, suitability for potassium-argon Katanda Formation, MIS 5, 246–248 dating, 52 Kebitat, 217 landscape use, 148–149 Kharga, association with water, 340–341 language Khartoum Mesolithic, 334, 367–368 and campsites, 178–179 pottery, 341 and endocranial casts, 174–176 Khartoum Neolithic, 367–368 and fire, 178 Khasm el-Ghirba, 327–328 and natural selection, 170–172 Khomani, current situation, 439 benefits, 169–170 Khormusan, 238–240 emergence of speech, 177 Khosian languages, 352 evidence for H. erectus, 172 Kibiro, 417 evolution of, 466 Kilombe, understanding biface fossil evidence, 172–173 length/weight relationships, gestural origins, 176–177 190–192 H. erectus, 179–180 Kintampo complex, 365–366 neural-based shift. See also *Baakaa Kisio rockshelter, 414–415 language; foreign language sources; Kiteko industry, 327 Khosian languages, 255 Klasies River Last Interglacial, 239 hunting, 250–251 late Holocene, palaeoenvironments, lithic sequence, 249–250 407–408 variability in morphology, 217–218 Leakey, Louis, 9–10 Klein, R. G., The Human Career, 6, 22 learning, social contexts, 66–70 knapping left-handedness, and language, 174–176 and brain activity, 174–176 Lemuta industry, 283–285 behaviour initiated innovation spread, leopard (Panthera pardus), 40–44 192–193 Leopard’s Hill, Mode 3/Mode 5 dexterity required, 74–76 transition, 282–283

Index 595

Levallois technique, 194–195 mathematics. See Ishango bone Lewis-Williams, David, 12 Matopo Hills, 383 linguistics. See historical linguistics Matopo Hills industries, Mode 3 until 13 lion (Panthera leo), 40–44 kya, 282 lithic technology modes. See Modes Matupi Cave, 269, 367 (stone tool production) Mau Escarpment, 410 ‘Little Foot’ (Member 2), anomalous Mauritania, Upper Capsian cosmogenic nuclide dating, 53–54 hunter-gatherers, 363–364 Little Ice Age, 408 Mazel, Aron, 13 Lloyd, Lucy, 21 Mbuti Lokabulo Shelter, ceramics, 368–369 hunting techniques, 473 Lokalalei, 2 Kalahari debate, 432–433 stone tool making, 110–112 situation today. See also Ituro forest, Lokalalei 2C. stone tool making, 81–82, recent foragers, 434 110–112 meat-eating, and human development, Lothagam, 369–370 83–84 Lowasera, 330, 369–370 Mechta-Afalou, 348 Lower Nile Valley Complex, 238–240 Mechtoid, 348 Lower Nubia, MIS 2, 296 Medieval Warm Epoch, 408 Luangwa Valley, 30, 53 megadonty, 72 Lukenya Hill Megaloceros algericus, 313 –314 MIS 4–2, 299–300 Melka Kunture´ Gombore, 2 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 285–286 pitted anvils, 122–123 radiocarbon dating problems, 284–285 Mellalian industry, 335 luminescence dating, 55–56 Mema´ Basin, herding after 3800 bp, Lunsemfwa Basin, 325 364–365 Lupemban industry, 234–237, 287 Middle Nile, mid-Holocene, 367–368 Lycaon pictus (wild dog), 40–44 mid-Holocene early food-production, 359–362 Maghreb Eastern Africa, 368–369 abandonment MIS 4/3, 265–266 palaeoenvironments, 357–359 Iberomaurusian sites, 295–296 rainforests, 367 Pleistocene/Holocene transition, South-central Africa, 376 347–348 southern Africa, 382–383 Mai Lumba, Mode 3, 248–249 West Africa, 365–366 Makapansgat, 87, 88, 100 mind, theory of, 170 Makhadma, 2 MIS (Marine Isotope Stage) sequence, 45 ﬁshing, 332–333 MIS 11, 164, 202–203 Makwe industry, 376 MIS 12/11 transition, 203–204 Malawi, Lake MIS 4–2 physical geography, 30 African perspective, 303–306 sediment record, 202–203 burials, 279–280 use in dating, 48 lifeways, 295–296 Mali, Upper Capsian hunter-gatherers, overview, 306–307 364–365 palaeoenvironments, 263–265 Maloti-Drakensberg mountains, 44 settlement ﬂuctuations, 265–268 Mapungubwe, 430 stable settlements, 268–270 Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) sequence, MIS 5 45 increased visibility, 237–239 Matengai Turu Northwest, 417–418 palaeoenvironments, 238, 239

596 Index

Mitochondrial Eve. See also recent Nachikufan I, 325 African origin (RAO), 206 Nachikufan series, 376 mobility strategies, proximity of water, Naisiusiu, 283, 284, 286 195–196 Nakuru, Lake, merged with Lake Mode 2/3 transition Elmenteita, 312 dating, 224–229, 233–234 Nariokotome skeleton (WT 15000) hafting. See also Modes (stone tool brain size, 149–151 production), 218–219 hypoglossal canal, 173–174 Mode 3/5 transition physique, 148 Africa south of the Zambezi, 280–282 Nasera industry, 283–284 Horn of Africa, 286–287 Nazlet Khater, 2 independence from other frameworks, Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 286–287 280 Nazlet Safaha, 266 overview, 287–290 Nderit Drift, 327 West and Central Africa, 287 Ndutu, 167 Zambia and Eastern Africa. See also Neanderthal autosomal DNA, 208 Modes (stone tool production), Nelson Bay Cave, 321 282–284, 285–286 Neolithic of Sudanese Tradition, 334 modernity. See anatomical modernity; New Caledonian crow, genetically behavioural modernity, emergence transmitted tool making, 59 Modes (stone tool production). See also Ngaloba, evolving lineage, 217 Mode 2/3 transition; Mode 3/5 Nharo, Kalahari debate, 431 transition, 15 –16, 17 Niger, river, 30–31 molecular clocks, 207–208 Nile valley molecular genetics, importance of, 20 greenness, 35 monsoonal cycle, 164–166 MIS 2, 296 mortuary practices, 215–216 Pleistocene/Holocene transition, 332 mortuary rituals. See burial practices Nile, river Mossel Bay, 252–254 physical geography, 30 ’muddle in the middle’, 55 ‘Wild Nile’. See also Blue Nile, river; Mugharet el ‘Aliya, 467 Lower Nile Valley Complex; Mukogodo Hills, 410–412 Middle Nile, mid-Holocene; Wadi multiplatform removals, 112 Howar river (Yellow Nile); White Mumba, Eyasi Basin, Tanzania Nile, river, 31 0 exploitation of ﬁsh and snails, 300 Nkang, 416 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 283–284 non-lithic technologies, 137–140 Mumbwa Caves North Africa jewellery, 271 MIS 5 record, 238–240 MIS 5e behaviours, 246 Mode 2 technology, 134–135 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 283 Nqoma, 432 radius fragments, 217–218 NRY (non-recombining portion of the murder, Wadi Kubbaniya, 298–299 Y-chromosome), 206–207 Musee´ Royal de l’Afrique Centrale, 463 Ntumot, Pleistocene/Holocene Mushabian industry, 332 transition, 327 mya (millions of years ago), 2 Nubian Complex. See also Aterian industry, 238–240 Nabta Playa Nubian Core, 238–240 evidence of Sahara occupation, 335 nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus), 296–297 pastoralists using wild resources, 360 Nyae Nyae Conservancy, 437–438 plant exploitation, 341 Nyae Nyae Development Foundation of pottery, 341 Namibia, 437–438

Index 597

Oakhurst industry, vs. Robberg, Ounjougou, Mali 316 –318 early Holocene occupation, 346–347 obsidian-hydration dating, 464 Mode 3, 248–249 Oda, Lake, Ethiopian Blade Tool Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 287 Tradition, 327–328 Ogiek palaeomagnetism, 54 parallelism with food-producers, Pan paniscus (bonobo) 406–407 knapping, 75–76 relations with Maasai, 410 locations, 40 situation today, 436 Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Okavango, 30 Related Studies, 10 Okiek. See Ogiek Panthera leo (lion), 40–44 Ol Tepesi, 327 Panthera pardus (leopard), 40–44 Oldowan industry, oldest stone tools, Papio cynocephalus (baboons), 35 60 parallelism, of foragers with Olduvai Gorge food-producers, 406–407 bone tools, 138 Paranthropus Mary Leakey typology, 126–129 dental morphology, 84–85 pitted anvils, 122–123 diet, 87–88, 90–91, 92–95 stone tool making, raw material species included, 72–73 selectivity, 120 Paranthropus aethiopicus, 72–73, 76–78 suitability for potassium-argon dating, Paranthropus boisei, 72–73 52 Paranthropus robustus, 72–73, 76–78, Olkesiteti Formation, 228 87–90 Olorgesailie basin Parkington, J. E., 15 co-existence of Modes, 186–187 pearl millet, ﬁrst domestication, Member 1, 2, 182 361–362 Member 11, 3, 185–186 Peninj stone tool making, 114–116 Members 6/7, 2, 182–184 percussion technologies, 120–122 research on, 180–181 peripatetic lifestyle, of foragers with sources of stone, 181–182 food-producers, 407 use in dating, 47 Phacochoerus africanus (warthog), 35 Omo Kibish Formation picks, 124–126 Aduma industry, 244–246 pigment use, 256–257 crania, 216 Piltdown forgery, 8 Omo Valley, percussion tool frequency, Pinnacle Point 123–124 importance of site, 252–254 optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), occupation during MIS 4–3, 268 55–56 place, concept of oral traditions, 20–21 Capsian groups in Maghreb, 351 Orange (Gariep), river, 30–31 Elands Bay Cave, 321–322 orang-utans, tool use, 62 Pleistocene/Holocene transition Orrorin tugenensis, 70 central Africa, 324–325 oryx (Oryx gazella beisa), 38 East Africa, 327 OSL (optically stimulated luminescence), environmental background, 309 55–56 Horn of Africa, 327–328 ostrich eggshell, for radiocarbon dating, Maghreb, 347–348 284 mammal extinctions, 313 –314 Oued Djebanna, transported Nassarius Nile valley, 332 shell bead, 242–243, 271 southern Africa, 315 –316 Ounanian industry, 335 West Africa, 346–347

598 Index

polished stone axes, 365 red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), Pomongwan industry, 316 –318 40–44 Pomongwe, food resources, 318 –320 Redunca redunca (Bohor reedbuck), 37 Porc Epic, Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, reedmace (Typha spp.,), 297 286–287 references, nature of, 22 potassium-argon dating, 51–53 Reid, L. A., 13 pottery/ceramics Rift Valley, 30 Adrar Bous 3, 335, 341 right-handedness, and language, 174–176 earliest, 341 roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), 37 Enkapune ya Muto, 372 Robberg industry figurines, 347–348 demonstrating long-distance Khartoum Mesolithic, 334 connections, 302 Lokabulo Shelter, 368–369 site distributions, 268 Shaqadud, 368 unmodified bladelet emphasis, 288, Tadrart Acacus, 338 290 Tamar Hat. See also Akira ware; vs Oakhurst, 316 –318 Bambata ware; Kansyore (Oltome) Robertshaw, P. T., 6 ware, 347–348 rock art prepared core technology, 194–195 Boucle du Baoule,´ 364–365 pressure-flaking, adoption in Upper dating, 392–393 Capsian, 363 Kondoa, 374–375 Principles of Human Evolution (Lewin and repainting/destruction, 446–447 Foley), 22 Sandawe, 374–376 Prolonged Drift, non-local raw materials, study of, 12 271–272 Tadrart Acacus, 338–340 Prospect Farm, non-local raw materials, Zambia. See also Bushman rock art,380 271–272 Roe Line, 189–190 Proto-Stillbay. See Charama industry Rooidam, 229 punches, 127 Rose Cottage Cave, changes in Punpun industry, 365–366 assemblage character, 279 Pygmies. See tropical forest foragers Round Head paintings, 338–340 Ruwenzori mountain range, 30 Qadan industry, 332 Qafzeh, 174 Saggai, 368 Sahara, early Holocene recolonisation, radiocarbon dating 334–336 and dates in this book, 2 Saharo-Sudanese Neolithic, 342 problems, 284 Sahel (ecological zone), 37–38 use in African archaeology, 49–50 Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 70 rainforests Sahlins, M., 3 climate and ecology, 38–40 Sahnouni, M., 5–6 mid-Holocene, 367 Sai Island rainy seasons, 32 chert extraction by digging, 240–241 Rangi rockshelter, 408 dating, 234–237 Raphicerus campestris (steenbok), 40–44 Sakutiek industry, Mode 3/Mode 5 recent African origin (RAO), 208–209 transition, 285–286 Reck, H., 8 Sale,´ 217 Red Animal Tradition rock art, 380 Sampson, Garth, 15 Red Geometric Tradition rock art, Sandawe, 374–376, 413–414 380–382 Sangoan industry, 234–237

Index 599

Sararub, pottery, 341 Somaliland Wilton, 470 Saroba phase, 367–368 South Africa, bone tools, 137–138 savanna ecosystems, 147 South-central Africa Schlanger, N., 6, 9 mid-Holocene, 376 Schoenoplectus spp., (bulrushes), 297 recent foragers, 418–420 Scirpus tubers, 297 southern Africa Seacow Valley, 195–196, 426–427, Bushmen, current situation, 437 466 mid-Holocene, 382–383 sealevels, Pleistocene/Holocene MIS 4–2, 302–303 transition, 315 MIS 5 record, 249–250 seasonal movements, mid-Holocene, Mode 2 technology, 132–134 383–384 Pleistocene/Holocene transition, Sebilian industry, 332 315 –316 sedentism, 352–354 recent foragers, 420–421 Sehonghong, 322 southern springbok (Antidorcas australis), selective sweeps, 207 313 –314 Semliki, river, 104–105 spheroids, as pounding tools, 120–122 Senga 5A, bipolar flaking, 123–124 spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), 40–44 Serengeti-Mara grasslands, 40–44 springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), Service, E., 3 40–44 sexual division of labour Springbokoog, 472 and campsites, 178–179 stable carbon isotope analysis, 85–87 and co-existence of Modes, 187 Stahl, A. B., 6, 18 and meat-eating, See also tool use, steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), 40–44 sex-based differences, 83 Sterkfontein Valley shamanism, rock art, 390–391 bone tools, 137–138 Shaqadud, 368–369 climate fluctuation, 100–101 Shum Laka Mode 2 technology, 132–133 mid-Holocene, 366–367 Still Bay industry, Blombos, 251–252 MIS 4–2 occupation, 269 Stone Age, 3 Shuwikhatian industry, Mode 3/Mode 5 stone tool making transition, 286–287 dexterity required, 74–76 Sibudu, stone tool uses, 277–278 early hominin’s abilities, 76–80 Sidi Abderrahmane, 217 emergence at 2, 6 mya, 81–83, Silsilian industry, 296 101–107 Sinai, as exit from Africa, 292, 294 local variability, 112 Singa, 217 Modes. See also Mode 2/3 transition; Sirikwa hole, 410 Mode 3/5 transition, 15 –16, 17 Siwa, association with water, 340–341 raw material selection, 110–112, Skhul, 468 116–118, 120 smoking fish, 332–333 social and cognitive skills, 78–80 SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism), stone tool use 207–208 and diet, 83–84 social approaches, southern Africa and jaw muscles, 101–102 hunter-gatherer archaeology, stone tool uses, 277–278 386–388 storage strategies, mid-Holocene, social brain hypothesis, 170 384–385 Sodmein Cave, hunted large mammals, stratigraphy, use in dating, 48 241 strontium/calcium analysis, 85–87 soft hammer flaking, 189–190 STRs (short tandem repeats), 208

600 Index

Sudan (ecological zone), 37–38 TL (thermoluminescence), 55–56 Sudd, 30 Toba, Mt Sus scrofa (wild boar), 35 eruption, 260, 261 Swartkrans genetic bottleneck, 269–270 bone tools, 137–138 tool dependency, of hominins, 59–61 deliberate burning, 143 tool making Mode 2 technology, 133 vs tool usage. See also stone tool Swartzia pods, arrow poison, 377 making, 59 Sylvicapra grimmia (common duiker), tool use 40–44 and climate fluctuations, 96 symbiosis, of foragers/food-producers, chimpanzees, 62–66 406 non-primates, 59 primates, 61 Tachengit technique, 194–195 sex-based differences. See also stone Tadrart Acacus, 335, 337–338, tool use. See also sexual division of 343–344 labour, 66–67 Taforalt tourism, dangers of, 449–450 cemetery, 347–348 Tragelaphus scriptus (bushbuck), 37 long distance movement of materials, tree-ring-based calibration, use in 242–243 African archaeology, 49–50 Nassarius gibbosulus shells, 271 trepanation, Taforalt, 348–349 skeletal samples, 348 tropical forest foragers, 325, 326 Tagalagal rockshelter, pottery, 341 Tshitolian industry, 324 Ta¨ı Forest chimpanzees, 63–64, 68, 81 Tsodilo Hills, Kalahari debate, 432 Tamar Hat, ceramic figurines fragments, Tswaing Crater (Pretoria Saltpan), 165 347–348 tuff based correlation, 52–53 Tan Tan ‘figurine’, 466 tumulus construction, Mauritania, Tandjesberg, 428 363–364 Tanganyika, Lake, 30 Tunisia, Upper Capsian hunter-gatherers, taphonomy, 11 363 Taramsa 2, 241 Turkana Basin Taramsa 3, 241 climate fluctuation, 98–100 Tassili, rock art, 338–340 use in dating, 47 teeth removal, Taforalt, 348–349 Turkana, Lake terrestrial records, 47–48 early Holocene, 312 territorial range, mid-Pleistocene, materials, 330–332 196–198 mid-Holocene, 369–370 Thandwe, burial practices, 378–380 Tushka, 470 thermoluminescence (TL), 55–56 Twa , 382, 420, 435–436 Theropithecus oswaldi, 203–204 Twin Rivers Thomas Quarry, 134–135 dating, 236 Thomsen, C. J., 3 humeral fragment, 217–218 Three Age System. See also African Mode 2/3 transition, 232–233 archaeology, Africa’s Three Age Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 2, 283 system, 3 Typha spp, (reedmace), 297 Tibesti, mountain, 35–37 Tighenif, 167 Uan Afuda Tilemsi river, 311 livestock domestication, 345–346 Ti-n-Torha, pastoralists using wild stone windbreak construction, resources, 360 335–336

Index 601

Uan Muhuggiag White Nile, river male participation in plant processing, contribution to annual ﬂood, 35 470 early Holocene, 334 pastoralists using wild resources, 360 physical geography, 30 Uan Tabu shelter, 241–242 wild boar (Sus scrofa), 35 Umm Marrahi, pottery, 341 wild dog (Lycaon pictus), 40–44 Underground storage organs (USOs), Wild Nile, 31 0 91 Wildebeest Kuil, 438 Uranium-series dating, 56–58 Wilton industry. See also Somaliland USOs (Underground storage organs), 91 Wilton, 318 , 376, 382–383 WIMSA (Working Group of Indigenous Vallee´ du Serpent, 346–347 Minorities in Southern Africa), van Riet Lowe, C., 9, 10 439–440 variability selection, 160–161 Wonderwerk Cave Victoria West technique, 194–195 mid-Pleistocene hominin presence, Victoria, Lake, 30, 31 0 193–194 Vinnicombe, Patricia, 12 Mode 2/3 transition, 229 Vostok ice core, 47 Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa Waata, 414–415, 432–433 (WIMSA), 439–440 peripatetic lifestyle, 407 written sources, 20–21 Wadi Howar river (Yellow Nile), 311 , 464 Yaaku, relations with Maasai, 410–412 Wadi Kubbaniya Y-chromosome haplogroups labels, 209 MIS 2 death, 298–299 Yellow Nile (Wadi Howar river), 311 , MIS 2 life, 296–298 464 Wadley, Lyn, 13 Yengema, 365 warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), 35 Yiron, 53 wavy line motifs, 341, 342 Younger Dryas stadial, 31 0 –311 Wayland, E. J., 9–10 Welgeluk, 385–386 Zambezi Valley, Mode 3/Mode 5 West Africa transition, 283 mid-Holocene, 365–366 Zambezi, river, 31 Mode 3/Mode 5 transition, 287 Zambia Pleistocene/Holocene transition, mid-Holocene, 376 346–347 rock art, 380 Western Southern Africa, introduction of zebra (Equus burchelli), 40–44 sheep, 421–425 Ziway, Lake, 228, 328