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University of Florida Thesis Or Dissertation Formatting Template HIDDEN PEOPLE, HIDDEN IDENTITY: SOCIO-CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC CHANGE AMONG QUECHUA MIGRANTS IN LOWLAND BOLIVIA By LEONARDO MIGUEL MARTÍNEZ-ACCHINI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2009 1 © 2009 Leonardo Miguel Martínez-Acchini 2 To my late grandmother Clara Gómez de Acchini, to my parents, and to all the significant persons who have imprinted valuable teachings in my life 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work would have not been possible without the support and encouragement of all the members of my Research Committee: Dr. Allan Burns, Dr. Marianne Schmink, Dr. Anthony Oliver-Smith, Dr. Fiona McLaughlin, and Dr. Hugh Popenoe. I want to especially thank Dr. Burns for his close supervision during the final stages of this dissertation. I would also like to thank the Department of Anthropology and its staff, for all the support provided throughout my graduate career. I also want to thank the Center of Latin American Studies for providing me with the Tinker Fellowship with which I conducted the preliminary field research of this study. Later on, the Center also awarded me a Latin American scholarship that allowed me to finish the writing of this dissertation in the summer of 2009. My gratitude goes to villagers and authorities of San Lucas and Cuatro Cañadas who were the inspiration for this work. I thank the NGO OASI, as they provided me with basic logistic support for my fieldwork in Cuatro Cañadas. I also want to thank all those anonymous and hidden individuals in the US and in Bolivia who helped me in different ways without knowing that the goal behind my stay in San Lucas and Cuatro Cañadas was to come up with this very document that you are about to read. Thanks to José Martínez and to the municipal hospital of San Lucas for the logistical support. Special thanks go to Fernando Magnan and his family as well as Carlos Gutiérrez and his family, for providing me with logistical and warm human support in times of adversities during my fieldwork in Santa Cruz. I thank Cynthia Gómez Martín who gave me her love, understanding and support for many years. My friends Alicia Peón, Antonio de la Peña and María Morera gave me constant encouragement and valuable intellectual insights throughout the past years. Stephen Taranto gave me a valuable hand with the editing of this dissertation; thanks Steve. Paula Lopera, Clea Paz, Maria Fionda, Andrea Albertin, Richard Wallace, Antonio Tovar, Kevin Gould, Rosana 4 Resende, and Kevin Ratkus were also great contributors to the completion of this project. Alfredo Ríos and María Morera were particularly supportive with statistical tools and analysis. I cannot finish without thanking my family on whose constant love and encouragement I have relied throughout all these years at the University of Florida. I am grateful to Clementina Acchini, my mother, who as a social scientist played a key role in shaping my career in anthropology. I am grateful to my father, Miguel Martínez, for the tenacity and discipline he taught me over the years. My brothers Enrique and Ernesto were responsible for all good childhood memories that came back to my mind when I most needed them, besides providing me with never-ending support. My aunts, cousins, sisters-in-law, nephews and nieces in Uruguay and Bolivia were also encouragers of this project. To all of them, to all of you, my deepest gratitude. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................................... 4 LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................ 9 LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ 11 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 14 Internal Migration in Developing Countries ............................................................................. 14 Adaptive Strategies, Emerging Identities .................................................................................. 15 Dissertation Outline .................................................................................................................... 16 2 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 20 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 20 Guiding Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 21 Selecting My Research Topic and the Fieldwork Sites ............................................................ 21 Sending Community, Receiving Community............................................................................ 25 Participant Observation............................................................................................................... 26 San Lucas ............................................................................................................................. 27 Cuatro Cañadas .................................................................................................................... 27 Fieldnotes ..................................................................................................................................... 28 Open Interviews and the Main Questionnaire ........................................................................... 29 San Lucas ............................................................................................................................. 29 Cuatro Cañadas. ................................................................................................................... 29 Archival Research ....................................................................................................................... 30 My Personal Migratory History and the Meaning of Doing Native Anthropology ................ 31 3 SETTING ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Migration, Colonies, Indigenous Languages and Identity ........................................................ 38 The Construction of a National Project .............................................................................. 38 Language and Identity in Colonization Areas of Santa Cruz............................................ 40 San Lucas: A Quechua Community in the Central Valleys of Chuquisaca ............................ 43 General Information ............................................................................................................ 43 Political Organization .......................................................................................................... 44 Migration .............................................................................................................................. 47 Cuatro Cañadas: A Frontier Settlement in the Lowlands of Santa Cruz ................................. 48 Location, Natural Resources, Economics. ......................................................................... 48 Population Characteristics ................................................................................................... 51 6 4 THEORY ..................................................................................................................................... 56 Language, Cultural Change and Upper Mobility ...................................................................... 56 Language and Ethnicity in the Andean World .......................................................................... 58 Quechua and Aymara and Their Linguistic Families: Linguistic and Political Contacts ............................................................................................................................ 59 Amazonian Languages and Cultures .................................................................................. 61 The Politics of Language in a Multilingual Society. ......................................................... 63 The Andean World and Its Intrinsic Links to the Lowlands: Past and Present ............... 68 Lowland Societies, Lowland Culture ................................................................................. 73 Internal Migration in Developing Countries ............................................................................. 74 Some Drivers Behind Internal Migration ........................................................................... 76 Different Actors, Different Strategies ................................................................................ 78 Migration As a Sign of Prestige .......................................................................................... 80 Some Migration Theory Instruments: Assimilation, Acculturation, Ethnic Retention, Transnationalism, and Globalization...................................................................................... 81 Transnational and Global Influences
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