A NEW READING OF TUPAIA’S CHART

ANNE DI PIAZZA and ERIK PEARTHREE Centre National de Recherche Scientifique Centre de Recherche et de Documentation sur l’Océanie, Marseille

One of the most intriguing artefacts brought back to Europe from Cook’s voyages in the Pacific is a map, Tupaia’s Chart, catalogued in the British Museum as a “Chart of the with Otaheite in the center July-Aug 1769”. After decades of close, focused work on Tupaia’s Chart, it still cannot be read as a Mercator projection. Many islands, even archipelagos seem to be misplaced. Could it be that Tupaia simply failed to solve the problem of converting his view of the Ocean world onto a two- dimensional map, with a scale and azimuths? In this paper, we propose a different reading of his Chart, a reading that is in accordance with how traditional Pacific navigators conceived of their sea environment, i.e., through memorised lists of “relevant pairs of islands plus so-called ‘star courses’ between these islands” (Gell 1985:284). We conclude that Tupaia’s Chart, while having the appearance of a map, is in fact a mosaic of sailing directions or plotting diagrams drawn on paper, similar to those made by master navigators tracing lines in the sand or arranging pebbles on a mat to instruct their pupils.

TUPAIA, THE TAHITIAN GEOGRAPHER AND NAVIGATOR Cook, Banks and Molyneux had little to say about Tupaia and his activities on board the Endeavour. Not a word was written about the drafting of the famous Chart. Tupaia did spark however the curiosity of the officers when it came to piloting the vessel around , or listing islands he knew. Tupaia’s reputation as a geographer began on the Endeavour somewhere between Tahiti and New Zealand. On 13 July 1769, upon leaving Tahiti for the Leeward islands, Cook wrote:

I have before hinted that these people have an extensive knowledge of the islands situated in these seas, Tupia [sic] as well as several others hath given us an account of upwards of seventy, but as the account they have given of their situation is so vague and uncertain I shall refar [refrain from] giving a list of them until I have learnt from Tupia the situation of each island with a little more certainty. (Beaglehole 1955:138)

Eight months later, Tupaia had succeeded in convincing Cook of his geographical knowledge. While departing from New Zealand, Cook noted: “I shall now add a list of those islands which Tupia and several others have given us an account of and

321 322 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart endeavour to point out the [their] respective situations from Otaheite or Georges Island…” (Beaglehole 1955:291). This text is followed by a list of islands1 to which Cook added: “The above list was taken from a Chart of the Islands Drawn by Tupia’s own hands, he at one time gave us an Account of near 130 Islands but in his Chart he laid down only 74…” (Beaglehole 1955:293, 294). Although Tupaia’s Chart presents the Pacific as a veritable “sea of islands”, very different from the empty Ocean known at the time, Cook does not seem to have actually attempted to find any of them.2 Certainly Cook had his own constraints, his own route, and when he did finally list the directions to Tupaia’s islands, it was not because he had “learned…the situation of each island with…more certainty”, but rather because he had had occasions to convince himself that Tupaia was both a skilled navigator and a knowledgeable geographer; after all, he was able to accurately point to Tahiti throughout their voyage and to pilot the Endeavour through the uncharted waters of the Society Islands (Salmond 2004). Banks is the most outspoken on the subject of Tupaia. On the eve of their departure from Tahiti, he noted: “… what makes him more than anything else desireable is his experience in the navigation of these people…” and later on: “we have now a very good opinion of Tupias pilotage, especially since we observd him at send a man to dive down to the heel of the ships rudder; this the man did several times and reported to him the depth of water the ship drew, after which he has never suffrd her to go in less than 5 fathom water without being much alarmd” (Banks 1998:299, 316). Banks’ admiration was tempered by gentle mockery as when he writes that Tupaia “prayd to Tane for a wind and as often boasted to me of the success of his prayers, which I plainly saw he never began till he saw a breeze so near the ship that it generally reachd her before his prayer was finished” (Banks 1998:356).

TUPAIA, NOVICE CARTOGRAPHER Tupaia’s achievements were not limited to navigation and geography. On board he also studied cartography, painting and drawing, but on this subject again, the logbooks are silent. Only incidentally and during his second voyage, did Cook note that Tupaia “made a drawing of one of these Vessels [apparently in reference to Tahitian war canoes]” (Beaglehole 1963:407, Glyndwr 2003:47). Cook was probably referring to Tupaia’s watercolour of a Tahitian scene showing two war canoes and one sailing canoe (Glyndwr 2003: fig.2.2). In a portfolio in the British Library, among the watercolours recently attributed to Tupaia by Carter (1997), is a sketch map bearing a faint pencil title “Society Islands discovered by Lieut. J. Cook in 1769”. There are numerous indications suggesting it may have been drawn by Tupaia (Fig.1). The islands are out of scale and lack a grid, unlike those on manuscript charts signed by Cook, Pickersgill or Molyneux. Some islands, such as Bola Bola [Borabora] and Maurua [], which were not visited by the Endeavour, are nevertheless depicted in detail. The inked outlines of others are ragged, and that of Ulieatea [Ra‘iatea] is highlighted in various styles as if it was a practise exercise. The rough pen hatching imitates Cook’s style, and the ink washes the style of Pickersgill or Molyneux. This chart, probably the only one remaining drawn by Tupaia’s own hand, is testimony to his apprenticeship of European cartography. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 323 rights reserved (Add Ms 15508, n°18) Sketch map of the Leeward Society Islands probably drawn by Tupaia. Copyright British Library Board, all Tupaia. Sketch map of the Leeward Society Islands probably drawn by Figure 1. 324 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

A BRIEF HISTORY OF TUPAIA’S CHART The map for which Tupaia is famous however is the “Chart of the Society Islands with Otaheite in the center…”. The original, presumably the one “…Drawn by ’s own hands” is missing. Only Banks’ copy of it which bears the notation “Drawn by Lieut. James Cook 1769” has been preserved (Fig. 2) (Beaglehole 1955:293-94, fn.1). This document, now in the British Library was first published in the portfolio of “Charts and Views” by Skelton, accompanying Volume I of Beaglehole’s edition of Cook’s Journals (Beaglehole 1955). Bank’s copy has been reproduced with accuracy. Pairs of tiny pricked holes mark each island,3 apparently to help Cook transpose their exact positions by punching through the original into the copy. The Forsters, the father and son naturalists on Cook’s second voyage, made their own versions of Tupaia’s Chart. As early as 1778, J.R. Forster published an engraved map4 entitled: “A CHART representing the ISLES of the SOUTH-SEA according to the NOTIONS of the INHABITANTS of o-TAHEITEE and the Neighbouring Isles, chiefly collected from the accounts of TUPAYA” (Thomas et al. 1996 [following p. 201]). This was the version known as Tupaia’s Chart, until the Banks copy came to light in 1955 (Beaglehole 1955:293-94, fn.1). G. Forster’s map5 is a hand drawn sketch included in a letter to his publisher with instructions that it be included in his account of the voyage, which was published in 1777 (Thomas et al. 2000). In order to localise Tupaia’s islands, we have used Banks’s copy of Tupaia’s Chart. Its 74 islands make it the only one that matches Cook’s description. Also, Banks’s copy does not include the Forsters’ additions and misplacements of Tupaia’s islands onto a latitude-longitude grid to correspond with their own identifications.

Previous Studies of Tupaia’s Chart Numerous authors have struggled with Tupaia’s Chart (Adam 1982; Dening 1963; Finney 1998; Hale 1846; Lewthwaite 1966, 1970; Quatrefages 1866; Sharp 1957, 1964; Smith 1898; Thomas et al. 1996; Turnbull 1998, 2000; White 1961). Yet the “reader is often confronted with pages of detailed map analysis and nary a map… [with] lists of archaic looking Polynesian names and their presumed identifications… appended for his enlightenment” (Lewthwaite 1970:3). This citation, both humorous and mordant, highlights two recurrent problems with the chart: identifying the islands and understanding their locations. Dening made a thorough review of previous identifications, while Lewthwaite turned and flipped quadrants of the chart, testing hypotheses about possible inversions of the cardinal directions, trying to make sense of the islands’ locations (Dening 1963; Lewthwaite 1966, 1970). If “[s]ome forty-odd names... [can now be] attached with more or less assurance to the map”, it still cannot be read like a proper chart and no matter how it is twisted, numerous islands remain in the wrong sectors (Lewthwaite 1970:11). Building upon these previous studies, we brought traditional way-finding concepts into play, believing that Tupaia’s Chart may best be understood as a local navigator’s attempt to teach Cook and his officers the directions to surrounding islands. We argue that this document is not a map, nor a representation of Cartesian space, but a mosaic of subject-centred sailing directions or bearings to distant islands. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 325 Library Board, all rights reserved (Add Ms 21519 C). Tupaia’s Chart found in Banks’s personal collection and preserved in the British Library. Copyright British personal collection and preserved in the British Library. Chart found in Banks’s Tupaia’s Figure 2. 326 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

TRADITIONAL PLOTTING DIAGRAMS The best known examples of traditional navigational concepts come from the Caroline Islands in Micronesia, where “star compasses” and “island charts” are still taught and used today (Alkire 1970, Gladwin 1970, Lewis 1975, Thomas 1987). A star compass is a mental construct consisting of bearings radiating from a centre to points on the horizon marked by the rising and setting of key stars. To teach it, Micronesians trace lines in the sand or arrange pebbles and sticks on a mat (Finney 1998:443, Gladwin 1970:129-30). By mentally placing a particular island of departure in the centre and target islands around the perimeter, a “star compass” becomes an “island chart”, here called a “plotting diagram” since unlike a chart or a map, it indicates only bearings, not distances (Lewis 1975: fn. 8). A plotting diagram is thus a series of bearings radiating out from an island of departure to islands of arrival. The centre point (or island of departure) where the navigator imagines himself is a “subjective coordinate”, unlike the coordinates in Cartesian space where islands “hold positions which are defined absolutely, not in relation to the presence, in the same space, of the epistemic subject” (Gell 1985:273, 278). No detailed accounts of teaching devices analogous to these “star compasses” or “island charts” were recorded in Polynesia, although some hints in the literature such as guiding stars for islands, known as kaveinga in Tonga and aveia in the Society Islands, suggest that such a system once existed (Lewis 1975:77). J.R. Forster also noted that the Tahitians used the rising and setting points of the stars for a compass at night and that Tupaia “… pointed to [the] part of the heavens, where each isle [on his chart] was situated…” (Thomas et al. 1996:310). In Polynesia, directions were named for the winds. Such “wind compasses” were described from the Southern Cooks, Tahiti, Pukapuka and Tokelau (Beaglehole and Beaglehole 1938:22, Burrows 1923:147, Corney 1915:284-85, Gill 1876:319-21, Lewis 1975:74-75). They appear to have had a similar function to that of “star compasses”.

TUPAIA’S CHART, A MOSAIC OF PLOTTING DIAGRAMS In order to reconstruct the hypothetical plotting diagrams from Tupaia’s Chart, our method was to trace bearings off a modern nautical chart6 from different islands of departure to various target islands. These islands were chosen among those previously identified (Dening 1963). We then superimposed these sets of bearings, or plotting diagrams, onto the corresponding island of departure on Tupaia’s Chart and rotated them so that they intersected the appropriate target islands. Rotation does not affect the validity of the diagrams, since the relation of the different bearings is preserved no matter how they are oriented. Corresponding sets of bearings were obtained from five islands of departure: Ra‘iatea, Tahiti, Mehetia, Pukapuka and Savai‘i (Figs 3-7, Tables 1-5). Two of these islands were important in Tupaia’s life: Ra‘iatea, where he was born, and Tahiti, where he was living when he met Cook. Mehetia and Pukapuka are known from ethnographic sources as good islands of departure for voyages to the northern and to Samoa-Tokelau (Beaglehole and Beaglehole 1938:400, 410-11: Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 327

Morrison 1966:166). Tupaia described O-heavai [Savai‘i] as the “the father of all the islands” emphasising its importance in Tahitian eyes, perhaps in reference to their homeland (Hale 1846:122-23, Thomas et al. 1996:316). Other islands of departure were tested, including islands in the Tuamotu, Austral, Cook and Society groups. No corresponding sets of bearings were found. We grouped matching bearings into 4 classes: • Class 1 groups previously identified islands whose bearings on Tupaia’s Chart are within 5° of their true bearings from the nautical chart. • Class 2 groups previously identified islands whose bearings are between 5° and 15° of true. • Class 3 groups islands not previously identified whose bearings on the plotting diagrams (used for Classes 1 and 2) are within 5° of true. • Class 4 groups islands not previously identified whose bearings on the plotting diagrams (used for Classes 1 and 2) are between 5° and 15° of true. The five plotting diagrams include 31 different bearings that explain the location of 33 islands7 within the Society, Tuamotu, Austral, Marquesas, Cook and Samoa island groups, and perhaps Tokelau as well. Tupaia’s knowledge was certainly not limited

Table 1. List of target islands whose bearings from Tahiti match those on Tupaia’s Chart. Ohevaroa has been previously identified as Hiva Oa in the Marquesas (Smith 1898:813), however its bearing matches that of Takaroa in the Tuamotus. (Henry translates Takapoto as “short separation” in opposition to Takaroa as “long separation” [Henry 1993:114,117].) 328 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

Table 2. List of target islands whose bearings from Ra‘iatea match those on Tupaia’s Chart. Ohevapoto has been suggested to be Fatu Hiva in the Marquesas (Beaglehole 1955:293), however its bearing matches that of Takapoto in the Tuamotus.

Table 3. List of target islands whose bearings from Mehetia match those on Tupaia’s Chart.

to these few courses, which would have been accompanied by additional information such as sailing distances, steering stars or wind directions. Fragments of this data were recorded. For example, Tupaia told Molyneux that Maupihaa and Fenua Ura were ten days sailing from Tahiti (Molyneux n.d.). He told Cook that Mannua lies three days northeast from Ohetiroa and “... four days sail from Ulietea”, and that Moutou lies “two days sail” southward from Ohetiroa (Beaglehole 1955:156-57). Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 329

Table 4. List of target islands whose bearings from Pukapuka match those on Tupaia’s Chart.

Table 5. List of target islands whose bearings from Savai‘i match those on Tupaia’s Chart. 330 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

Takaroa Mataiva Tikehau Rangiroa 0 100 Takaroa nm Mataiva Tikehau Rangiroa 0 100 Fakarava nm

Savaii Fakarava

Savaii Hao Tahiti

Hao a Tahiti

a

b

b Figure 3. Plotting diagram centred on Tahiti. a) True bearings from Tahiti to the Tuamotus and Savai‘i (off scale). b) The same bearings superimposed on Tupaia’s Chart, rotated +24°. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 331

Mataiva Ahe Takapoto Mataiva Ahe Takapoto

0 100 Kaukura 0 100 Kaukura nm nm

Tahanea Tahanea Raiatea

Hereheretue Hereheretue a a

Maataah Maataah Ohevapoto Oo-ahe Ohevapoto Oo-ahe

Oura Oura

Ulietea Ulietea Otaah Otaah

Whaterretuah Whaterretuah

b b

Figure 4. Plotting diagram centred on Ra‘iatea. a) True bearings from Ra‘iatea to the Tuamotus. b) The same bearings superimposed on Tupaia’s Chart, rotated +30°. 332 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

Nuku Hiva Nuku Hiva Ua Pou Ua Pou Pukapuka Pukapuka Hiva Oa Hiva Oa

Mataiva Mataiva

Mehetia Mehetia

0 100 0 100 Tubuai nm Tubuai nm

a a

Terouwhah Terouwhah Maataah Maataah Tetineohva Tetineohva

Oremaroa Oremaroa Opoopooa Opoopooa

Mytea Mytea

Moutou b Moutou b Figure 5. Plotting diagram centred on Mehetia. a) True bearings from Mehetia to the Tuamotus, Marquesas, Australs and Northern Cooks. b) The same bearings superimposed on Tupaia’s Chart, rotated -3°. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 333

Figure 6. Plotting diagram centred on Pukapuka. a) True bearings from Pukapuka to the Society Islands, Tonga, Samoa and Tokelau. b) The same bearings superimposed on Tupaia’s Chart, rotated +62°. 334 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

00 100 100 nmnm RotumaRotuma SavaiiSavaii UveaUvea ManuaManua UpoluUpolu TutuilaTutuila

MangaiaMangaia aa

Oahoo-ahooOahoo-ahoo

OwehaOweha OrotumaOrotuma OpoorooOpooroo MannuaMannua OheavieOheavie OtootooeraOtootooera

bb

Figure 7. Plotting diagram centred on Sava‘i. a) True bearings from Savai‘i to the rest of Samoa, ‘Uvea, Rotuma and the Southern Cooks. b) The same bearings superimposed on Tupaia’s Chart, with a backsight to Mangaia (Oahoo-ahoo), rotated -46°. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 335

Contrary to the ethnographic examples of Micronesian “island charts”, Tupaia’s plotting diagrams do seem to occasionally include distance. For voyages up to some 400 nautical miles (nm), about four days sailing (Societies-Tuamotus, Savai‘i- Manu‘a), the relative positions of his islands often correspond to the actual distances (Figs 6, 7, 10). For longer voyages of 10 to 15 days sailing (such as the 1,300 nm from Tahiti to Savai‘i, 900 nm from Pukapuka to Tupai and the 1,100 nm from Mehetia to Pukapuka), his distances are way off. The two portions of Tupaia’s Chart that almost work like Cartesian maps include the islands he knew best, the Leeward and Windward Society Islands, although each of these pieces or maps has its own scale and orientation (Figs 8, 9). Distances between many of these islands are almost perfect. Tupaia probably drew them as plotting diagrams, but the fact that distances and bearings are so accurate converts them into proper maps. The five plotting diagrams and the two maps account for a total of 39 islands out of the 74 (Fig. 10). This is a fairly large number considering that we were limited to working primarily with the previously identified islands. Most of the remainder are clustered in three sectors of the Chart: the lower right corner with six unidentified islands lying between Tubuai (Moutou) and Hau (Whaou), presumably in the southern Tuamotu, Gambier or Pitcairn groups; the lower left margin where seven islands have “Ohete”8 in their names, which may refer to Fiji (Lewthwaite 1970:11, Fig.7); and the upper left corner with two previously identified islands in the Southern Cooks (Atiu and Rarotonga) and three in the Australs (Rimatara, Raivavae, Rurutu).9

Tupai N

Tupi Maurua

Maupiti Borabora

Tahaa

Bola-b Huahine ola Otahah

Raiatea

Ulietea

0 50 Huaheine nm

Figure 8. The Leeward Society Islands (outlines) from Tupaia’s Chart superimposed on the nautical chart (in dark grey). Ra‘iatea, Taha‘a, Maupiti and Tupai are in their correct relative positions. Borabora and Huahine are slightly out of place. 336 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

N

Imao Otaheite Tapooa-manue Moorea Tahiti Mehetia

0 100 Mytea nm

Figure 9. Tupaia’s Map of the Windward Society Islands (outlines) from Tupaia’s Chart superimposed on the nautical chart (in dark grey). Mo‘orea, Maiao and Tahiti are in their correct relative positions. Mehetia is out of place.

Cutting and Pasting to Assemble the Chart All the plotting diagrams and the two maps have different orientations. This suggests that they were assembled piece by piece rather than drawn all at once to produce Tupaia’s Chart. Presumably, the best known islands, the Societies, were depicted first, followed by more distant ones, such as Savai‘i and Pukapuka, whose locations were probably obtained by rotation, so as to superimpose common islands. Savai‘i for example occurs on three plotting diagrams (itself, Pukapuka and Tahiti), as does Mataiva (Tahiti, Ra‘iatea, Mehetia). It may be that when shared names could not be found, islands or plotting diagrams were relegated to the margins. This could explain how some of the Australs and Southern Cooks got to the upper left corner. This unravelling of the Chart also highlights the difficulties of understanding or sharing knowledge on both sides. Cook, in his own words, believed Tupaia was drawing a map. Tupaia seems indeed to have tried to include distance in his plotting diagrams, thereby going beyond the traditional system of representation. Cook clearly remained fixed in his Cartesian world, adding cardinal points to Tupaia’s Chart. But both could look at the manuscript and see their own system represented: Cook reading islands on a grid and Tupaia reading islands radiating out from different centres.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would particularly like to thank Anne Salmond for sharing knowledge on Tupaia and for bringing Molyneux’s manuscript and the sketch map of the Leeward Societies to our attention. Thanks also to a couple of anonymous reviewers who suggested helpful revisions. Horst Dippel and Dieter Heintze, of the Georg Forster Gesellschaft, and Romy Meyer, of the Stadtarchivs-Braunschweig, were also very helpful in locating J.R. and G. Forsters’ manuscripts. We are also grateful to The British Library for permission to publish Figures 1 and 2. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 337 E Mytea Otaheite S N Ulietea Opatoa Opatoarow Opoopooa Oheavie Windward Chart showing the reconstructed plotting diagrams and maps of Leeward Tupaia’s Chart showing the reconstructed Tupaia’s Society Islands. Highlighted islands are discussed in the text. Society Islands. Windward plotting diagrams and frames around the Leeward W Figure 10. 338 A New Reading of Tupaia’s Chart

NOTES 1. Molyneux, the Endeavour’s Sailing Master, recorded the earliest list of islands on 13 July 1769. His “extract” of Tupaia’s list contains the names of 63 islands and the “situation from Otahite” for 57 of them. In a few cases he also gives the distance in days of sailing (Molyneux n.d.). 2. Cook’s chosen course southward from Ra‘iatea happened to lie on Tupaia’s bearing to Ohetiroa. Cook duly sighted Ohetiroa but was not specifically looking for it. He also noted that he would spend no time searching for any others known by Tupaia to the southward (Beaglehole 1955:156-57). 3. Three islands (Oremaroa, Huaheine and Opooru) lack pinholes and two sets of pinholes are blank, with neither island nor name. Comparison with the Forsters’ charts suggests the latter were O-Toomoo-papa and o-Rimatema. 4. J.R. Forster’s chart was based on two copies, one from Pickersgill, Master’s Mate on the Endeavour, which has never been recovered, and another from Banks (Thomas et al. 1996:310). Forster’s chart has 78 numbered islands with Tahitian names, including all those on Banks’s copy as well as O-Toomoo-papa (56), o-Rimatema (60), Tedhu-roa (79) and o-Nateya. His numbers match those that can be faintly read on the Banks’s copy, indicating that both were based on the same original. Forster completed Tupaia’s Chart by adding 18 more islands previously discovered and located by Europeans. To accommodate his additions, he displaced some of Tupaia’s islands and stretched the East-West axis relative to Banks’ copy. 5. G. Forster’s chart is similar to Banks’s copy except that three islands (Ohivavie, Opuro and Wou-wou) have been displaced, one (Orotuma) appears twice and 22 have been left out and replaced with the legend “Copy of a Chart made by a Native of O’Taheitee, named Tupaïa. Containing about 45° of Longitude”. 6. The nautical chart used here is a Mercator Projection entitled “Pacific Ocean, central part” (n° 526), published by the U.S. Defense Mapping Agency 1996. 7. The number of bearings and islands do not necessarily correspond. For example, Savai‘i, ‘Upolu, Tutuila, Mataiva and Manu‘a appear on more than one bearing (on different plotting diagrams), while ‘Uvea and Rotuma lie on the same bearing. 8. Four of these islands are mentioned in the Tahitian myth of Rata, the great navigator (Henry 1993:488). G. Forster also noted in the legend of his chart that “all those [islands] which have Oheti prefixed or affixed seem to have been ill- understood. Oheti signifies something equal to “this is called”, e.g., Oheti-poto = this is called – Round Island”. 9. Tupaia knew routes to the Southern Cooks and Australs as shown by the bearings from Savai‘i to Mangaia and Mehetia to Tubuai (Figs 5, 7). We were not able to locate the other identified islands in these groups (Atiu, Rarotonga, Rimatara, Raivavae, Rurutu) on the five plotting diagrams. Nor could we locate Ana‘a and Apataki in the Tuamotus or the outlying atolls of Fenua Ura and Mopelia in the Societies. These nine islands may be on plotting diagrams centred on islands not yet identified on the Chart. Anne Di Piazza and Erik Pearthree 339

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