Vol. 58 (2) - April 2009 BulletinFeature articles | Interviews | News | Book reviews | Calendar www.wmo.int L 2009 Meteorological services e 58 (2) - APRI

Volum for transportation

Meteorology and marine transportation 111

Weather monitoring and etin forecasting services for provincial highways and

MO Bull railways in China

W 118

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Weather and climate change ISSN 0042-9767 implications for surface transportation in the USA 84 Meteorological services to aviation 94 Meteorology for travellers 104 Weather affects the operation of the transportation systems that we all rely on ... Climate, on the other hand, affects transportation infrastructure.

M. McGuirk et al. Bulletin The journal of the Contents World Meteorological

Organization In this issue ...... 80

Volume 58 (2) - Avril 2009 World Climate Conference-3 ...... 82

Secretary-General M. Jarraud Weather and climate change implications for surface Deputy Secretary-General Hong Yan transportation in the USA by Marjorie McGuirk, Scott Shuford, Assistant Secretary-General J. Lengoasa Thomas C. Peterson and Paul Pisano ...... 84 The WMO Bulletin is published quarterly (January, April, July, October) in English, French, Meteorological services to aviation by Chi Ming Shun, Ian Lisk, Russian and Spanish editions. Carr McLeod and Kevin L. Johnston ...... 94

Editor Hong Yan Associate Editor Judith C.C. Torres Meteorology for travellers by S.T. Christopher...... 104

Editorial board Hong Yan (Chair) Meteorology and marine transportation by Peter Dexter and J. Torres (Secretary) Phillip Parker...... 111 G. Asrar (climate research) L. Barrie (atmospheric research and environment) Weather monitoring and forecasting services for provincial G. Love (weather and disaster risk reduction) highways and railways in China by Yan Mingliang, Yuan Chengsong and E. Manaenkova (policy, external relations) R. Masters (development, regional activities) Pan Xinmin ...... 118 B. Ryan (satellites) D. Schiessl (strategic planning) M. Sivakumar (climate) Obituaries ...... 123 A. Tyagi (water) J. Wilson (education and training) Wenjian Zhang (observing and information Fifty years ago ...... 126 systems) News from the WMO Secretariat ...... 129 Subscription rates Surface mail Air mail 1 year CHF 60 CHF 85 Reviews ...... 133 2 years CHF 110 CHF 150 3 years CHF 145 CHF 195 Calendar ...... 135 E-mail: [email protected] The World Meteorological Organization ...... 136

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Activities involving transportation industry, for example, that involves modes of transportation, all make are inherently more sensitive to having de-icing equipment on aircraft, good use of the wide variety of real- weather events than activities that weather radar to avoid thunderstorms time weather information available are located in a single place. Consider and instrument landing systems to via the Internet, television, radio and an individual contemplating a ten land in fog and other low visibility newspapers. While it is not always minute walk to his favourite coffee situations. These are all up-front clear, this wealth of meteorological shop: indoors, he is not particularly investments to reduce weather information is only available because weather-sensitive but once outdoors, sensitivity, each one is taken after a of the incredible success of WMO the situation changes substantially. careful weighing of costs and benefits, in promoting, coordinating and Is it so hot that he should wear a hat often informed by years or decades of sustaining the free and open exchange and sunscreen? Is it likely to rain operational experience. The next step of meteorological and related data over and so should he take an umbrella in the process is to consider systems the past 50 years or so and because and wear a coat? Is it so cold that he that will enable real-time decision- of the vital work of NMHSs around needs a wooly bonnet to keep his making to avoid threatening weather the globe in participating in this data ears warm? situations. To do this, the aviation and information exchange. industry uses real-time weather Undoubtedly important questions data collected expressly to meet its Of course, meteorology has two to be answered, but the underlying needs by National Meteorological components—weather and climate— principles are even more significant. and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) and, while the foregoing discussion In choosing to be mobile, our man coordinated by WMO. These real- considers the weather-sensitivity of must gather some weather-related time meteorological data underpin transportation, it is also sensitive to information and make decisions which operational decisions on such matters climate and, in particular, climate are aimed at reducing his sensitivity as which routes aircraft should take to change. Supporting all forms of to adverse weather. There is a cost minimize fuel costs, which runways transportation is a significant to him in terms of loss of personal should be open and how many landing investment in infrastructure. The freedom and amenity in taking extra and take-off slots should be available investment in roads, railway lines, port gear which he must trade off against in a given period. facilities and airports is enormous, the greater loss if the weather is with many of the major installations so adverse that he will experience While the aviation industry has billions designed with lifetimes of 50 and more significant discomfort. How those of dollars at stake and uses weather years. An example is the Kansas City involved in transportation deal with information to minimize the risk of downtown airport and port which are sensitivity to weather is the substance disaster and increase operational located on a loop in the Mississippi of all the articles appearing in this efficiency, the individual traveller River. Nearby are railroad facilities issue of the Bulletin. is also a heavy user of weather and an interstate highway. With a data. Our fictional coffee drinker 50+ design life required consideration Decision-makers face a number is one example of a traveller using would be given to the one-in-100 year of issues in ensuring that their weather information but, of course, flood and also the one-in-1 000 year transportation-related activities individuals involved in many forms flood heights, as well as the extreme reduce their weather sensitivity in a of transportation, including rail, road, temperatures, both hot and cold, cost-effective way. For the aviation boat and air, and travellers using these extremes in short-term rainfall and

80 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 snow fall, likelihood of extreme winds extreme weather climatologies on Peter Dexter and Phillip Parker take us at the port and airport, and extreme individual travel decisions, as well back to the beginnings of meteorology wind shear at the airport among other as on the built infrastructure that and transportation and, inter alia, things. In the past, design engineers supports transport. remind us that it was the Safety of would have used the 30-year means Life at Sea Convention that we have to (most recently 1961 to 1990) as Chi Ming Shun and his co-authors give thank for the global free exchange of guidance for the long-term means a comprehensive view of how and meteorological data and information, as well as statistical studies based why the aviation industry is weather- and the cooperation between NMHSs on long-term records. More recently, sensitive and what, through the clever intent on preventing disasters at thought would have been given to use of new meteorological science sea. climate change and how, under the and technology, is being done to make various warming world scenarios, the the experience of the traveller a safe The article by Yan Mingling and his climatology of the various relevant one. two co-authors is, for many of us, extreme event climatologies might a look into the future with respect change and, as a consequence, how Simon Christopher provides a lighter to systems that can optimize the the infrastructure should be built to view of how travellers using the use of our roads and railways in the best handle future climate and the air transport system can take best face of adverse weather. Automatic weather events that go to making it. advantage of the broad range of observation networks coupled to weather and climate information modern decision-support systems The article by Marjorie McGuirk available on the Internet. While and powerful graphic displays and her co-authors, drawing on an it is not always possible to avoid provide the managers of China’s extensive study conducted by the US weather-related delays, they no surface transportation system with Government, reports on the impacts longer surprise the weather-wise capabilities most large cities can, as climate change is likely to have on traveller, nor should the weather yet, only dream of. the transportation sector in the USA. conditions they encounter at their It considers the impact of change in destination.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 81 World Climate Conference-3 Title

Geneva, Switzerland 31 August – 4 September 2009 Geneva International Conference Centre

Adaptation to climate It is possible to adapt to the changing often become disasters. Frequent climate conditions. Our ancestors were natural disasters slow down the socio- change: making climate able to develop lifestyles consonant economic development of a country, services work for society with the prevailing conditions, using since most available resources are the knowledge they gleaned from used for saving lives and rehabilitating Societies the world over are nature. Today, the science of climate affected communities. Climate-related experiencing unusual climate has advanced; historical records disasters constitute more than 80 per conditions: floods, droughts, tropical provide many instances of extreme cent of natural disasters worldwide, and extra-tropical storms, snow falls, events, as well as their frequency thus the ability to manage their impacts heatwaves, bushfires and unusual and intensity, while the tools to is an important step in stimulating diseases. These conditions are the gather, analyse and exchange data socio-economic development and result of the impacts of global warming to generate climate services have efforts to reduce poverty. on the climate system (Earth, oceans, improved significantly. Similarly, atmosphere and the cryosphere improvements have been made in Importantly, enhanced climate (ice sheets)). The changing climate the tools for rapid dissemination of services, that include climate system may lead to higher frequency, early warnings and alerts. advisories, predictions, warnings intensity and magnitude of severe and alerts, could also help societies weather and extreme climate events. Despite progress in our understanding take advantage of the opportunities Societies need to be prepared to live and prediction of the climate associated with climate events. with these new conditions, since the system, societies, institutions and climate system will take a long time to governments remain unprepared Efficient management of the risks adjust to mitigation measures. in the face of natural hazards which and opportunities of climate hazards

Major

Federal Department of Home Affairs FDHA sponsors Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss

82 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Better climate information for a better future http://www.wmo.int/wcc3

requires a multisectoral approach, data. The second challenge is to socio-economic growth, especially which brings information about promote interdisciplinary research in developing and least developed how climate extremes interact with to improve our knowledge of the countries. the various elements of society, interactions of climate with various environment and economy. Strong elements of society, economy and the It will aim to do this by improving partnerships and high-quality data are environment. The third challenge is the gathering and sharing of needed from all sectors involved. to use the results of these studies to climate observations and products; provide efficient, relevant and skilful encouraging interdisciplinary, Climate science has made great climate services to meet diverse targeted research to develop climate strides in the organization, societal needs. The final challenge predictions, international services and standardization and data-quality is the development of capabilities tools to support their applications; enhancement through the initiatives to access and apply these climate encouraging the development of of WMO and its Members. The level of services. policies that support the application availability and adequacy of climate of climate services; and building data varies from country to country, Efforts to improve our ability to national, regional and institutional however, with most developing and manage climate-related risks and capacities to generate and apply least developed countries having opportunities cannot be addressed climate services. inadequate networks and systems for by a single institution. World Climate collecting, managing and exchanging Conference-3 offers a unique The successful implementation of data. opportunity for the world community GFCS will be a vital step in enabling to develop a Global Framework for nations to adapt to changing climate Relevant data in some sectors are Climate Services which will accelerate and will contribute to the agenda of either not available or insufficient to action to address climate-related the 15th Conference of the Parties promote research and the development risks that threaten the well-being to the United Nations Framework of climate services. The first challenge of society. It will also capitalize Convention on Climate Change, therefore is to improve the availability, on associated opportunities in the especially on issues regarding adequacy and quality of climate context of achieving sustainable adaptation.

Other sponsors: Denmark, Ireland, Italy, USA, Techsense WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 83 Weather and climate change implications for surface transportation in the USA Title by Marjorie McGuirk1, Scott Shuford2, Thomas C. Peterson1 and Paul Pisano3

Introduction

Weather affects the operation of the transportation systems that we all rely on—from automobiles slowed by a wet surface, to delivery trucks delayed by high winds, to passenger trains stalled by ice and snow. Daily operational decisions in the transport sector, such as the amount of cargo that a plane or a barge can safely handle, must take weather conditions into consideration.

Climate, on the other hand, affects transportation infrastructure. Railways, ports, piers, highway culverts, bridges and other transportation infrastructure have been optimized for the expected Figure 1 — Kansas City downtown airport, Interstate Highway 70 and the Kansas City range of weather conditions Port: a broad mix of transport options that we call “climate.” When the weather becomes more extreme— more outside the bounds of what is considered “normal” climate—the Stronger tropical cyclones inundate and sea-level rise, and heat-resistant transportation infrastructure becomes and damage transportation highway and rail design. less reliable and less safe. Rising sea infrastructure, resulting in delayed level and more intense flooding affect delivery of goods and services. Changes in the weather require the safety and functionality of bridges adjustments to daily operation and trestles. Higher temperatures Adverse impacts to transit time, of transportation systems, buckle railroad tracks and roadways. delivery reliability and efficiency while climate change requires in turn affect the cost of all goods adjustments to transportation transported by these systems. infrastructure. Society is 1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Another economic cost involves the accustomed to delays in airline Center, Asheville, North Carolina, USA. retrofitting of infrastructure to adapt travel resulting from snow, rain E-mail: [email protected] it to the new climate, including more or fog, but is less prepared for the 2 University of North Carolina, Asheville, resilient or relocated transportation significant investment required to North Carolina, USA facilities in areas subject to tropical adapt transportation infrastructure 3 Federal Highway Administration, Wash- cyclones, bridges and trestles with to climate change. This article ington D.C. E-mail: [email protected] higher clearances to address flooding explores the projected extent of

84 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 the impacts of climate change on This article includes information frequency or intensity of tornadoes transportation infrastructure, with imparting a basic understanding of and climate change, thus tornado a focus on the USA. the weather conditions that affect impacts are not included here. We day-to-day operations of surface included variables for which there transportation by road, rail and water. are positive and negative impacts Methodology The methodology was to identify on transportation. the weather parameters that matter This article draws heavily upon most to transportation and use the Although this article is focused on previous studies including Potential model values to understand how impacts to transportation in the Impacts of Climate Change on US those parameters might change in USA, the techniques are applicable Transportation and Climate Variability the future. elsewhere. and Change with Implications for Transportation, both commissioned Identification of climate change by the National Research Council and impacts on transportation involved Weather impacts on published in 2008 (NRC, 2008; Peterson, the use of a number of Climate surface transportation 2008). In-depth assessments of major Change Science Plan assessments. US metropolitan areas with highly In order to restrict the number of Travellers’ advisories, issued by developed transportation systems weather parameters, we analysed the National Weather Service when were part of these references. This those that have some relevance for transportation-sensitive conditions article attempts to add more recent climate variability and change. For may occur, necessarily vary by analysis and foresee what the most example, while a tornado would have geographical area. A trace of snowfall far-reaching impact of climate change a huge impact on transportation, would trigger a traveller’s advisory in on transportation might mean in the there is little confidence associated the southern portions of the USA, but human context. with the relationship between the several centimetres of snow would be

The weather parameters, a categorization of weather advisories based on those parameters, and their impacts on transportation

Weather parameters Category Impacts Precipitation elements Freezing precipitation, snow accumulation, Loss of traction and control, delays, reduced liquid precipitation, precipitable water vapour, speeds, stresses on vehicle components and soil moisture, flooding, water body depths, fire tyres, rules on tyre chains, wet road surface, road weather spray, flooding causing road closures, re-routeing, weak and uneven braking, intermodal impacts, softened railroad beds, roadbed scouring; drought causing risk of dust and smoke reducing visibility, highway closures, intermodal impacts from barge shutdowns Thunderstorm-related Severe storm cell tracks, lightning, hail, straight Acute, rapidly changing conditions with multiple line winds (derechos) risks of collisions and damage from loss of control, impaired visibility; rock slides causing risk of collisions and delays, damage to infrastructure, blocked railroads Temperature-related Air and surface temperature, including maximum Stresses on vehicle components, infrastructure and minimum, first occurrence of season, heat and, at high temperature, perishable cargoes, rail index, cooling or heating degree days buckling (sun kinks), reduced speeds on rails Winds Wind speed Vehicle instability, loss of control, blow-overs Visibility Restrictions from fog, haze, dust, smog and Reduced speed, risk of collisions and damage from sun glare, upper atmosphere restrictions from rapid change volcanic and desert dust Sea state Tropical cyclones including tracks and elements Supply chain disruptions, road closures, affecting evacuation routes, open-water sea extensive damage to infrastructure and vehicles, ice, high surf, storm surge, abnormal high or low obstructions blocked rails; sea-level rise tides, freezing spray, hurricane winds, sea state, causing rises in sea levels, risk and damage flooding, wind wave height, sea wave height to infrastructure, changes in agricultural and manufacturing production and shipments

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 85 the threshold for an advisory in the northern regions, where drivers are Weather research and surface accustomed to snowy conditions. transport Since about one-quarter of transport delays and crashes in the USA are due Decision-support tools for road management rely heavily on accurate to adverse weather, the need for region- observations and predictions of a wide variety of weather events, specific types of surface weather including fog, heavy rainfall, snow, sleet, freezing rain, forest fires and information is re-assessed regularly. smoke, sandstorms and blowing and drifting snow. Recent decades have Identifying the transportation- seen a dramatic increase in our ability to both observe and predict these sensitive weather parameters was events across a variety of timescales. For example, conditions conducive aided by Weather Information for to ice and snow build-up can now be detected by sensors embedded in Surface Transportation—National roadways and the onset, severity and duration of some major snowstorms Needs Assessment Report, henceforth have been predicted with several days of lead-time (Pisano, 2004). called WIST (Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Major safety problems still occur, even when relying on accurate use of the Services and Supporting Research world’s best forecast models. WMO’s World Weather Research Programme (OFCM), 2002). is focused on accelerating improvements in the prediction of high-impact weather from timescales of a few hours to two weeks. Several projects have Weather parameters, arranged by direct applicability to surface transportation, such as the THORPEX (The category of weather advisories, are Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment) programme grouped in the table on the previous efforts to extend predictions of major precipitation events into week 2, page, along with their impacts. the Sand and Dust Storm Warning, Assessment and Advisory System and (Rossetti, 2002 and 2008.) nowcasting of heavy rainfall (see: http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/ wwrp/new/thorpex_new.html). The WIST report established the national needs and requirements for weather information associated with decision-making for surface transportation operations in six different sectors: road; long-haul railway; marine transportation; rural and urban transit; pipeline systems; and airport ground operations. Here, we will take a look at railway, roadway and marine transport and the impacts of the two dominant weather factors: extreme temperature and extreme precipitation.

Extreme temperature

Railways face particular impacts from high temperatures. When railways opened in the American West 150 years ago, the technology of steam-operated trains required regular refuelling with water about every 160 km. Forts, then towns, grew up around these refuelling stations. if heated up beyond the design designed to be about 22°C less Today, those towns, now grown into criteria, thermal misalignments than the maximum expected rail cities, stretch across the country in or track buckles may result and temperature. lines running from east to west. derailments are possible. Neutral temperature, generally set when the Some research cited by the WIST Today, track is designed to withstand rail is laid, is the point where rail is report shows track failure can occur the internal stresses resulting from a neither expanding nor contracting. at ambient temperatures above large temperature change. However, This neutral temperature is generally 43°C, depending on the degree of

86 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 networks of the Roadway Weather Information Systems (RWIS) as described in the Kentucky mesonet workshop (Foster, 2008). As the name implies, these stations measure weather conditions alongside roads, as well as other transportation corridors.

In at least one instance, however, higher temperatures may have a significant positive impact on transportation. If Arctic Ocean ice conditions continue to become less severe, prospects are for increased international trade through Alaskan water via the Northern Sea Route (NRC, 2008). A strong negative trend Figure 2 — Barge transportation on the Mississippi River and river bank infrastructure in summertime Arctic sea-ice extent exposed to significant long-term changes in river level has been observed over the past 30 years, which was further reinforced by observations in September 2008. difference from the neutral installation service life of roads. In the Alaska According to a report from the temperature. Track-alignment region, higher temperatures have National Oceanic and Atmospheric problems were a significant cause thawed permafrost, weakening or Administration (NOAA), it is becoming of accidents from weather-related destroying roadbeds built upon increasingly likely that the Arctic will factors, with about seven major sun- previously frozen ground. Bridges change from a perennially ice-covered kink events a year (Rossetti, 2002). can be particularly subject to extra to an ice-free ocean in the summer stresses from extended periods of (Richter, 2008). This will have great Operational measures to adapt to elevated temperatures. Additionally, impact on the preferred routes for weather-related temperature extremes according to WIST, high road surface major oceanic transportation. include lower speeds and shorter temperature increases the risk of trains to shorten braking distances tyre blow-outs, especially in heavily Extreme precipitation and lighter loads to reduce track loaded vehicles. stress. These adaptations affect Precipitation accounts for most of the the efficiency of railway operations, These heat-related effects on delays and crashes in motor vehicles increasing the per unit cost of transportation will require short- where weather is a cause. Rain of transport. term operational and long-term sufficient intensity and duration can infrastructure adaptations to avoid submerge roads and flood low-lying Sustained high temperatures can safety and transport efficiency underpasses. Flooding causes road also affect highways and bridges. problems. Highway freight trans­ scouring and washout. Flooding Materials used in constructing roads portation has significantly increased damages or softens railbed support have a limited range of heat tolerance over the past 30 years to accommodate structures, causes overflow onto before thermal cracking occurs. “just-in-time” delivery of goods, in tracks and mudslides that damage Although road-surface temperature effect turning the interstate highway tracks, with about seven major events may significantly exceed ambient system into America’s warehouse a year (Rossetti, 2002). temperature, air temperature over (Shuford, 2009). 32°C is a significant threshold for Major precipitation events can disrupt roadways. A prolonged heatwave in Weather-related delivery delays the entire surface transportation July 2000 in the San Francisco Bay acquire added meaning when system, including goods transported area shut down Interstate 80 when traditional, non-motorized by train, truck, ship and barge. For three lanes buckled due to thermal warehousing of goods is limited. example, in January 2009, intense expansion. For example, local food shortages precipitation—amounting to 15 cm, due to delivery delays resulting from coupled with a warm spell that melted Prolonged heat beyond the design inclement weather are a concern. snow—brought freight trains to a criteria can also cause premature Just-in-time delivery and a new inland standstill and stranded hundreds of deterioration, shortening the port were the impetus behind new trucks along the major highways near

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 87 40 it (Changnon, 1999). Rail and road undercutting from events like these 30 could lead to permanent closures of some infrastructure (NRC 2008).

20 Because intense precipitation events can result in flooding that damages or destroys transportation-related 10 infrastructure, civil engineers use precipitation intensity-frequency- 0 duration values when designing road culverts, stormwater drainage systems, rail lines and roadbeds. -10 Probabilistic estimates of rainfall

Anomaly of number days intensities for a range of durations (5 minutes to 24 hours) for return -20 periods or recurrence intervals of 20, 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 50 and 100 years, are typical design criteria. years Figure 3 — Historical time series from stations within 500 km of Dallas, Texas, showing For much of the country, these proba­ anomalies of the number of days above 37.7°C bilistic estimates of precipitation date from the 1960/1970s. Often, structures are engineered to withstand a 100- Seattle, Washington. A 30-km stretch A record-breaking 24-hour rainstorm year flood (a flood for which there of Interstate 5, the state’s major north- in July 1996 resulted in flash flooding is a 1 per cent chance of occurrence south freeway, closed. The event was in Chicago. Extensive travel delays in any given year). The flood zone so massive that alternative routes, occurred on metropolitan highways maps promulgated by the Federal both for roadways and railways, and railroads, commuters were unable Emergency Management Agency were also closed by widespread to reach Chicago for up to three days (FEMA) are based largely on older avalanches, mudslides and flooding, and more than 300 freight trains were precipitation intensity-frequency- isolating a major port city from its delayed or re-routed. Chicago is the duration estimates. In many regions, markets in the rest of the country nation’s rail hub, with nearly 90 per the area affected by an actual 100- (various media reports). cent of all freight traffic going through year flood will be greater than would be expected using FEMA maps based on this out-of-date information. 100 Consequently, structures engineered Current Year: 2007 to those standards may be at risk. + 25 Years: 2032 More recent analyses (http://www. 80 + 50 Years: 2057 ~ 90 Years: 2099 nws.noaa.gov/oh/hdsc/) provide better estimates on which to base design decisions (Bonnin, 2003). 60 At the other extreme, precipitation deficits cause lower water levels

Probability which adversely affect the use of 40 inland waterways, particularly for barge traffic. Drought has had an influence on commercial navigation 20 on the lower portion of the Mississippi River from St Louis to the Gulf of Mexico, where there are no locks and 0 dams to maintain navigation depths. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 The 1988 drought stranded over Number of Days 4 000 barges. As a result, railroads Figure 4 — The current and future probability of having one to twenty days during the saw increased business in hauling summer at or above 43.3°C at Dallas, Texas grains and other bulk commodities.

88 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 balance, however, because systems SRES A2 are adapted to their historical range SRES A1B 0.5 SRES B1 of extremes, the majority of the impacts of events outside this range are expected to be negative (CCSP 0.4 SAP 3.3).

0.3 In all transport sectors, weather extremes affect the efficiency of

Probability operations and safety and integrity 0.2 of the infrastructure. Previous sections described weather-related 0.1 transport impacts from extreme high temperature and extreme precipitation events. As the following discussion 0 indicates, these events are expected, 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 with high confidence, to occur more Figure 5 — The upward trend in the Simple Daily Intensity Index (the total precipitation frequently in the future because of per year divided by the number of days with precipitation) indicates that, on a US area- climate change. Additionally, some averaged basis, when precipitation does occur, it tends to be heavier. Median model of the most significant regional projected changes in the Simple Daily Intensity Index is projected to continue to transportation infrastructure increase over the continental USA in the future. vulnerabilities to climate change will occur in coastal areas.

Climate-change impacts likely to undergo change with global Temperature projections warming affecting transport is on surface transportation provided in the box overleaf. The climate model output provides projections for changes in mean Climate change will affect the The primary way that climate temperature. But how do these efficiency, safety and reliability of change can impact transportation changes in mean temperatures predict existing transportation infrastructure is through changes in extreme extreme temperatures that may result and the design of new infrastructure. weather conditions. As noted, from climate change? The programme Retrofits and new designs will be there are some positive impacts. On of NOAA’s National Climatic Data expensive to implement, so sound climate data are essential to good decision-making. The climate projections used in the NRC study were based on both observational data and model output, using several different techniques. While a full description can be pursued through the references, the global climate model output used were those that contributed to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). For this study, three greenhouse-gas emissions scenarios were analysed and compared to model simulations of the recent past.

This article does not reproduce the full list of parameters and impacts on

surface land and water transportation. D. McGuirk They are available in the annex to the NRC report (pages 117-134). Instead, Figure 6 — Roads are increasingly subject to heavy traffic. With more high-impact a simple list of the key phenomena weather, traffic planners will need to find ways of dealing with climate change.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 89 that the probability of having a hot Key phenomena likely to undergo summer day will be increasing, i.e. the temperature at which rails buckle change with global warming affecting will become an increasingly common transport occurrence. As a consequence, we can reasonably • Less very cold weather expect that extensive infrastructure – Easier maintenance in snow free areas retrofits will be necessary to ensure – Positive impact on marine transportation continued efficiency, safety and – Fewer ice jams reliability of the US transportation – Less ice build-up on decking system in the face of heat extremes resulting from climate change. • More very hot weather – Railroad track buckling Precipitation projections – Highway asphalt rutting

• General warming would contribute to: With projected changes in total annual – Melting Arctic sea ice: precipitation in the USA having - In summer only considerable uncertainty, indications - Potential opening of North West passage (northern sea are that this precipitation, when it falls, route) will occur during fewer, more intense - Europe to the Far East could save 4 000 km events. (CCSP SAP 3.3). Figure 5 is a – Thawing permafrost problems for Alaskan roads and simple daily intensity graph. It is the pipeline total precipitation in a year divided by – Decreased seasonal icy roads and frozen rural roads the number of days with precipitation. It has a clear upward trend, which is • Increasing heavy rain events borne out by the following examples – Delays in many forms of transportation of precipitation events that affect – Localized flooding transportation. – Damage to bridges designed to last 100 years – Damage to roads and railways designed to last 25 and An analysis of precipitation events in 50 years the Mississippi Delta region (Burkett, – Scouring of pipeline roadbeds 2002) shows increases in more intense events (rainfall greater than 5 cm per • Projected increased summer drying and likelihood of drought day). Average annual precipitation – Low water levels may hamper inland barge traffic has increased overall here by 20- – General warming leading to: 30 per cent over the past 100 years. - Longer rain and shorter snow seasons More recent years have had more - Positive impact on transportation, particularly roadway intense precipitation over much of safety the USA (NRC, 2008). A larger share of rainfall is occurring on very wet days (defined as an incident in the upper 95 per cent of probability of occurrence). Increases in intense Center (NCDC) Probabilities of The city of Dallas, Texas, offers precipitation in the warm season in Temperature Extremes in the USA an example of how more frequent the central USA have been observed, (NOAA, 1999 (CD ROM)) was used high temperatures might affect rail with large amounts of rain falling over to estimate the probability that a transportation. As noted earlier, the a shorter period of time. threshold temperature will occur for threshold of 43°C is the point at which one or more consecutive days and/ rail buckling could occur and rail Some 65 0 0 0 km of navigable or the probability that a threshold transport would be negatively affected. waterways along the coasts, rivers temperature will be exceeded for Dallas recorded a temperature of 43°C and lakes in the USA facilitate any number of days for a station in in September 2000 and three times in transportation by ship and barge. a given month or season, based on the summer of 1980 (spike in Figure 3). An extensive study of the states of statistics from the observed climate Figure 4 shows that Dallas, like most of Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio, which combined with model projections. the USA, has projections that indicate have complex riverine transportation

90 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 systems, reveal a climatic shift to more multi-day periods of heavy rain since the 1920s and a systematic, long-term increase in both flood incidence and magnitude (Changnon, 2001). Given that half the grain exported from the USA is carried on barges in this river system, such climatic shifts have great impact.

Coastal impacts

Tropical and extra-tropical storms have great impact on transportation infrastructure in coastal regions. Transportation systems of the New York-New Jersey-Connecticut metropolitan regions have Figure 8 — Advanced systems monitor US highways and rivers to manage traffic more been shown to be vulnerable to effectively during high-impact weather. significant extra-tropical cyclones or nor’easters (Peterson, 2008). For example, the nor’easter of December 1992 severely crippled the bridge approaches and ventilation estimates of areas likely to be below transportation systems throughout shafts of subways were all swamped sea level at time frames of 25, 50 the area. Roadways were flooded; by the storm surge. Similar or more and 100 years (NRC, 2008). These trains were delayed or cancelled intense events, magnified by the estimates show that important and bus services cancelled; airports effects on critical elevations from transportation infrastructure will were closed due to high winds; piers, sea-level rise resulting from climate be permanently inundated, barring marinas and roads were destroyed change, only worsen the potential mitigation techniques such as the by coastal flooding and surf that for widespread damage in the building of defensive barriers like driven by hurricane-force winds future. sea walls. and exacerbated by astronomical high tide; thousands of boats were More frequent flooding of highways The impact of local sea-level rise is destroyed or significantly damaged and railroads near estuaries during affected by local conditions such (NOAA, 1992). high tides and storms may be as subsidence, changes in the experienced as sea level rises. shoreline’s shape, saltwater intrusion The Metro New York Hurricane Port operations, especially the and inland precipitation flooding. Transportation Study (MNYHTS, movement of goods from one mode Storm-surge calculations should 1995), undertaken following the extra- of transport to another (ship to rail be performed on top of projected tropical storm of December 1992, to truck), will be hampered (WIST 4- local sea-level rise and take into provides an excellent assessment 27). The clearance above high water account the lowest critical elevation of transportation infrastructure will gradually diminish for rail and of infrastructure near the coast. impacts by computing storm-surge road bridges across water in the That, coupled with the possibility heights associated with worst- tidal zone (NRC, 2008). Many east of more intense tropical cyclones case storm tracks for hurricanes. coast railroads have been in their (CCSP SAP 3.3) would give a better Sixteen important transportation present location for 150 years, a view of the local impacts. Damage infrastructures, including tunnels, period during which global and local to inland structures, including bridges, marine terminal facilities sea level has risen and many tracks, transportation infrastructure, is and John F. Kennedy International signals and stations are already low largely dependent on the storm- Airport were examined, noting their enough to be flooded during severe surge elevation, exacerbated by the lowest critical elevations. All the storms (Titus, 2002). amount of local sea-level rise as the structures’ critical elevations were following example indicates. below the surge level of Category 3 Several studies conducted for and 4 hurricanes modelled under coastal areas along the Gulf and The area of a 100-year flood on present climate conditions. In the Atlantic coasts having important today’s maps for Hampton Roads, model, airfields, entry to tunnels, transportation infrastructures, make Virginia, the nation’s 39th most

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 91 populous metropolitan statistical 2008). For example, Virginia on Transportation: Workshop area, becomes a 50-year return Inland Port, some 350 km inland, Summary US Dept. of Transportation, period as a consequence of higher serves as a redistribution centre Workshop, 1-2 October 2002. http://climate.volpe.dot. rainfall intensity and storm surge for moving goods from one mode gov/workshop1002/ from storm events (Shen, 2005). Tide of transport to another, reducing gauges in the nearby Chesapeake some dependency on at-risk coastal Changnon, S.A., 1999: Record flood- Bay indicate sea-level rise in this marine terminals. producing rainstorms of 17-18 July area is twice the global average 1996 in the Chicago metropolitan due to local conditions. The area area. Part III: Impacts and responses Conclusion to the flash flooding, J. Applied is home to the largest naval base Meteorology, 38, 257-265. in the world, two civilian airports, a military transportation control The impact of weather events on Changnon, S.A., K.E. Kunkel and centre and several military bases, transportation operations and K. Andsager, 2001: Causes for record employing over 100 000 people. the impact of climate change on high flood losses in the central United States. Water International, Connected by extensive bridge transportation infrastructure 26, 223-230. and tunnel networks to the second will be significant, as weather largest cargo port on the east extremes change in both frequency Climate Change Science Plan, 2008: coast, this critical transportation and intensity. Weather-related Weather and Climate Extremes infrastructure is all located within operational information will be in a Changing Climate. Final inundation areas from local sea- critical to minimize delivery delays Report, Synthesis and Assessment Product. (T.R. Karl, G.A. Meehl, level rise at the high-probability and to improve transportation safety, C.D. Miller, S.J. Hassol, A.M. Waple mean scenario. reliability and efficiency. and W.L. Murray (eds.)). Dept of Commerce, NOAA National Climatic Many structures on the ocean coast As we become more certain, Data Center, Washington, DC, USA, are designed for a working economic identification of climate-change 164 pp. http://www.climatescience.gov/ life of 50 years or less. A list of impacts for local conditions provides Library/sap/sap3-3/final-report/ these structures includes airports, infrastructure planners with the best default.htm levees and canals, seaports, port possible information they need to structures, navigation channels, reduce risk and improve efficiency Foster, S., 2008: The Kentucky Mesonet turning basins, docking areas and and reliability of new and retrofitted Workshop, 7-8 October 2008, navigation gates, piers and wharfs, transportation systems. Introductory Remarks, Western Kentucky University, Bowling dray and wet docks, highways, Green, Kentucky, USA. railroads, vehicular tunnels and Impacts on coastal infrastructure bridges, storm drains, pipelines and may be the most significant owing Metro New York Hurricane Transportation upstream flood-control systems. to two particular factors. First, Study (MNYHTS), 1995: Interim For this infrastructure, relatively coastal areas are subject to the Technical Data Report/US Army Corps of Engineers, Federal Emergency frequent repair, replacement, and effects of sea-level rise and stronger Management Agency, National re-design can take into account local tropical and extra-tropical storms. Weather Service, NY/NJ/CT State sea-level rise (Peterson, 2008; Titus Second, it is at the coasts that three Emergency Management, 75 pp. 2002). critical modes of transportation interconnect: ships, trains and trucks National Oceanic and Atmospheric Nevertheless, transportation infra­ all carry goods to and from ports. Administration (NOAA), 1992: Storm data publication December 1992. structure can influence patterns Available from the NOAA’S National of development of coastal regions Climatic Data Center, 151 Patton Ave, far beyond the life cycle of the References Asheville, NC 28801. road, or rail, or bridge, thus the Bonnin, G.M., B. Lin and T. Parzybok, ability of coastal regions to adapt NOAA , 1999: Probabilities of Temper­ 2003: Updating NOAA/NWS rainfall ature Extremes in the USA. CD- to climate change may be helped frequency atlases. Symposium ROM available from NOAA National or hindered by the decisions that on Observing and Understanding Climatic Data Center, 151 Patton transportation officials make today the Variability of Water in Weather Ave., Asheville, NC 28801. (Titus 2002). Infrastructure planners and Climate, Long Beach, CA, would benefit from taking climate 9-13 February. National Research Council (NRC), 2008: projections into consideration The Potential Impacts of Climate Burkett, V.R., 2002: Potential impacts Change on US Transportation Special when making decisions about of climate change and variability Report 290, Transportation Research new infrastructure, including the on transportation in the Gulf Coast/ Board, Washington DC 20001, USA. placement of this infrastructure in Mississippi Delta region. In: The http://onlinepubs.trb.org/ less vulnerable locations (Shuford, Potential Impacts of Climate Change onlinepubs/sr/sr290.pdf

92 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Office of the Federal Coordinator Rossetti, M.A., 2002: Potential impacts Data Center by the University of for Meteorological Services and of climate change on railroads. North Carolina, Asheville, North Supporting Research (OFCM), 2002: In: The Potential Impacts of Carolina. Review copies available Weather Information for Surface Climate Change on Transportation: from G. Voos, UNC-Asheville, Transportation: A National Needs Workshop Summary. US Dept. and Marjorie McGuirk, Principal Assessment Report (WIST), FCM- of Transportation, Workshop, Investigators. To be published R18-2002, Washington, DC. 1-2 October. in 2009 by American Planning http://www.ofcm.gov/wist_report/ http://climate.volpe.dot. Association. wist-report.htm gov/workshop1002/ Shuford, S., G. Voos, J. Fox et al., Pisano, A.P., D.A. Stern and P.W. Mahoney Rossetti, M.A., 2008: Impacts of weather 2009: Applied science at the local III. 2004: The winter maintenance and climate on commercial motor government level—climate change decision support system (MDSS): vehicles. American Meteorological science for planning professionals. Demonstration Results and Future Society 20th Conference on Climate Fourth Symposium on Policy Plans. [Electronic version]. Variability and Change, New and Socio-Economic Research, http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/ Orleans, Louisiana, USA. American Meteorological Society weather/best_practices/ Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, MDSSpaperAMS2004.pdf Shen, J., W. Gong and H. Wang, 2005: Nevada. Simulation of Hurricane Isabel Peterson, T., M. McGuirk et al., 2008: using the Advanced Circulation Titus, J., 2002: Does sea-level rise matter Climate Variability and Change with Model for Shelves, Coasts and to transportation along the Atlantic Implications for Transportation. Estuaries, Virginia Institute of coast? In: The Potential Impacts of Transportation Research Board, Marine Science, Department of Climate Change on Transportation: Washington DC, USA. Physical Sciences, College of Workshop Summary, US Dept. of http://onlinepubs.trb.org/ William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Transportation, 1-2 October. onlinepubs/sr/sr290Many.pdf VA 23062, USA. h ttp://climate.volpe.dot.gov/ workshop1002/. Richter-Menge, J., J. Comiso et al., 2008: Shuford, S., 2008: Planning for Climate Sea ice cover. In: Arctic Report Change; A Handbook for Urban Card: and Rural Area Planners. Draft http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/ manuscript produced under a reportcard/seaice.html grant from NOAA National Climatic

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 93 Meteorological services to aviation Title by Chi Ming Shun1, Ian Lisk2, Carr McLeod3 and Kevin L. Johnston4

Introduction Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and WMO works with National as an agency of the United Nations Meteorological Services (NMSs) and provided the mechanism for to deliver these services. Since the Wilbur also requested and international agreement on all responsibilities are shared, Annex 3 is scrutinized US Weather Bureau issues related to civil aviation. duplicated mutatis mutandis as a WMO data, and selected Kitty Hawk The Convention has 18 annexes publication (WMO-No. 49, Volume II), after writing to the government establishing standards for areas approved by the WMO Executive meteorologist stationed there. such as air traffic control, navigation Council. Amendments to ICAO Annex systems and communications 3/WMO-No. 49 are introduced every Thus began a relationship between systems. Important to meteorologists three years and have to be approved aviators and meteorologists in the is Annex 3—Meteorological Service by the Councils of ICAO and WMO. lead-up to the first controlled powered for International Air Navigation. Fundamental changes, however, flight by Wilbur and Orville Wright require deliberation by the conjoint in 1903. WMO became a specialized agency sessions of the ICAO Meteorological of the United Nations in 1951. ICAO Division and the WMO Commission The next 50 years saw incredible and WMO soon established working for Aeronautical Meteorology (CAeM), advances in the technology of arrangements that set out who does with these conjoint sessions typically aviation and in the development what when it comes to meteorological held once every decade. of meteorology as a science. By services to aviation. The relationship is the late 1930s, air travel between conceptually simple: ICAO establishes For all NMSs, aviation is more than countries was becoming feasible. It the requirements for meteorological just another client requiring weather rapidly became clear that support services to international aviation and services. Part of the arrangements and standardization were needed WMO establishes how to meet these between aviation and meteorology is to ensure the safe operation of requirements and sets standards for the well-established and internationally international flights. The year 1944 service delivery. coordinated practice of cost recovery saw the drafting of the Convention for services rendered. This can be on International Civil Aviation (see The international aviation user a controversial issue, although the box opposite, which was eventually organizations (the International importance of serving aviation and ratified by a sufficient number of Air Transport Association, the recovering costs for those services nations to come into effect in 1947. International Federation of Air Line should not be underestimated. In Pilots’ Associations, the European some cases, aviation provides up to Better known as the Chicago Regions Airline Association, etc.) 80 per cent of the budget of small Convention, it created the International communicate their needs to ICAO NMSs, so the aviation client deserves to be well served.

1 Hong Kong Observatory, Hong Kong, China; vice-president, WMO Commission for As noted, the arrangements are Aeronautical Meteorology (CAeM) simple in concept. What follows will 2 Met Office, UK; Chair of the CAeM Expert Team on Education and Training 3 President, CAeM help to show some of the complexities 4 US Federal Aviation Administration; Chair of the CAeM Expert Team on New Terminal in the details of service to aviation Weather Forecast and some emerging issues brought

94 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 for managing the quality of any service Preamble to the Convention on delivered. Continuous improvement and development of the service to suit International Civil Aviation the evolving needs of the users are also key to the success of the NMS (the Chicago Convention) of 1947 in an increasingly competitive global environment. WHEREAS the future development of international civil aviation can greatly help to create and preserve friendship and understanding among In many countries, liaison groups the nations and peoples of the world, yet its abuse can become a threat to and industry forums have been the general security; and established by weather services to foster the relationship with airlines, WHEREAS it is desirable to avoid friction and to promote that cooperation pilots, general aviation stakeholders, between nations and peoples upon which the peace of the world dispatchers and ramp operators. depends; Apart from covering the standard services specified by ICAO Annex 3/ THEREFORE, the undersigned governments having agreed on certain WMO-No. 49, close liaison with principles and arrangements in order that international civil aviation may be users can identify the user’s need for developed in a safe and orderly manner and that international air transport customized and value-added services, services may be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and driving further development of the operated soundly and economically; local aviation weather information delivery (see box overleaf), as well Have accordingly concluded this Convention to that end. as international developments of new aviation weather services.

Evolving users about by changes in the aviation directly with the airlines and airport industry and advances in the science authorities. Irrespective of the model With the significant increase in of meteorology. adopted, it is imperative for the air traffic over various regions NMS to establish close coordination in the past decade, demands for Client focus arrangements with the CAA. increasing consultations and new types of weather products (see Civil Aviation Authorities Airlines and pilots “Developing services” above) by the airport management and air traffic The national Civil Aviation Authority Being the end-users of the weather management (ATM) stakeholders are (CAA) or, in some cases, the air services for flight planning and increasing. This has become a critical navigation service provider, is a operations, it goes without saying issue for the major regional hubs in primary user of weather services, that the airlines and pilots should be Europe, North America and Asia. ensuring efficient flight operations the focus of user liaison for any NMS. Provision of added-value services to and aviation safety. Many NMSs are Customer satisfaction surveys and assist in decision-making and advance also designated as the meteorological users’ feedback are essential drivers planning to mitigate the disruption of authority and are thus responsible for regulating the provision of weather services for international air navigation. There is an increasing trend in some regions for the CAA or a similar authority to also take up the regulatory role for the weather service provision, as well as setting the level of service and the cost to be recovered by the NMS for delivery. In some other countries, the NMS, being the designated meteorological authority, enjoys a parallel and direct relationship with the other sectors of the aviation community, with service provision Liaison groups and industry forums promote relationships with aviation users and gather and cost recovery closely coordinated important customer feedback.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 95 Aviation Meteorological Information Dissemination System

The Aviation Meteorological Information Dissemination System (AMIDS), a Web-based information delivery system operated by the Hong Kong Observatory, China, for airlines, pilots, despatchers, ramp operators and general aviation, saw an almost 10-fold increase in usage in the past decade (see chart), during which air traffic volume increased by about 80 per cent. Apart from the introduction of ICAO-specified products, such as the digital forecasts of World Area Forecast System , the significant increase in aviation weather information usage was related to the demand by users for local weather information, such as weather radar, local winds and, more recently, lightning information and thunderstorm nowcasting products. AMIDS has also been developed into a platform for prototyping international demonstration projects and collecting user’s feedback from the aviation community.

60 000

50 000

40 000

30 000

20 000

10 000 Average number of visits per day Average

0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Aviation weather information usage in Hong Kong shows significant growth at a rate higher than air traffic growth.

Aviation-weather Disaster Risk Reduction pilot project Web page showing a probabilistic forecast of a tropical cyclone

operations by high-impact weather be appended to METAR messages for by an aircraft-in-flight. A PIREP is such as tropical cyclones, winter selected aerodromes to indicate any usually generated when a potentially snowstorms and icing is increasingly significant changes expected in the hazardous weather phenomenon is welcomed by airlines, ATM and airport two hours immediately following the encountered, for example, severe management. time of the report. aircraft icing, turbulence or wind shear. Current services METARs are produced by staff trained in accordance with WMO Aeronautical METARs and PIREPs are used by Observations Meteorological Observer (AMO) meteorologists, pilots, Air Traffic guidelines. Most AMOs are meteo- Control staff and flight dispatchers Airfield weather observations rological support staff, although there for the purposes of monitoring, flight (meteorological aerodrome reports) has been an increasing tendency for planning and safety. routinely provide aviation-critical this role to be fulfilled by Air Traffic weather information using the concise Control (ATC) operations staff and, Forecasts and easy-to-interpret METAR code more recently, by technologically format. Reports of significant changes advanced automatic weather in the weather that take place in observing equipment. The aviation sector is a major between routine observations are also meteorological customer and, reported as Special Weather Reports METARs are supplemented by PIREP historically, most of the developments in the SPECI code format. A two-hour reports. These are pilot reports of the made in forecasting have been for forecast known as a “TREND” can also actual weather conditions encountered the improvement of meteorological

96 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres, which form part of the International Airways Volcanic Watch, and six Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centres. These centres support the timely provision of SIGMETs of volcanic ash and tropical cyclones by the Meteorological Watch Offices.

Appropriate training and ongoing maintenance of skills and knowledge of personnel providing aviation weather services are facilitated by WMO through the CAeM Expert Team on Education and

Thomas Lener Training (http://www.caem.wmo. int/moodle/). Winter snowstorms bring disruptions to major airports every year. Flight planning

services to aviation. Advances in is evident in the range and scope of the technology and aircraft design, forecasts they produce. For example, ICAO, in coordination with WMO, has together with the relentless drive an Aerodrome Meteorological Office established the World Area Forecast for ever more efficient and safe forecaster will focus on aerodrome System (WAFS) with two designated operations, have resulted in a warnings and forecasts that are centres for providing specialist requirement for increasingly vital for flight safety, such as the global aviation weather services. accurate, varied and customer- Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). World Area Forecast Centre (WAFC) focused meteorological products A Meteorological Watch Forecaster, London and WAFC Washington are and services, particularly for the first meanwhile, has responsibilities for responsible for producing global 36 hours of the forecast period. national and/or regional forecasts aviation wind, temperature and and for generating SIGMETs/AIRMETs significant weather forecasts in Aeronautical Meteorological for warning of hazardous en-route support of flight planning, mainly for Forecasters are qualified and trained aviation weather. flights above 24 000 feet. Equipped in accordance with WMO guidelines with satellite reception systems and the challenge that they face daily ICAO, in coordination with WMO, and/or access to Internet service, in weather monitoring and forecasting has established nine designated aerodrome meteorological offices are able to receive the WAFS digital forecast products for compilation of flight documents and provision of weather information to suit the requirements of airlines and flight crews in flight planning and operations.

Traditionally, aircrew received face- to-face briefings during which the forecaster would highlight any flight-safety issues expected during the proposed flight. In the light of economic constraints and logistical reasons, however, the norm has increasingly become for aircrew to self-brief using either Internet- based briefing services or using documentation retrieved from Web-based servers or sent via A typical aerodrome meteorological observation system facsimile.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 97 anemometer-based wind shear detection systems in the 1970s and radar-based systems in the 1990s.

Another recent thrust of weather service development for aviation has also taken advantage of the availability of weather radar and lightning-detection networks and advanced nowcasting techniques for short-term prediction of thunderstorm movement, thus mitigating the impact of weather in disrupting air traffic management and airline operations at busy aviation hubs and airspace. Further discussion on this new terminal forecast development will follow in the next section.

The advances of NWP techniques and computational power have also brought significant benefits to the industry with the accuracy of predicted flight times achieving the order of minutes nowadays, thanks Volcanic ash is a major hazard to aviation. to the continuous reduction of the

Telecommunications Advances in techniques and quality of services Operational aeronautical meteoro­ logical data (OPMET), including In the past couple of decades, METARs, TAFs and SIGMETs/AIR- advances in remote-sensing and METs, are disseminated in real-time new observation techniques, over ICAO-approved regional and including meteorological satellites, global telecommunication net- weather radars, lightning detection works, such as the Aeronautical networks, aircraft observations Fixed Telecommunications Net- (AMDAR) and numerical weather work. The associated international prediction (NWP) have offered great coding protocols and formats are opportunities for enhancing weather agreed between ICAO and WMO services, especially for aviation. working groups. Using the example of automatic low-level wind shear alerting, the WAFS products are disseminated emergence of the Doppler Light by satellite as part of the dedicated Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) ICAO Aeronautical Fixed Service, technology has made it feasible utilizing the United Kingdom’s for weather services to detect Satellite Distribution System hazardous wind shear induced by (SADIS) and the US International complex terrain under non-rainy Satellite Communications System. conditions and issue alerts to Increased use is also being made of aircraft automatically. This has gone the ICAO-approved SADIS, Internet- a long way in enhancing aviation High-level SIGWX forecast from WAFC based ftp service. safety since the introduction of London

98 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 upper-air wind forecast errors. With the increased availability of high-resolution NWP forecast products on global, regional and local scales, better support of air traffic management and flight operations, such as the introduction of airport approach sequencing and fuel-saving flight trajectories, can be expected.

Developing services

To meet the needs of air traffic management to improve safety and efficiency of air traffic, a WMO Expert Team is working with ICAO to develop a new terminal forecast (NTF) product. It is envisaged that this product will provide forecasts of weather elements critical to aviation in the terminal area* with much finer resolution in space (to include vertical domain) and time compared to traditional aviation products such as the terminal area forecast and various WAFS products.

The new terminal forecast will be produced in a digital, gridded format, initially being available as a Web- based graphic in the 2013 time frame. At this time, the product will include forecasts of convection, winds, low ceiling and visibility and winter weather. Further out in time (by about 2018), other elements important to aviation and the environment will be included, such as icing, turbulence, wake vortices, noise abatement and air quality. In addition, probabilistic Face-to-face briefings (above) are increasingly being replaced by self-briefings, using attributes of the various weather automated systems (below). elements will be included. The new terminal forecast will be a critical component to ongoing worldwide USA and Europe, respectively. These cockpit by uplink will be particularly activities to develop future air traffic future ATM systems will integrate crucial in achieving this. management systems such as weather information with aircraft NextGen and SESAR activities in the and other operational information Several Members are involved to provide pilots, dispatchers and in the development of the new controllers with a common operating terminal forecast and plans are being * The terminal area is defined as that portion picture that will increase efficiency developed to prototype the first phase of the airspace within the proximity of a and, at the same time, reduce the of the product in 2009-2010. A Website controlled aerodrome within which arriving impact of aviation on the environment. (http://www.ntf.weather.gov.hk/) and departing aircraft are managed to provide separation, assurance, appropriate arrival Pilots’ ability to receive the weather has been developed to facilitate this spacing, appropriate departure spacing and information, in both textual and development and evaluation of the final approach sequencing. graphical format, directly in the prototypes by aviation users.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 99 Quality

A primary focus of the aviation industry is safe and economic operations and, in terms of the delivery of aviation weather services, this is underpinned by the quality of the products (and forecasts, in particular) provided.

An internationally recognized strategy to improve service delivery has been the implementation of a quality- management system (QMS). The adoption of a QMS approach to the delivery of aviation weather services has been on ICAO’s agenda for several years and, more recently, that of WMO through its Intercommission Task Team on the Quality Management Framework. Schematic diagram of LIDAR wind shear alerting system

ICAO and WMO standards and recommended practices for the the United Republic of Tanzania and weather services has a positive delivery of aviation weather services also development of methodologies impact on the NMS that translates will, with effect from 2010, call on for forecast verification. into significant safety and economic States/Members to implement a benefits for the aviation industry. properly organized quality system The adoption of QMS principles which should be in conformity with as a framework for the delivery of the International Organization for aviation weather services offers Standardization (ISO) 9000 series of significant value-added benefits to Challenges in the quality assurance standards. NMSs and, in turn, to the aviation provision of aviation industry, not least because two of Although ISO certification the key underlying principles are meteorological services requirement will likely remain a continual improvement and customer recommendation in 2010, there relations. For example, the systematic Efficiency of services is already an intrinsic desire verification and evaluation of aviation embedded in the majority of NMSs forecasts provides a mechanism for to continually improve the quality of the ongoing improvement of aviation Aviation has been feeling the effects the products and services it provides service provision in terms of quality, of the economic and political crises to the aviation industry. The aviation timeliness and customer focus. and has become a focus of attention industry is highly regulated and as an economic sector that is both adoption of a QMS framework and, It is also of note that NMSs that contributing and exposed to all facets in particular, the achievement of have recently undergone an ICAO of climate change. Significant efforts certification under the ISO 9001:2000 Universal Safety Oversight Audit to reduce costs within the airline Quality Management Standard, Programme (USOAP) have found industry have triggered demands for therefore sits well within the aviation that their quality-management comparable measures on the side of environment. WMO has been initiatives and in particular service providers to aviation, from air proactive in assisting Members’ certification under ISO 9001:2000, traffic services, airports and ancillary implement QMS through the have not only complemented the services to aviation meteorology. sponsoring of several QMS seminars, USOAP but assisted in ensuring NMSs thus have the difficult task of publication of a selection of QMS their success in meeting the demonstrating that their net benefit guides (available at http://www.wmo. demands of these audits. in terms of reduced operating and int/pages/prog/www/QMF-Web/ planning costs, environmental impact Documentation.html), establishment The adoption of a quality-management and passenger/crew safety and of a QMS demonstration project in approach to the delivery of aviation comfort outweighs the cost they are

100 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 adapting and responding to these changes:

• Coordinate the development of new ATM-oriented products and the exchange of know-how with all Members through the work of the Expert Team on the New Terminal Forecast (see section “Advances in techniques and quality of services” above);

• Develop jointly with the aviation community and ICAO ways to gather, use and disseminate meteorological information to minimize the burning of fuel, carbon dioxide output and contrails/cirrus generation to mitigate the effects of climate Rapid air traffic growth in various regions in the past decade has increased the change; vulnerability of air traffic management to disruption by weather. • Ensure, through the work of dedicated expert teams, that Members have access to current charging to the industry, the taxpayers meteorological offices in order to training material and curricula to or any combination thereof. maintain close customer relations ensure proper qualification of staff, with air traffic management, airline, that they operate a recognized As part of the air traffic services chain, pilot and airport management quality-management system, NMSs are affected by a wide-spread users. again by using snowballing trend to restructure airspace to larger and exchange of guidance and units. They need to find their optimal Three main strategies are employed by documentation, and that they have “niche” between globalized products, the WMO Aeronautical Meteorology access to guidance on customer e.g. those provided by WAFS, national Programme to assist Members in relations and consultation. and regional warning services such as SIGMET/AIRMET and low-level graphic products of significant weather, and the emerging aerodrome-oriented specialized products for such diverse questions as wake vortex predictions and dedicated warnings of lightning or snow/freezing precipitation, for which commercial providers are increasingly offering bespoke services.

The world of aeronautical meteo­ rological service delivery is changing and many of the developing and smaller nations are finding it increasingly difficult to keep up with the pace of technology and change. In response to the relentless drive from the aviation customer to increase efficiency, some NMSs have opted to centralize their aviation forecast production, whilst others The ability of pilots to receive weather information uplinked to the cockpit will be crucial have preferred to retain their airport to achieving a common operating picture among all aviation stakeholders.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 101 Flexibility will be key to continued service provision in an economic environment characterized by rapidly changing conditions. Fuel prices, emissions-trading schemes emerging in some regions and environmental restrictions at some airports all result in the need to maintain close liaison between all stakeholders so that services can be quickly adapted to changing constraints.

The traditional global consultation process on the basic requirements for services to aviation driven by ICAO in cooperation with IATA and WMO, involving many levels of decision- making bodies, may prove to be a Thunderstorms are a major weather element that needs to be addressed by the new little slow in responding to such rapid terminal forecast. changes and will benefit from more informal additional arrangements for rapidly evolving requirements. common standards are adhered to economies of scale are always to and grand plans are subjected to be considered a prime option. The NMSs will also need to consider a reality check in all areas and at development of new techniques carefully which services they can different levels of development! involving complex and costly offer themselves under a commercial technology on a purely national agreement, and where specialized Regional and global basis may not bear economic scrutiny contractors from the private sector for many smaller and developing may be able to provide expertise cooperation in the provision countries but, even for larger NMSs, and services in cooperation with of services to aviation cooperation with partners in the the NMS. On the other hand, only same region, a leading research global coordination will ensure that When it comes to efficient and and development institution or an duplication of efforts is avoided, effective delivery of services, industrial partner may be the best way to achieve results fast, affordably and compliant with international standards of quality and integrity.

Historically, regional air navigation service alliances such as Eurocontrol for western and central/south-eastern Europe or the Agency for Air Safety in Africa and Madagascar have driven enhanced cooperation in their area of influence, especially among providers of meteorological services. The challenge of congested air space has accelerated the integration of services across national boundaries or agencies and undertakings such as NextGen (Next Generation Air Transport System) in the USA or SESAR (Single European Sky ATM Research) in Europe are setting de facto standards in service delivery that will require other regions to collaborate closely if they do not Prototype NTF products under development wish to become marginalized by

102 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 smaller and developing country Members can benefit from techniques and products generated on a regional basis for national applications (see sample product tailored for Lao People’s Democratic Republic to the left).

Conclusion

The relationship between aviation and meteorology spans more than a century. Serving aviation was the single most important factor in the formation of NMSs. This long-standing and successful relationship is comfortable but perhaps consequently dangerous. Newer and fresher issues continue to grab the attention of decision- makers and bureaucrats. There is a need, however, to continue to focus TAF guidance for four Lao airports provided by the Asian Aviation Meteorology Website on maintaining and continuously (http://www.aamets.org/) improving meteorological service to this important client. such large regional blocks and see agreements needed as “single voice their traffic from and to such regions of meteorology” in such regional jeopardized. undertakings, and laudable pilot projects such as the Asian Aviation NMSs are thus in the process of Meteorology Website (http://www. forming alliances and cooperation aamets.org/) are examples of how

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 103 Meteorology for travellers Title by S.T. Christopher

Introduction Climate is what you expect, weather is what you Everyone travels at some time in his or her life. With the advent of low- get ... cost air travel, more people travel farther and faster than ever before in human history. Travel is for both recreation and business. Either way, in what they will encounter at their Now, Skadi’s googling happened travellers will be interested in the destination so that they can plan what on Saturday, 28 February 2009 and weather at their destination, possibly clothes to take and how to make the Skadi planned to arrive in Tokyo on interested in the weather along the best of their time in a foreign city. Tuesday, 2 March. The Japanese way and often very curious about Our traveller, Skadi, is interested in Meteorological Agency (JMA) weather events they encounter on the weather and so she “googles” provides the official climate data their travels that they have never her destination’s meteorological (see Table 1) and forecasts for Japan, encountered before. This article takes information and is confronted with but there are many other forecasts a very selective overview of what is a raft of climate data and weather on the Web valid for Skadi’s time of likely to cause travellers delays, what information. arrival, a sample of which are listed information is available to assist them to plan for weather-related disruptions and to understand better how long Table 1 — Climatological information provided by the Japan Meteorological Agency delays might last. (JMA)

The travels of four individuals are Month Mean temperature °C Mean total Mean number briefly outlined; Skadi is flying from Daily Daily rainfall (mm) of rain days Europe to Japan on recreation, Glacies minimum maximum from Asia to Washington, also on a January 2.1 9.8 48.6 4.6 holiday, and two business people, Oz February 2.4 10.0 60.2 5.8 and Smoky, are planning to fly from Africa to Australia and from Australia March 5.1 12.9 114.5 9.5 to the Middle East, respectively. April 10.5 18.4 130.3 10.1 May 15.1 22.7 128.0 9.6 June 18.9 25.2 164.9 11.9 Skadi does her July 22.5 29.0 161.5 10.4 meteorological planning August 24.2 30.8 155.1 8.2 September 20.7 26.8 208.5 11.3 Clearly, some travellers are not at all October 15.0 21.6 163.1 9.1 weather-conscious, choosing to enjoy November 9.5 16.7 92.5 6.2 the adventure of whatever comes their way, but many more are interested December 4.6 12.3 39.6 3.8

104 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Table 2 — Web-accessible forecasts for Tokyo’s weather

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 1 March 2 March 3 March 4 March 5 March 6 March

JMA (Official public Max 10 / Min 5 10 / 3 8 / 1 13 / 4 13 / 6 13 / 6 forecast for Tokyo) Cloudy Cloudy Rain Rain Cloudy Cloudy BBC Max 7 Max 10 Max 7 Max 6 N/A N/A Light rain Fine Light rain Light rain Weatherzone 10 / 4 10 / 3 7 / 1 12 / 3 N/A N/A Cloudy Fine Drizzle Drizzle Weather Underground 9 / 3 9 / 3 9 / 3 N/A N/A N/A Rain Fine Rain MSN 5 / 3 8 / -2 6 / 3 5 / 4 5 / 4 N/A Showers Fine Cloudy Rain Rain

in Table 2. The climate data tell Skadi expected weather, with fine weather she seeks these maps on the Japan what normally happens in March, but expected on the day of arrival and rain Meteorological Agency’s official Web­ remembering the old adage; “climate likely thereafter. But is it going to be site. Skadi is particularly interested in is what you expect, weather is what windy, with driving rain, or calm with the synoptic forecast chart that is valid you get”, she now looks for forecasts long sunny dry intervals? To answer for her arrival time some 48 hours that are valid for when, and shortly this type of question, Skadi needs ahead (Figure 1) and, being familiar after, she arrives in Tokyo. more data. with the ways winds circulate around the highs and lows, including knowing Reviewing some of the available Skadi knows that these forecasts that the winds are stronger when the forecasts listed in Table 2, it is have been derived from the study of isobars are close together, she quickly immediately obvious to Skadi that weather analyses and forecasts in appreciates from Figure 1 that she will there is reasonable consistency in the map form and, being weather-wise, need to take an umbrella and warm rain coat as it is likely to be windy, humid and cold, with northerly winds from Siberia flowing over Tokyo.

So, Skadi, a Norse goddess of winter, is able to find out a lot about the climate and weather quickly from the Internet. Because she is quite astute, she treats with great caution outliers amongst the forecasts in Table 2 and then considers the spread of the remaining forecasts as a good indicator of the likely accuracy of the underlying forecast systems. On those occasions when Skadi is about to travel and there is great divergence in the forecasts for her destination, she considers the overall forecast to be of low reliability.

Glacies and Washington weather Japan Meteorological Agency So, Skadi will enjoy a few wintery days in Tokyo before a touch of spring is Figure 1 — 48-hour forecast map, valid at 00 UTC on 2 March 2009 in the air, but what does Glacies face

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 105 All tropical cyclones, US$ 141.6, 45.6%

Tornadoes, US$ 82.4, 26.5%

Winter storms, US$ 24.4, 7.9%

Terrorism, US$ 22.9, 7.4 %

Earthquakes, US$ 19.5, 6,5%

Wind/hail/flood, US$ 9.9, 3.2%

Fire, US$ 8.1, 2.6%

Utility service disruption, US$ 0.2, 0.1% NOAA

Civil disorders, US$ 1.1, 0.4%

Insurance Information Institute Figure 3 — Water vapour satellite image, with the blue/red/yellow-coloured area showing the winter storm approaching Figure 2 — Inflation-adjusted US catastrophe insurance losses 1988-2007 (US$ billions) Washington DC

when he flies to Washington? Every particularly at airports that usually air traveller fears events that cause do not experience such conditions, storms are the third most costly substantial delays, of hours to days, where long delays can occur. weather event in the USA (Figure 2), at an airport. In the higher latitudes, and that, along with high payouts it is generally severe winter storms Glacies knows from his study of for property damage, are substantial with heavy snowfall and freezing rain, insurance payouts that severe winter causes of delays at major airports. As a traveller to the USA, Glacies uses the Internet to check for a Winter Storm Advisory or, even worse, URGENT - WINTER WEATHER MESSAGE Winter Storm Watch messages for NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE BALTIMORE MD/WASHINGTON DC 1040 AM EST SAT FEB 28 2009 the area around Washington DC and finds the message given in the box DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA... on this page, below. INCLUDING THE CITIES OF...WASHINGTON...... BALTIMORE...ANNAPOLIS... Glacies decides that he needs to ...ALEXANDRIA...FALLS CHURCH... better understand the storm that 1040 AM EST SAT FEB 28 2009 Washington faces and so downloads ...WINTER STORM WATCH REMAINS IN EFFECT FROM SUNDAY some satellite imagery (Figure 3). His AFTERNOON THROUGH MONDAY MORNING... next step in self-help is to try and assess how long the east coast of A WINTER STORM WATCH REMAINS IN EFFECT FROM SUNDAY the USA might be affected by the AFTERNOON THROUGH MONDAY MORNING. storm. It is clear that the Winter LOW PRESSURE ALONG THE GULF COAST WILL MOVE EAST Storm Warning does not explicitly TONIGHT... EMERGING IN THE WESTERN ALTANTIC NEAR say when the event might end, so it GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA BY SUNDAY MORNING. THE LOW is back to the US National Oceanic WILL THEN STRENGTHEN AS IT MOVES NORTH ALONG THE COAST and Atmospheric Administration’s SUNDAY AFTERNOON AND NIGHT. National Weather Service Website SOME COLD AIR WILL BE IN PLACE DUE TO PRECIPITATION and try and see when the forecast TONIGHT. THE STORM WILL REINFORCE THAT COLD AIR. PLENTY for Washington improves. The box OF MOISTURE WILL BE IN PLACE TOO. THEREFORE...THERE overleaf contains the forecasts our WILL BE THE POSSIBILITY OF 5 OR MORE INCHES OF SNOW. traveller finds, indicating that the weather is likely to improve by about A WINTER STORM WATCH MEANS THERE IS A POTENTIAL FOR SIGNIFICANT SNOW...SLEET... Tuesday, 3 March. OR ICE ACCUMULATIONS THAT MAY IMPACT TRAVEL. CONTINUE TO MONITOR THE LATEST FORECASTS. So, Glacies, the god of ice, is pleased with the short-term outlook for Washington and hopes that there will be no delays that stop him

106 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 its port because of a threatening so Oz books his flights from Cape Sunday Sunday Night tropical cyclone. Oz then uses the Town to Port Hedland. Internet to determine when he can get into Port Hedland to re-negotiate arrangements to move iron ore from Smoky and air 60% 70% the port. traffic delays

Snow/sleet Snow To refresh his understanding of Smoky is a frequent air traveller. As High 3°C Low -3°C tropical cyclone tracks, he opens up a reporter, she moves around Central Figure 4 on the Internet. The cluster Asia, South-East Asia and Australia. of tracks off the Australian west coast, She knows all about the weather and Monday Monday night heading initially southwest then has experienced more diversions and turning southeast to make landfall delays from low visibility at airports was what Oz expected to see. caused by smoke haze, fog and dust­ storms than from the exciting weather 40% Oz does not want to spend time many travellers worry about—such sitting in airports waiting for the as thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, Chance snow Mostly cloudy weather to clear. Rather, he needs etc. Smoky’s next assignment will High O°C Low -6°C information that will tell him when take her to Dhaka, Bangladesh, and airports will be open and business then north to Central Asia. can resume. He logs onto the Tuesday Tuesday night Australian Bureau of Meteorology Smoky recalls delays with Website and quickly checks the duststorms in Baghdad and the El satellite image for 17.30 UTC on 28 Niño of 2003, when there were long February 2009 (Figure 5(a)) and sees delays travelling into, and out of, that the cloud mass associated with Kuala Lumpur airport, because of the tropical cyclone is now largely extensive, uncontrolled forest fires Mostly sunny Partly cloudy overland, suggesting to him that the in Malaysia. She vividly remembers High 3°C Low -6°C weather situation should be about a recent diversion from Tashkent to to improve. To confirm that the Ashkabad, because the visibility, system is moving away, Oz checks caused by smog at Tashkent, was Wednesday the tropical cyclone track map on too low to enable her aircraft to land. the Website (Figure 5(b)) and, finally, She also recalls long delays in winter the latest warning issued by the mornings when flying to Canberra Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in because of fog. On each of these Perth, Australia (box on next page). occasions, her preliminary check of Things are looking very good and her destination forecast indicated Mostly sunny that the weather was fine. High 6°C

from enjoying the bout of snow and freezing rain before things improve later in the week.

Oz and tropical cyclones

Oz is a businessman. He is in the business of arranging to move bulk

commodities in ships around the wikimedia world. He has been doing some business in Cape Town, when he hears that Port Hedland, on the Figure 4 — The tracks of all tropical cyclones that formed worldwide from 1985 to 2005. western Australian coast, has closed The points show the locations of the storms at six-hourly interval.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 107 (a) (b) Australian of Meteorology Bureau Figure 5 — (a) Satellite image valid 17.30 UTC on 28 February 2009; (b) Australian Bureau of Meteorology track and forecast for the tropical depression threatening Port Hedland

IDW24200 Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology Western Australia

Media: The Standard Emergency Warning Signal should NOT be used with this warning.

PRIORITY TROPICAL CYCLONE ADVICE NUMBER 14 Issued at 9:50 pm WDT on Saturday, 28 February 2009 BY THE BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING CENTRE PERTH

The Cyclone Warning between Pardoo and Roebourne has been cancelled.

At 9:00 pm WDT a tropical low was estimated to be on the coast 17 kilometres northeast of Port Hedland and moving south at 19 kilometres per hour.

Widespread heavy rain is likely in the east Pilbara overnight and significant flooding may result. Please refer to Flood advices for more information.

The low is currently crossing the coast near Port Hedland. Strong winds are possible near the low but gales are no longer expected along the Pilbara coast.

As the low moves inland, it may produce flash flooding and locally damaging winds through the eastern Pilbara, northeast Gascoyne, northern Goldfields and adjacent Interior. A separate Severe Weather Warning has been issued for these areas [IDW28001].

Details of the tropical low at 9:00 pm WDT: .Centre located near...... 20.2 degrees South 118.7 degrees East .Location accuracy...... within 75 kilometres .Recent movement...... towards the south at 19 kilometres per hour .Wind gusts near centre...... 85 kilometres per hour .Severity category...... below cyclone intensity .Central pressure...... 996 hectoPascals

FESA-State Emergency Service advises that there are no community alerts. No further advices will be issued for this system. Cyclone advices and State Emergency Service Community Alerts are available by dialling 1300 659 210

108 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 calls them, is very tricky. Smoky includes duststorms in her haze- out category. In many ways, they are worse, as the visibility is much lower in a duststorm than in a high air-pollution event and some last for days. Her recent Baghdad experiences have given her a great deal of cause for concern. She has experienced the creeping, yellow, duststorm gloom that commences around 15h00 and worsens as the day draws to a close (Figure 7), and the surprise onset of a severe duststorm when the wind suddenly picks up and the landscape is blotted out.

Smoky is aware that duststorms could seriously affect her flight schedules and even be dangerous if she travels to places close to deserts. She watched reports on TV that the air crash over Tunisia in 2002 killing 18 passengers, happened under foggy, rainy and sandstorm conditions. She also learned from media reports that in an accident in another part of the world, in Arizona, USA, in 2004, four people

NASA died and 42 others were injured in a series of chain-reaction interstate Figure 6 — Pollution cloud being blown southward, from Bangladesh over the Bay of highway accidents during a blinding Bengal duststorm. This duststorm came in pretty quick,” said Erick Anspach from Arizona Department Public Safety, speaking on the TV news, Today she checks the Dhaka, has a modern instrument landing “Some drivers reported having only Bangladesh, forecast which is for a system (which is not the case with a second or two until impact”. maximum temperature of 31°C, clear all airports in Central Asia). weather, relative humidity of 38 per From discussions with scientists, cent and haze. Ah, that word—“haze”, For the traveller, predicting and Smoky learned that several research but how bad? Smoky knows about planning for “haze-outs”, as Smoky groups already successfully predict the pollution that can affect Asian cities such as Dhaka (Figure 6) and searches around on the Web for more information. Few, if any, Websites give “visibility” in their forecasts but some provide observations of current weather and, where those observations come from airports, which is fairly often, then visibility is included. On 28 February 2009, the visibility at Dhaka is given as 5 km. Figure 7 — The That is good enough for Smoky to creeping, yellow know that there is unlikely to be a gloom of a Baghdad

problem, particularly as the airport duststorm Marko Georgiev for NewTimes The York

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 109 wikimedia

Figure 8 — Fog over San Francisco, California, USA

major duststorms on a daily basis, • The Bureau of Meteorology is travelling. It takes some time to find doing forecasts in a similar way forecasting temperature down what you need, but it is all there as for the weather. WMO had to near-freezing; thanks to WMO, which arranges therefore decided to establish a free access to meteorological research project entitled Sand • It is sometime between April and observations, forecasts and and Dust Storm Warning Advisory September; and, warnings, and thanks to National and Assessment System, aiming to Meteorological Services around the ensure that warnings on duststorms • Her Canberra-based editor insists world for generating the necessary are delivered timely to transport on an urgent, early morning information and maintaining the authorities and other users. meeting. Websites where that information is located. The other cause of delays in Smoky’s travels is fog at Canberra, Australia, Now, if only the Bureau of Meteorology Travellers have never been so on a winter’s morning. Now, Smoky staff, who run a useful Website, could well served, which is just as well, knows that fog is just cloud that is use her rules, everyone would know as travelling remains a weather- on the ground (Figure 8) and, surely, when Canberra was going to be sensitive activity. While disasters forecasting clouds is not that hard— fogged in and avoid getting caught are rare, thanks in part to excellent after all there lots of them about to up in the delays. meteorological services globally, watch and learn from. Smoky has delays are frequent due to the tight her own rules for fog at Canberra scheduling of aircraft—particularly which are: Lessons from Skadi, at major hubs. If a traveller is transiting a major hub, he or she • There has been recent rain, Glacies, Oz and Smoky would do well to be weather-wise generally in the last few days; like our four frequent travellers. Publicly available weather and • There is a large high-pressure climate data on the Web are diverse So: be weather-wise and avoid system sitting over Canberra; and enormously helpful for anyone getting caught in delays.

110 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Meteorology and marine transportation by Peter Dexter1 and Phillip Parker2

In the beginning Homer attributed Odysseus’s maritime problems largely to the According to the Book of Genesis, machinations of Poseidon, which the third day of the creation process was as good an explanation as any saw the separation of land and sea. at the time (Figure 1). This clearly provided a medium for transportation over long distances Perhaps the first serious attempt for the humans still to be created and to provide scientific and logical at the same time laid the groundwork explanations for the atmosphere, the Shelley Panton for the new science and profession of ocean and the various phenomena Figure 1 — Poseidon giving Odysseus a marine meteorology. Since that time, they engender was made by Aristotle hard time humanity has been simultaneously in his Meteorologica [2]. While the fascinated and awed by the powers of book is remarkable in its lucidity Fortunately, mariners, to survive the air and sea, as well as anxious to and level of understanding, sadly it and prosper, have to be intensely understand and exploit the processes does not provide much in the way practical people. In extending their observed. However, lacking anything of forecast guidance to the marine trading and exploration voyages beyond a basic empirical knowledge, meteorologist. Equally sadly, human over wider and wider sea areas, the early seafarers remained at the scientific understanding of our and to more and more distant lands, mercy of wind, waves and currents natural environment largely stood they accumulated a formidable and whatever was driving them: still, or regressed, for centuries after body of empirical knowledge that, with more reliance being placed of the atmospheric and oceanic Then Jove raised the North on myth than scientific evidence and environment in which they lived wind against us till it blew a logic (Figure 2). and worked. This knowledge would hurricane, so that land and sky were hidden in thick clouds, and night sprang forth out of the heavens. We let the ships run before the gale, but the force of the wind tore our sails to tatters, so we took them down for fear of shipwreck, and rowed our hardest towards the land. [1]

1 Ocean Services Section, Australian Bu- reau of Meteorology, Melbourne, and co-president of JCOMM

2 Ocean Services Section, Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, and mem- ber of the JCOMM Services Coordination Figure 2 — Group Navigation by faith

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 111 Figure 3 — electric telegraph to transmit weather Benjamin Franklin’s observations in 1849 in Britain and chart of the Gulf the USA, followed by the Brussels Stream Maritime Conference of 1853, that really rapid development took place. Brussels 1853, establishment of National Meteorological Services, IMO and maritime meteorology

Events leading to, surrounding, and as a consequence of, the Brussels Maritime Conference of 1853 have been well described in other publications, notably the WMO Bulletin articles by Michel Hontarrede [3] and Bob Shearman [4] and in the proceedings of the iInternational seminar to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the conference [5]. The following eventually provide a sound basis for From the middle of the 17th century paragraphs therefore provide a brief advances in scientific understanding onwards, the invention and gradual summary only. and the development of predictive refinement of scientific instruments capabilities. Notable examples of to measure atmospheric and The driving force behind the the application of such collective oceanic variables, together with the convening of the Brussels conference knowledge in the provision of aids establishment, notably in Europe, of was Lt Matthew Fontaine Maury of to navigation include Benjamin a network of weather stations, led the US Navy, already well known Franklin’s chart of the Gulf Stream to the gradual development of the and respected for his work on ocean (Figure 3) and the creation in 1805 scientific basis of meteorology, and currents and winds. Although by Sir Francis Beaufort of the its application in the service of the European scientists had been Beaufort wind force scale (Figure maritime community. However, it was exchanging information for some time, 4). Variations on the latter are still from the middle of the 19th century, the conference represented the first in practical use to this day. with the first use of the newly invented truly international gathering to address cooperation and standardization in meteorology. It brought together some 12 experts from 10 European countries and the USA, and agreed notably on a standard format for ships logbooks, together with a set of standard instructions for making and recording weather and ocean observations. The international cooperation that was set in train by the Brussels conference led directly to the First International Meteorological Congress in Vienna in 1873, and ultimately to the formal establishment of the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), the (non-governmental) predecessor of WMO, in 1905.

In parallel with these international developments, most of what were, at that time, the great powers were Figure 4 — The original Beaufort log book and scale in the process of establishing their

112 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 own national meteorological agencies Figure 5 — The during the years 1850 to 1870. As in so sinking of the much of early meteorology, this was Henri IV during the stimulated by the needs of the maritime siege of Sebastopol community and, in the case of France, in November 1854 specifically by two major maritime ([3] and Musée de disasters: the loss in November 1854 la Marine, Paris) of 38 French (Figure 5), English and Turkish ships engaged in the Crimean War [5] and, in February 1855, the wreck of a French warship between Corsica and Sardinia, with heavy loss of life. The person charged with setting up the French meteorological service, Le Verrier, at the same time pioneered the use of the new electric two major developments relating to and broadcast of meteorological telegraph as a key element of a maritime safety: the establishment bulletins to shipping. Over the years, national meteorological observation of the International Ice Patrol in The International Meteorological network. All the new meteorological the North Atlanti and, in 1914, the Organization, its successor WMO, and services made observations and in adoption of the first International maritime organizations, developed a many cases, attempted, with varying Convention for the Safety of Life at coordinated system of marine forecast degrees of success, to forecast the Sea (SOLAS), covering a wide range and warning services covering both weather. of measures designed to improve coastal waters and the high seas. the safety of shipping. It included A seminal event of the period for measures relating to meteorology There have been four versions of maritime meteorology was the and the safety of navigation. In SOLAS agreed since 1914, the most invention of wireless telegraphy at particular, SOLAS called for coverage recent that of 1974, which came the dawn of the 20th century, which of all shipping lanes and fishing into force in 1980. Since then, the opened the possibility of two-way grounds with weather forecasts convention has been supplemented, communications with ships at sea. broadcast by radio. This led to the revised and updated through the In 1905. the radiotelegraph was first evolution of an international system addition of a Protocol of 1978 and a used to relay weather reports from for the collection of meteorological series of amendments, all developed, ships at sea to coastal radio stations. observations from the oceans, reviewed and adopted by the Shortly after, in 1907, the International the analysis of these observations International Maritime Organization Meteorological Organization moved to and the subsequent preparation (IMO). From the establishment of WMO oblige all ships to be fitted with radio- telegraphy equipment, and to transmit observations to shore, while it also created a new Technical Commission on Maritime Meteorology. Thus began the modern era of meteorological service interaction with and support for the maritime community.

Safety of life at sea

While the transition from sail to steam totally changed the nature of maritime transport during the second half of the 19th century, it did not mean that shipping and the maritime community in general became immediately any less vulnerable to extreme weather and related oceanic manifestations

(Figure 6). The sinking of the Titanic Phil Smart, Bureau of Meteorology, Hobart in 1911 with the loss of some 1 500 lives, albeit avoidable, did lead to Figure 6 — Not all plain sailing in the 20th century

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 113 as an intergovernmental organization Global Maritime Distress take advantage of, the new regulations in 1950, its Commission on Maritime and communications facilities. Meteorology (later Commission and Safety System for Marine Meteorology (CMM), and modern marine During the 1980s, WMO, through now the Joint WMO/IOC Technical meteorological services CMM, and working closely with Commission for Oceanography IMO, the International Hydrographic and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM)) The establishment in 1982 by IMO of Organization (IHO, responsible for has worked closely with IMO (and the International Maritime Satellite the Worldwide Navigational Warning its predecessor the International System (INMARSAT) ushered in a new Service) and representatives of Maritime Consultative Organization). era in maritime telecommunications, international shipping through the It ensures that the components of making use of the ongoing revolution in International Chamber of Shipping, SOLAS relating to meteorological telecommunications worldwide. This developed a new WMO marine observations and the provision of led in turn to the development by IMO broadcast system for the GMDSS. This meteorological services conform of a whole new system for maritime system was adopted on a provisional to the latest scientific and technical safety, incorporated into SOLAS as basis in 1989 and in final form in 1993. developments in meteorology and the 1988 Amendments for the Global It now forms an integral part of the communications and, at the same Maritime Distress and Safety System WMO Technical Regulations [7]. time, responds to the needs and (GMDSS), which came into force in concerns of the maritime community 1992, with full implementation to Under this broadcast system, the in regard to maritime safety. SOLAS occur by 1 February 1999. With the world’s oceans are divided into now contains [6] a number of key international adoption of GMDSS, a network of Metareas (Figure 7, regulations relating to meteorological marine communications have been identical to the Navareas of IHO), for services, which put certain obligations updated to reflect the advances in each of which a specified National on contracting Governments, in satellite and other communications Meteorological Service is obligated to particular to: technology and Morse-code qualified ensure the broadcast, via INMARSAT, of radio officers are fast disappearing meteorological warnings and forecasts • … warn ships of gales, storms from ships. for shipping, according to a published and tropical storms.. broadcast schedule. In 2003, a new With the launch of the first INMARSAT Website was implemented by the • … issue twice daily, by radio, satellite, the development of GMDSS French Meteorological Service, Météo weather bulletins suitable for by IMO, and the expected eventual France, which displays, in real-time, shipping.. disappearance of the traditional the forecasts and warnings for all the coastal (HF) radio stations, it was 16 original Metareas [8]. Recently, IMO • … arrange for selected ships quickly recognized by WMO and the and WMO agreed to implement five to be equipped with tested National Meteorological Services new Metareas covering Arctic waters, instruments…and to take providing maritime safety services recognizing the growing importance of meteorological observations … that they would need to adapt to, and these waters for maritime transport.

• … arrange for the reception 180 W° 170 W° 160 W° 150 W° 140 W° 130 W° 120 W° 110 W° 100 W° 90 W° 80 W° 70 W° 60 W° 50 W° 40 W° 30 W° 20 W° 10 W° 0° 10 E° 20 E° 30 E° 40E 50 E° 60 E° 70 E° 80 E° 90 E° 100 E° 110 E° 120 E° 130 E° 140 E° 150 E° 160E 170 E° 180 E° 90° N 90° N 125°E 30°E 120°W XXI* XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI Canada* Canada* Norway* Russian Federation* Russian Federation* and transmission … of weather 80° N 80° N 75°N

168°58'W

5°W messages from and to ships … 70° N 69°N 70° N 67°N 65°N 67°N I 60° N United Kingdom Baltic Sea 60° N sub area XII - XIII 53°N Russian Federation 50° N 50°N 50° N 48°27'N

172°E

E • … conform to the technical ' 45°N 40° N III 40° N IV 35°W Mediterranean

135°E

XII 138°20 United States regulations and recommendations United States II Greece France 30° N 30° N 23° 45' N XI made by the World Meteoro- Japan 20° N IX 20° N 68°E Pakistan VIII(N) India 12°N 10° N 10° N logical Organization … 7°N 63°E 6°N 4°30'N 0° XI 0° 0° China 141°E 0°

3°24'S 170°E VIII( S) 6°S Mauritius/La Ré union XVI 10°30'S 10°S 10° S United States 127°E 10° S 12 S° 18°21'S V Brazil

55°E

20° S Mauritius/Australia 20° S 95°E

) 0E°90

S These regulations are a concrete ( 29°S

VIII

30° S 120°W 30° S 33°45'S 30°S manifestation of the ongoing 35°50'S 40° S 40° S 80°E 45°S XIV XV VI VII X - Australia XIV interdependence of meteorology and 50° S New Zealand Chile Argentina 20°W South Africa New Zealand 50° S 160°E the maritime community, as well as 60° S 60° S

67°16'W a strong commitment on the part of 70° S 70° S National Meteorological Services in 80° S 80° S 90° S 90° S maritime countries to contribute to 180 W° 170 W° 160 W° 150 W° 140 W° 130 W° 120 W° 110 W° 100 W° 90 W° 80 W° 70 W° 60 W° 50 W° 40 W° 30 W° 20 W° 10 W° 0° 10 E° 20 E° 30 E° 40E 50 E° 60 E° 70 E° 80 E° 90 E° 100 E° 110 E° 120 E° 130 E° 140 E° 150 E° 160E 170 E° 180 E° the extent possible to the safety of * The GMDSS is under implementation for the Arctic METAREAs and is expected to be fully operational by 2010/11 life and property at sea. Figure 7 — Metareas for the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

No. 9 - Volume D

114 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Figure 8 — Fishing accurate and reliable means for the boats and other collection of real-time meteorologi- small vessels in cal and oceanographic reports from coastal waters are ships at sea. It should never be forgot- especially weather- ten that such reports remain essential sensitive. for meteorological analysis and fore- casting, and to the delivery of the accurate meteorological forecasts and warnings now expected as rou- tine by the public and many different specialized users. They also remain critical to the provision of accurate

FreeFoto.com maritime safety services. In addition, such data contribute substantially to Dissemination of meteorological printout. However, technological our knowledge and understanding of warnings and forecasts to shipping advances in the electronic chart global climate, climate variability and is now an integral part of the GMDSS display system, developed originally climate change. system and GMDSS communications under IHO to display navigational permit automatic shipboard hazards on board ships in electronic receipt of weather and navigation chart form, will allow ephemeral Other national services information by INMARSAT satellite information such as meteorological communications, radiotelephony warnings and sea-ice information Formally, although the GMDSS and radio-telex (NAVTEX). Regularly also to be displayed in this format. provides communications carriage scheduled weather, sea-state and This approach will also facilitate requirements for all sea areas (VHF ice forecasts, along with warnings the replacement of the traditional for near-shore, NAVTEX essentially of tropical cyclones, gales, storms meteorological chart transmission for EEZs (to 200 nm) and INMARSAT and other hazards, are now routed by HF radio facsimile broadcast, much for the high seas), it represents an to ships at sea by INMARSAT and valued by mariners but gradually obligation only for vessels over 300 NAVTEX broadcasts. being phased out because of cost tonnes, registered in countries which pressures, by new forms of digital are signatories to SOLAS. At present, meteorological warning graphical broadcast and display. and forecast information is normally There are inevitably some gaps. presented to ships officers in text The new maritime communications For many countries, providing full format via a computer screen or systems also provide a very efficient, coastal coverage by VHF and NAVTEX facilities is simply not cost-effective, which means that other facilities have to be implemented to reach vessels in these areas. A whole range of more or less seaworthy vessels (and their crews!) are anyway not subject to GMDSS regulations, ranging from the local fisherman’s “tinnie”* through coastal ferries and small freighters to cruising yachts and deep-sea fishing vessels (Figure 6). At the same time, these account for the largest segment of users of marine weather services overall. Often, the smaller vessels, and those operating in the coastal zone, are the most weather- sensitive and thereby vulnerable to rapidly changing or deteriorating weather and ocean conditions. John Sayers, Australian Antarctic Division © Commonwealth of Australia

* Australian slang for a small recreational Figure 9 — Even large maritime transport today remains vulnerable to extremes of dinghy, often made of aluminium and weather and sea propelled by oars or an outboard motor

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 115 Coastal conditions are often more rapidly changeable, reflecting the complex interaction of the nearby land with ocean and weather systems. Consequently, coastal mariners require a significantly higher level of detail about conditions likely to be experienced. At the same time, in many parts of the world, the smaller users do not have ready access to the communications technology required to access the services provided via the contemporary systems that are used by the more sophisticated and better resourced operators that ply the high seas. Star Clippers – Australia and New Zealand Figure 10 — Modern tall ships provide a nostalgic, exciting and pleasurable approach to National Meteorological Services ocean cruising. provide a range of forecast and information services for the many types of operators in coastal areas, users out to around 200 nm, but global balance among safety, minimizing the in keeping with the identified needs coverage (of all coastlines) remains potential for cargo damage, reducing of this sector. Radio still provides a unlikely. To cover gaps in NAVTEX and voyage times and fuel costs and backbone for disseminating forecasts VHF coverage in some countries, such managing increasingly busy ports and and bulletins of information in coastal as Australia, coastal forecasts are seaways; and the opening up of new areas, while really near-shore users are also broadcast as part of the GMDSS sea routes, especially in polar waters. also taking advantage of new mobile service via INMARSAT. All these factors are contributing to phone technologies to access a range a new recognition of, and reliance of dial-up weather services. VHF radio Where next? on, the delivery of high-quality broadcasts of weather information are meteorological and oceanographic provided in many coastal areas around The transition from sail to steam at information to ships at sea. the world and are an indispensable the end of the 19th century and the element of maritime safety for fishing, consequent belief that the safety of Yet another factor is now coming into passenger transport, recreational maritime transport might gradually play. Mankind retains a fascination with craft and coastal traders. become less critically dependent on the age of sail, and modern tall ships meteorological information, together are an increasingly popular choice The nature of the forecasts and related with the advent of aviation as the for deep ocean pleasure cruising information provided for coastal primary focus for meteorological (Figure 10). The priority with this type zones reflects the characteristics of services in the first half of the of ocean travel is to maximize safety the weather and oceans in different 20th century, resulted in some for the passengers, while providing regions. For example, sea fog and loosening of the traditional close them with an authentic experience attendant low visibility are a significant ties between meteorology and the under sail, which requires accurate hazard to navigation in some coastal mariner. and timely information on future wind regions but are quite rare in others. and sea conditions. At the same time, Lee and funnelling effects may be Recent years, however, have seen a the current costs of fuel for powered common in areas where mountain reversal of this trend, with a number maritime transport, major concerns ranges run alongside coastal areas. of factors each playing a part: the with carbon emissions from fossil Complex coastal geography, especially recognition that a large majority fuels and a likely increasing shortage coastlines and disposition of island of maritime safety incidents (up to of such fuels in the decades to come, groupings, add further complexity to 70 per cent) remain weather-related are leading marine engineers and the description of the meteorology (Figure 9); the new communications ship designers to look once more and the amount of detail required to technologies described above, at harnessing the wind as a means convey it to mariners. which allow the reliable delivery of at least partially powering large of an enhanced range of maritime marine transport vessels. While As mentioned earlier, NAVTEX safety information to ships at sea; several different approaches are services provided as part of GMDSS the development of much more being considered here, they all rely are designed for coastal and other specialized shipping, requiring a to a greater or lesser extent on wind

116 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 propulsion. With such vessels, the Acknowledgements [4] Shearman, R., 2003: The growth concerns will be to maximize wind of marine meteorology—a major usage, while delivering the most We are indebted for some of the support programme for the World background and historical material to Weather Watch. WMO Bulletin, 52 efficient and cost-effective route and the WMO Bulletin articles by Michel (1). again preserving maritime safety. Hontarrede and Bob Shearman, as well as to all speakers at the International [5] WMO, 2004: Proceedings of the The new age of sail, together with all Seminar to Celebrate the Brussels International Seminar to Celebrate the other developments in maritime Maritime Conference of 1853, Residence the Brussels Maritime Conference Palace, Brussels, 17-18 November 2003. of 1853. Brussels, November 2003, transport, indicates that the old WMO/TD-No. 1226. symbiotic relationship between meteorology and the mariner is [6] IMO, 1992: SOLAS Consolidated returning: meteorology continues to References Edition. IMO Publication IMO-110E depend critically on the observational and subsequent amendments of data provide by the mariner at sea, [1] Homer, c. 800 BCE: The Odyssey, Book 1992, 1994, … IX, tr. Samuel Butler. while the safety and efficiency of global [7] WMO, 2005: Manual on Marine shipping remains no less dependent on [2] Aristotle, c. 350 BCE: Meteorologica, Meteorological Services (Annex VI accurate and timely meteorological and tr. E.W. Webster. to the WMO Technical Regulations). oceanographic information than it was WMO-No. 551. more than 150 years ago, at the time of [3] Hontarrede, M., 1998: Meteorology and the maritime world: 150 years [8] Savina, H., 2004: Website for safety at Maury and the dawn of meteorological of constructive cooperation. WMO sea: http://weather.gmdss.org. WMO services for the mariner. Bulletin, 47 (1). Bulletin, 53 (2), 140-141.

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 117 Weather monitoring and forecasting services for provincial highways and railways in China Title by Yan Mingliang1, Yuan Chengsong1 and Pan Xinmin2

Introduction paid increasing attention to traffic lines, which have effectively reduced weather. On 27 July 2005, the China the number of derailments due to high Meteorological Administration and winds. At present, the weather, traffic Along with the rapid increases in the Ministry of Communications and safety departments across China volumes of traffic, safety has become signed a Memorandum for Joint are jointly strengthening their traffic an increasing challenge. Severe Development of Highway Traffic weather services. weather is one of the main causes Weather Forecasting Work, in order of traffic accidents. At the beginning to issue joint national expressway of 2008, persistent snow and frost in traffic weather forecasts. This action Traffic weather southern China led to severe traffic was the start of a nationwide traffic monitoring system disruption, as well as an increased weather forecasting service. number of accidents. Low visibility on expressways induces the tailgating The concept for a traffic weather Traffic weather monitoring of scores, even hundreds, of cars. service developed relatively early network and stations Similarly, highway and railway traffic in some areas, such as Jiangsu is frequently affected by rainstorm Province. Since 1998, after a decade and flooding events, as well as rain- of research, experiments and Traffic weather monitoring must induced geological hazards such as engineering construction, Jiangsu include the monitoring of highway debris flows. Railways in western Meteorological Administration built surfaces, low-visibility weather China are often affected by gales and a traffic weather monitoring network conditions, water temperature and sand- and duststorms. At Hundred- system and developed a traffic a number of other factors. All this Li Fetch near Hami in Xinjiang, gales weather forecasting service. Some information must be transmitted in can induce train derailments. Many other meteorological administrations, real- or near-real time. The automatic water navigation channels in China including Guangdong, Shanghai meteorological monitoring stations are also frequently affected each year and Beijing, have also cooperated covering expressways and water by severe weather such as heavy with traffic departments, selecting transportation routes need to include fog, gales and rainstorms with water important sections of expressways as real-time monitoring of visibility, damage to goods, ship collisions and demonstration sites of traffic weather traffic surface, temperature, humidity, even capsizing. in urban areas and developing wind direction, wind speed and expressway traffic weather monitoring precipitation and, at the same time, In the past decade, China has and forecasting services. meet the technical requirements of experienced record growth in the traffic engineering equipment. construction of air, land and water To mitigate wind damage in navigational infrastructure. All levels Hundred-Li Fetch, the Xinjiang Traffic weather monitoring networks of government, as well as weather Railway Administration constructed consist mainly of four parts: a and traffic departments, have observation sites at the railway weather data acquisition module; a stations in the area. Meteorological weather data processing module; departments developed gale and an information monitoring module; 1 Jiangsu institute of Meteorological Science, Nanjing 210008 sand- and duststorm monitoring and and a weather service information 2 Xinjiang Meteorological Administration forecasting services along railway module.

118 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Expressway traffic weather monitoring system

The weather monitoring network system constructed by the Nanjing Institute of Transportation Meteorology on the Shanghai-Nanjing Expressway is one of the most advanced highway traffic weather monitoring systems in China.

It acquires field weather information through 26 automatic meteorological monitoring stations and two highway surface-temperature monitoring stations along the expressway. Monitoring data are transmitted to the receiving centre by means Figure 1 — Time sequence from a visibility sensor (laser-based automatic weather of wireless communication and station) installed adjacent to a key expressway in eastern China (Shanghai-Nanjing) imported into the server database of the Meteorological Administration second half of 2006, the forecasting weather information issue system and and expressway command centre. centre introduced video monitoring a number of other systems. Monitoring Real-time weather monitoring and information sharing along the analysis and application of data in information, weather disaster 101 highways from the Shanghai- real-time and displaying the data on warning and forecasting information Nanjing Expressway Command the same or different screens by time, are then synchronously saved in a Centre. This information has enabled station and/or weather conditions in server database and displayed at the weather observers and forecasters the form of tables, charts and GIS terminal workstations of Shanghai- to directly monitor the weather maps respectively (Figure 1) has also Nanjing Expressway management and road conditions along highway been a substantial advance. It is also and weather departments. segments. possible to set up a colour warning and/or sound alarm for visibility at Such information can meanwhile All the management and safety data each station and then display this be issued and displayed at various from the traffic weather monitoring information (by means of a GIS) for information terminals (information stations and the forecasting products traffic management departments and boards, monitoring terminals, etc.) are entered into a database for the public users (Figure 3). of the expressway. During the management system, the traffic Railway gale monitoring system

The foundation engineering (single station for wind monitoring) for the Lanzhou-Xinjiang railway line in the Xinjiang autonomous region and the network engineering on the northern Xinjiang and southern Xinjiang lines were completed and installed between 1998 and April 2000. Since 1998, this system has been both upgraded and expanded.

It includes digital wind-monitoring instrumentation and optical cable communication and computer network techniques. Other features are a high degree of automation, Figure 2 — Optimizing traffic flow by anticipating high-impact weather events is critical simple and convenient operation, easy on China’s busy expressways. commands, a clear display, friendly

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 119 Forecasting of patchy heavy fog The influences on, and damage to, traffic of low visibility and heavy fog are well known. Patchy, heavy fog and local “fog masses” are the focus of current highway traffic weather research. The accumulated monitoring data show that the formation and dissipation of heavy fog are not a process which develops slowly, but a weather phenomenon with relatively obvious evolution [1]. Setting up automatic weather monitoring stations along expressways will facilitate this much-needed area of research.

Some judgments on the forecasting of heavy fog can be made according Figure 3 — Planar display of traffic weather information to the determination of weather type, conditions at both the surface and high interface, stable performance and that of a new generation of radar altitude, analysis of the movement minimal maintenance. monitoring products and other of the cloud system, analysis of automatic weather stations, and the temperature inversion layer At present, the Xinjiang railway gale using the output results of meso- and advection as per the sounding monitoring and alarm system consists scale numerical prediction models. curve, combined with the information of 50 wind monitoring points (small Technological development over the provided by monitoring stations along stations), 32 cross stations (bus past two years has shown that the highways [4]. stations), one data-processing centre warning service has, indeed, reduced (main station of dispatching centre of traffic accidents and produced other Through analysis of the monitoring railway administration), three database economic and social benefits. data and the visibility atlas acquired servers (electronic computation centre of the railway administration), one operation monitoring server (technical Qinghai–Tibet railway support centre) and many computers (customer service terminals). The system operates continuously The Chinese Qinghai–Tibet railway is a high-altitude railway that connects 24 hours a day and includes a real- Xining to Lhasa. Its total length is 1 956 km. time alarm function. Construction of the 815 km section between Xining and Golmud was completed in 1984. The 1 142 km section between Golmud and Lhasa was inaugurated on 1 July 2006. Traffic weather forecasting technology The Tanggula Pass at 5 072 m above sea level is the world’s highest rail track. The 1 338-m Fenghuoshan tunnel is the highest rail tunnel in the Weather also has a significant world, at 4 905 m above sea level. At 4 264 m above sea level, the 3 345‑m influence on the main lines of Yangbajing tunnel is the longest tunnel on the line. communication, particularly given the relatively small areal More than 960 km—more than 80 per cent of the Golmud-Lhasa section— extent and short duration of many is at an altitude of more than 4 000 m. There are 675 bridges, totalling events. Warnings in advance of 159.88 km, and some 550 km of the railway are laid on permafrost. high-impact weather events has improved by increasing the spatial density of monitoring equipment, the frequency of data uploading, combining monitoring data with

120 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 various types of weather monitoring information and forecasting service information can be displayed along expressways. Among the information products provided, a series of other weather forecasting service products is available for users. These products have served as an interface for the system and will therefore improve future weather traffic services.

“e-route weather net” (ht tp:// www.16t7.com) is a professional traffic weather service Website. It integrates national and provincial traffic weather monitoring, forecasting information and traffic weather research results, traffic weather news, traffic weather disasters and assessments of all of these. Through sharing the scientific and technological resources of traffic Figure 4 — Some key stretches of railroad in China are particularly susceptible to high weather, this Website provides high- winds, requiring close attention from forecasters. quality services for users from the traffic sector and also provides a over the previous four years, ranges Techniques for gale platform for communication on traffic for speed limits (50-200 m) and forecasting along weather for regional and even national road closures (<50 m) have been weather departments. established. Before the appearance railway lines of main-body heavy fog, an advanced Traffic weather service products oscillation usually occurs. This Through research on gale formation combine long-, middle- and short-time oscillation exists for a short time, and mechanisms and various forecasting forecasting and include special-line even though the visibility value is not methods, an hour-by-hour forecast forecasting, station-point forecasting, particularly low, it serves as a prelude system with a forecasting time of subdivided forecasting, regional to sudden heavy fog and, therefore, 12 hours for representative stations forecasting, warning, important has forecasting value. in 15 km and 50 km stretches along weather forecasting, actual situations the railway line has been established. and holiday forecasting. The monitoring, warning and For hazardous gales (> grade 8) as a forecasting system of low visibility research and analysis object, typical due to heavy fog are much improved gales in different seasons from 2006 to Conclusion by combining conventional meteo­ 2007 were studied. Based on analysis rological observations with of the numerical forecasting model and Traffic weather research and monitoring results transmitted and measurements along railway stations implementation are a new subject displayed by automatic monitoring points, a model forecasting equation in the weather system spectrum due stations with concrete place, time was established. By correcting errors to the significant impact on traffic and numerical values measured along in the model forecasting equation, safety of increased traffic and severe highway segments. This entire system weather conditions in the 1-12 hour weather conditions. integrates synoptic forecasting range were made possible. An hour- methods and numerical forecasting by-hour wind trend for the following Severe weather conditions, including products, including the characteristics 1-12 hour interval is output twice low visibility due to heavy fog, of heavy fog appearing along the daily. high and low temperatures of road Shanghai-Nanjing Expressway. surfaces, heavy rain and snow, It presents the forecasting flow, sand- and duststorms, heavy wind transmits the forecasting results to Traffic weather service and icing on road surfaces are the the highway command department main causes of traffic accidents. and then evaluates the monitoring By combining a traffic weather Constructing an applicable and and forecasting results according to monitoring system, an interface pertinent traffic weather monitoring the road administration report. protocol and access authorization, network system is the basis and

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 121 precondition for developing traffic References [3]Z hang, Jizhong, 1997: Fractal, weather work. Tsinghua University Press, 1-18. [1] Feng Minxue, Yuan Chengsong, Bian Guanghui and Zhou Zengkui, [4] Yuan Chengsong, Bian Guanghui, Feng The forecasting and warning of 2003: Real-time monitoring and Minxue, Wu Zhen and Zhou Zengkui, severe weather conditions on main characteristics of heavy fog in spring 2003: Monitoring and Forecasting communication lines depend on both at Wuxi section of Shanghai Nanjing of Low Visibility on Expressways, the judgment of the overall synoptic Expressway. Meteorological Science, Meteorology, .29 11 :36 40. situation and weather type and on 23 4 435-445. monitoring and numerical forecasting [5] Ma Henian et al., 2001: Foundation [2] Bak P. amd K. Chen, 1991: Critical state of Meteorological Service, Xinjiang products. of self-organization. Science, 5 8 16. Publishing House.

122 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Obituaries

Eric Bobinski supervised its construction, which outstanding scientists—Julian was finished in 1970. This dam has Lambor and Zdzislaw Kaczmarek. been the greatest hydraulic work in In 1972, some modernization was the lowland part of Poland. badly needed. Bobinski faced three challenges: improvement of In December 1969 he was appointed the hydrological forecast system, Director of the National Hydrological improved organization of operations and Meteorological Institute (PIHM). and the introduction of new, physically At the same time, he was promoted based methods. to the post of associate professor, Permanent Representative of Poland In a short time new hydrological with WMO and member of the stations were established, a few Executive Committee. meteorological stations were upgraded to the hydrometeorological Eric Bobinski died in Warsaw, Poland, At the end of the 1960s, the level and hydrological forcecast on 30 August 2008. He was born in observations and measurements sections were created in regional 1926 in Moscow, where he spent his were done without automation or branches of the Institute. The scope childhood and youth. In 1947, Eric telemetry and the data were sent by of observations and measurements went to Poland to study at the Warsaw mail or by telephone and manually from some stations was enlarged. Technical University in the Department processed. Bobinski tried to improve of Engineering. He graduated in 1951 the Institute’s position, with some Bobinski was an attentive observer and the next year returned to Moscow success. He also strove to improve with an analytical mind. He formulated for his doctorate on the foundation the working conditons of staff. In a strategy for the hydrological of river dams. In 1956, he went back 1972 the five-day working week was forecast and warning system, paying to Warsaw and was employed in the introduced but he was dismissed for particular attention to its reliability design office “Hydroprojekt”. In 1959 his pains. and resistance and the negative he obtained a scholarship at Delft role of random events. He wrote University, Netherlands, to follow Bobinski decided to remain in the “floods are the best examiner of the the International Course on Water Institute as a research worker, he knew efficiency of the warning system Engineering. PIHM and its problems well. During and simultaneously stimulate its the period 1972-1992, he was head of development”. In the office “Hydroprojekt” Eric dealt the Hydrological Forecasting Division with problems connected with the (HFD) in PIHM, which became the Under Bobinski’s leadership, two large underground part of river dams. He Institute of Meteorology and Water floods struck Poland. The first one in introduced a few new methods to Management (IMGW) in 1973. March/April 1979 in the northern part Polish design practice. Some of them of the country, caused by snowmelt, were used on the Narew and Vistula The Hydrological Forecasting Division was the worst disaster since 1888. Rivers. In 1961, he was appointed is an important unit, as Poland suffers The second one, on the Vistula River, principal designer of the dam on the from flooding and droughts. The upstream from the Wloclawek dam, Vistula River in Wloclawek. He also previous heads of the HFD were was caused by a giant ice jam near

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 123 the town of Plock at the beginning Eric Bobinski died on 30 August 2008 of Rossby’s work on the dynamics of January 1982. Vast areas were in Warsaw after a long illness and is and propagation of long waves. These inundated. Subsequent flood losses buried in the family grave there. publications were accepted as his were greatly reduced due to early and PhD thesis and he was awarded his accurate warnings. Juliusz J. Stachy degree in 1949.

In HFD, deterministic mathematical After graduation, Cressman was models were introduced to everyday George Cressman recruited by Sverre Petterssen to practice. For mountain areas, rainfall- serve on his staff as a consultant to runoff models were adopted and the Air Force. He travelled extensively unsteady flow equations were adopted during this period and was involved for the lower Vistula River. The new in a number of special projects. forecasting methods were based on One of those involved providing field measurements. Some attempts weather support—observations and were made to forecast precipitation and forecasts—for tests of the atomic promising results were obtained. bomb in Nevada in the early 1950s.

Eric Bobinski was a good team In 1954, the Joint Numerical Weather leader. In HFD, he formed a group of Prediction Unit (JNWPU) was formed, hydrologists, mathematicians and with Cressman as its first director. physicists who could address difficult George Cressman, former Director Working extensively with colleagues problems. Three of them prepared of the US National Weather Service, from the Navy, Air Force and Weather their doctoral thesis under his died on 17 April 2008 in Rockville, Bureau, he set about the task of supervision. In 1989, he was elected Maryland, aged 88 years. He was a bringing numerical weather prediction Chairman of the Staff Council in the member of the generation—trained into routine use in weather forecasting. Institute of Meteorology and Water during World War II—that was It was a daunting task at the time. In Management. responsible for the transformation of retrospect, the research, development meteorology from a largely descriptive and implementation of numerical After retirement, Bobinski remained science to one based firmly on the weather prediction, involving not active. He lectured in hydrology and principles of physics. just the JNWPU but researchers and wrote the manual General Hydrology, practitioners worldwide, remains a which was published in 1983. In the George Cressman was born and raised superb achievement, perhaps one of period 1976-1984, he was a member in the small town of West Chester the outstanding advances in science of the Working Group on Hydrological in south-eastern Pennsylvania. He in the 20th century. Forecasting of the WMO Commission finished high school in 1937 and for Hydrology. He took part in the enrolled at Penn State University George Cressman was a hands-on elaboration of the fourth edition to study physics and meteorology. leader, participating in every part of the WMO Guide to Hydrological The Penn State programme was of the sequence. His most lasting Practices and participated in several just being formed, built around contribution, however, was the symposiums and conferences. At the two new faculty members: Helmut “objective analysis”, the precursor beginning of his engineering career he Landsberg and Hans Neuberger. to today’s data assimilation. This step was involved in water projects in Iraq. After graduating with a BS degree accomplished the part of the sequence For this reason he was asked to be a in June 1941, Cressman applied for, involving the transfer of observations UN expert and consultant in five Asian and was accepted by, the new Army from their irregularly spaced locations countries: Nepal (1979), Burma (1981), Air Corps training programme for to the regularly spaced points of the Mongolia (1984), Viet Nam (1986) and meteorologists. computational grid. The successful Laos (1990) where he dealt with the technique he developed was based irrigation of small areas. After the war, he received an offer from on an idea developed earlier by Pall C.-G. Rossby to go to the University Bergthorsson and Bo Döös, and required People liked and respected Eric of Chicago. He eagerly accepted, careful attention to meteorological Bobinski for his intelligence, learning, becoming a member of the now science, mathematical principles and memory and leadership. He was an famous Chicago School. At Chicago, computational requirements. It also honest and able man, who always tried he ran the synoptic laboratory and required an engineering-like skill to to do his best. He was interested in university weather station while “make things work”. The Cressman many spheres of human life, including pursuing his academic studies. analysis method was widely used for politics, economy, history, art and He published three major papers many years in research and operations sport. dealing with forecast applications around the world.

124 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 The achievements of the JNWPU in many international policy decisions, Cleveland Abbe Award (1976), and under Cressman’s leadership became including the formation of world and the Extraordinary Service Award of the foundation for the development regional meteorological centres. the Federal Aviation Administration of modern weather forecasting in (1980). He was particularly proud of the USA, both civilian and military. In late1978, Cressman announced his the Distinguished Alumni Award from Those achievements were shared intention to resign as NWS Director his alma mater, Pennsylvania State freely among other nations and and to return to NMC—not as a University (1979). so contributed significantly to manager, but as a researcher in the international advances in weather Development Division. His research He was a Fellow of the AMS, the prediction. included work on jet stream energetics American Geophysical Union and and gravity waves and resulted in the American Association for the In 1959, the military services and the two published articles in journals of Advancement of Science. In 1994, he Weather Bureau went their separate the American Meteorological Society was elected an Honorary Member of ways and Cressman became the (AMS). the AMS. He served twice on the AMS first Director of the newly formed Council (1957-1959 and 1970-1972) and US National Meteorological Center George Cressman and his wife Frances was president of AMS in 1978. (NMC, now NCEP) of the US Weather shared an interest in travel and different Bureau. NMC combined the mission cultures and travelled extensively in Many members of our community and civilian parts of the JNWP unit the 1980s. During an extended stay in have contributed to the advance with the older NAWAS organization, China in 1982, he consulted with the of our science and services in one responsible for routine production China Meteorological Administration particular way. Some have contributed of hand-drawn analysis and forecast and Mrs Cressman taught classes in several ways. George Cressman charts. in English. Together they developed was one of those rare individuals a strong relationship with Chinese who contributed in many ways, In 1964, at the urging of Weather students that lasted for many years nationally and internationally, across Bureau Director, Robert M. White, and, in Mrs Cressman’s case, still a broad range of our sciences and Cressman left NMC to accept a lasts today. In 1983, Cressman the services based on them. He will position as Director of National responded to a request from the best be remembered, though, for his Meteorological Services for the Australian Government to help seminal contributions to the infant Weather Bureau. One year later, when evaluate the Bureau of Meteorology. science and practice of numerical the Environmental Science Services His report on the state of the Bureau weather prediction and its application Administration (ESSA) was formed, and the opportunities for change is to society. He once summarized White became Administrator of ESSA credited by many in the Bureau as his career by saying “… I spent my and Cressman became Director of the providing an important justification professional life in pursuit of two main National Weather Service—a position for investment in the modern science- objectives: to learn how to integrate he held, under various administrations and technology-based service that six simultaneous partial differential and ESSA and NOAA leaders from exists in Australia today. In 1984, equations, and to figure out what to 1965 to 1979. he performed a similar service for do with the answers.” He succeeded the Government of Spain. He retired in this, but he also did more, Geoge Cressman was a long- in 1987, but kept up his intellectual providing—through his leadership time supporter and contributor interests and his hobbies of running, and example—an inspiration to others to the programmes of the World photography and music for a number who wished to work at the interface Meteorological Organization. He of years. of science and public service. was elected in 1961 to a four-year term as president of the Commission Numerous awards have recognized William D. Bonner, on Aerology (the forerunner to Cressman’s contributions. He was Richard E. Hallgren, the Commission on Atmospheric awarded the IMO Prize of the World Ronald D. McPherson and Sciences). In 1963, he became the Meteorological Organization in 1978. Louis Uccellini first Chair of the WMO Advisory His awards also include the Air Force Committee which was to play a key Meritorious Civilian Service Award role in the early phases of planning (1956), the Department of Commerce George Cressman was interviewed for the World Weather Watch and Gold Medal (1961), the Robert M. in the WMO Bulletin 45 (4) (October Global Atmospheric Research Losey award of the Institute of 1996) (Ed.). Programmes. As Director of the Aeronautics and Astronautics (1966), NWS, Cressman participated in all the AMS Award for Outstanding five sessions of Congress from 1963 Contributions to the Advance of to 1979 and played an important role Applied Meteorology (1971), the AMS

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 125 TitleFifty years ago ...

Another encouraging development Japanese automatic for all the friends of WMO is the rapid weather station progress which is now being made in the construction of the permanent headquarters of the WMO Secretariat. It After Six years’experience in automatic is hoped that the architect’s impression rainfall stations which now (November reproduced on the cover of this issue 1958) consist of 188 transmitting, 10 of the Bulletin will help delegates relay and 109 receiving posts, the to Congress to visualize the final Japan Meteorological Agency has appearance of the building when they recently developed a counterpart in inspect the foundations now being anemometry, i.e. an automatic wind laid. Many will at the same time think station. The first set commenced its also of the less tangible but equally successful operation in August 1958 important foundations—the 81 years of on the small island of Nushima in the solid progress since the creation of the channel to the south of Osaka, where International Meteorological Organization in January 1958 a ferry capsized with which has now culminated in the record 110 passengers on board during an membership of its successor, the WMO. unexpected gale. A meteorological element with such marked local variations as the wind can never The date of 29 March 1959, just three Contents be completely covered by weather days before the opening of the Third station observations or forecasts, World Meteorological Congress, will be despite its important effect on fishery remembered by meteorologists as the The April 1959 Bulletin contained and coastal traffic. date on which the number of Members articles on the forthcoming third of the World Meteorological Organization World Meteorological Congress, The automatic wind station furnishes became 100. This further proof of the WMO Membership, International throughout the whole year hourly universality of meteorology and of the Geophysical Year, Antarctic transmissions of wind speed and increasing recognition of the benefits to meteorology, Mediterranean synoptic direction, each measured as a mean be derived from membership of WMO will meteorology, a Japanese automatic over the period of five minutes serve as an encouragement to delegates wind station, meteorology in the preceding the time of transmission, at Congress when working through the Antarctic (discussions in Australia), in the form of morse-code signals on heavy agenda of the session. the second session of Regional a radio-frequency of 414 Mc/s. The Association IV, meaurement of soil Nushima station has an output of 0.5 temperature and comparisons of watts ; a pair of Yagi aerials beamed evaporation pans. Also covered were on Tokushima (WSW ca. 30 km) collaboration with other international and Wakayama (ENE ca. 35 km) are organizations, activities of the switched on in turn and the messages A fuller version of “Fifty years ago” is technical commissions and regional received at these two weather stations available in the WMO Bulletin online: http://www.wmo.int/pages/publications/ associations and the Technical are of great value in the preparation bulletin_en/ Assistance Programme. of gale warnings.

126 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 The wind is sensed with a combination and 30V) and a clock-battery of 1.5V, The programme for publishing the anemometer and wind vane. The capable of providing for six months’ meteorological observations on anemometer rotor closes an electric unattended operation. The whole Microcards is gathering momentum contact once for every 150 metres equipment is housed within a hut and over 1 500 Microcards have wind run ; thus a single contact near the anemometer and aerial now been distributed to each of the corresponds to 0.5 m/s mean wind mast. subscribers. This represents the speed over five minutes. Each pulse equivalent of about 100 000 standard from this contact operates a 0.5 m/ The receiving unit is a standard forms but is nevertheless only about s preselector switch; this operates a receiver utilized in the Japanese 10 per cent of the total volume of data 1 m/s switch for every two contacts radiosonde observation. The to be published. The first batch of and this in turn operates a 10 m/s signals (call-sign followed by wind Microcards was actually distributed switch. The position of these three direction and speed) are heard as before the end of the IGY. switches is determined by brushes audio-frequencies corresponding which sweep a morse-code drum and to the modulating frequencies of Most countries are continuing to the transmission is thus effected in the transmitter. Each transmission carry out their IGY meteorological three numerals, i.e. tens, units and continues for three minutes, which programme for a further year under halves, if any, of m/s up to 60 m/s. is equivalent to 20 signal repetitions. the International Geophysical Where there is provision for two- Cooperation (IGC) 1959. One of the Some form of memory must be way transmissions, one and a half important decisions to be taken by employed in measuring the mean minutes may be allocated to each. Third Congress is whether or not the wind direction. To this end, a scries Owing to the use of such a high IGC observations should be collected of 17 equally spaced electric pulses is radio-frequency, a direct line of and published in the same way as generated mechanically over a period sight between the transmitting and the IGY data. of five minutes by means of a cam receiving stations is essential. Ranges switch. The pulses are allocated to well over 50 km can be covered with It is not possible at this stage to sixteen wind direction pre-selector the present equipment. assess the final value of the IGY switches according to the relative meteorological programme but position of a contactor (rotating It is planned to install a number of some indirect benefits have already with the wind vane) and 16 fixed these automatic wind stations along come to the attention of the WMO segments. The allocated pulses in the coasts of Japan during 1959. Secretariat. a pre-selector switch (the maximum number would be 17) operate in M. Sanuki The director of one large steps a corresponding number of meteorological service remarked, parallel resistances of a determined for example, that in his country the amount in the coil circuit of the switch. IGY would have been worth while if Now, it is clear that the predominant for no other reason than that it had wind direction builds up the largest International led to the development of a national number of parallel resistances. After Geophysical Year procedure for collecting and checking five minutes a rotaable permanent- their meteorological observations. magnet disc searches out from the This had resulted in the discovery of sixteen coils arranged around the Although the International Geophysical numerous errors in the observations disc the one which has the largest Year ended officially on 31 December and their coding ; the elimination of parallel resistance or magnetic flux, 1958, the work of collecting and these errors had increased the value and aligns itself with it. This position publishing the meteorological of the data collected for subsequent of the disc magnet selects a brush observations continues and is unlikely climatological work and had led to a to sweep the morse-code drum. to be completed until the end of 1959. marked improvement in the accuracy The transmission signals are an By the middle of March no less than of their meteorological messages for alphabetical abbreviation of one of 20 countries had sent the last of their synoptic purposes. Another important sixteen wind directions. standard forms for land stations to the indirect benefit of the IGY is that many IGY Meteorological Data Centre in the of the new observing programmes The time keeping and programming WMO Secretariat. The first country are being maintained on a permanent are carried out with a miniature DC to complete its contribution to the basis. It is interesting to note that motor clock with an escapement IGY in this way was the Netherlands the example set by geophysicists governor and a constant speed DC Antilles, followed closely by French in organizing the IGY is now being motor with multiple cam switches. Togoland, New Caledonia, Ghana, followed in several other fields. The The electric source consists of three Hungary, Portuguese East Africa and period June 1959 to June 1960 is batteries (12V 500AI1,180 V 30AI1 Turkey. being observed as World Refugee

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 127 Year and this will be fallowed shortly Union has discovered a new cold pole of the International Geophysical by a Mental Health Year and in 1963 on the Earth’s surface. In August 1958 Year. Following his first mission to by a Free the World from Hunger a temperature of -87.4°C was observed Adelie Land in 1951, he also carried Year. These projects must surely at the stations Vostok and Sovetskaya out important work on Arctic be welcomed by all internationally- and the mean temperatures for this meteorology. minded persons as being indicative month were -71.6°C and -71.8°C of a growing tendency to attempt respectively. He was a tireless and extremely to solve the world’s problems by conscientious research worker, who cooperative action on a world scale. During the observation of these took an interest in all his selected As such, meteorologists will no doubt very low temperatures the air was branches of science. The thesis for wish the organizers of these worthy extremely transparent and pure, his doctorate was devoted to the links efforts the same major success that which favoured substantial heat between meteorological phenomena can now be justifiably claimed for losses by radiation from the Earth’s and solar activity. As the result of a the IGY. surface into space. three-year stay in Madagascar, he published papers on tropical cyclones in that area of the Indian Ocean. During his last mission in the Antarctic, which WMO Membership Obituary was to have ended a few days after the now 100 André Prudhomme date on which he disappeared, Andre Prudhomme successfully discharged a heavy observational and research The number of Members of WMO André Prudhomme disappeared in programme which included ozone reached the 100 mark on 29 March Adelie Land during a snowstorm on soundings. 1959, on which date the membership 7 January 1959, whilst carrying out was composed of 77 States and meteorological observations at the His integrity, devotion to duty and 23 Territories. base Dumont d’Urville. attention to detail when preparing the missions entrusted to him, News and notes One of the leading experts in polar made Andre Prudhomme a much meteorology, Andre Prudhomme, appreciated contributor to the The new cold pole ingénieur de la météorologie and International Geophysical Year. All doctor of science, was in charge of his colleagues will cherish their The Antarctic expedition of the the meteorological investigations of memories of a friend whose loss is Academy of Sciences of the Soviet the third French Antarctic Expedition deeply regretted.

128 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 News from the Secretariat

Visits of the Secretary-General

The Secretary-General, Michel Jarraud, recently made official visits to a number of Member countries as briefly reported below. He wishes to place on record his gratitude to those Members for the kindness and hospitality extended to him.

Uzbekistan Tashkent, Uzbekistan, December 2008 — Participants in the 14th session of Regional Association II (Asia)

The Secretary-General visited Uzbekistan on the occasion of the 61st session of the WMO Bureau, which the chairmanship of the President 14th session of Regional Association II was held 21-22 January 2009 under of WMO, Alexander Bedritsky. The (Asia), which was held in Tashkent from 5 to 11 December 2008.

During his visit, Mr Jarraud met with the Prime Minister HE Mr Sh. M. Mirziyoev and the First Deputy Prime Minister, HE Mr Rustam Azimov, who delivered the opening address on behalf of the host country. Mr Jarraud had discussions with the permanent representatives of participating WMO Members on capacity-building and the strengthening of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs). Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, January 2009 — (from left to right): Tyrone Sutherland, Permanent Representative of British Caribbean Territories with WMO Trinidad and Tobago and Second Vice-President of WMO; Michel Jarraud, Secretary-General of WMO; Alexander Bedritsky President of WMO; the Hon. Mustapha Abdul-Hamid, Minister of Public Utilities; Jacqueline Ganteaume-Farrell, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Public The Secretary-General travelled to Utilities; and Emmanuel Moolchan, Director, Meteorological Services and Permanent Port of Spain, to participate in the Representative of Trinidad and Tobago with WMO

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 129 meeting was hosted by the Caribbean agreed upon a broad process of role in climate change issues. Meteorological Organization. consultation on options leading to the Mr Jarraud had a meeting with the establishment of a Global Partnership President of Cyprus, HE Mr Demetris The session considered, in particular, for Agriculture, Food Security and Christofias, and with the Minister of preparations for the 61st session of Nutrition, to follow up on the Madrid Agriculture, Natural Resources and the WMO Executive Council, the High Level Meeting. Mr Jarraud Environment, Mr Michalis Polyniki draft WMO strategic plan for the exchanged views with a number Charalambides. next period and reviewed progress of ministers and representatives of in preparations for World Climate international agencies participating Conference-3 (WCC-3) (31 August- in the UN Secretary-General’s High- 4 September 2009). The President of Level Task Force on the Global Food WMO and the Secretary-General met Security Crisis. with the Minister of Public Utilities, the Hon. Mustapha Abdul-Hamid Morocco and the Permanent Representative of Trinidad and Tobago with WMO, On 11 February 2009, Mr Jarraud Emmanuel Moolchan, to exchange visited Rabat to participate in the views on climate change, water Climate Change Conference jointly management, disaster risk reduction organized by Morocco and the and societal benefits provided by World Bank Group’s International NMHSs. Bank for Reconstruction and Development. During the meeting, On 23 January, the Secretary- the Secretary-General referred to General addressed the High-level climate change, its scientific aspects Consultative Meeting on Satellite and the implications for actions by Matters, which was held at the same governments. venue and chaired by the President of WMO. Present were the Permanent Cyprus Representatives of France, Germany and Trinidad and Tobago, as well as The Secretary-General visited senior representatives of international Limassol on 21 February 2009 to and national space agencies. Some address the 2nd meeting of the of the key issues discussed included Parliamentary Assembly of the progress and plans for the Vision to Mediterranean Special Task Force 2025 of the WMO Global Observing on Environment and Climate Change, System and Regional/Specialized with a presentation on WMO’s Satellite Centres for Climate Monitoring.

Spain

The Secretary-General travelled to Madrid to participate in the High Level Meeting on Food Security for All, held from 26 to 27 January 2009. The meeting, which was hosted and organized by the Spanish Government and co-sponsored by the United Nations, brought together 62 Ministers and key stakeholders in food security issues from more than 126 countries.

UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, and the Prime Minister of Spain, HE Mr Rodriquez Zapatero, co-chaired Limassol, Cyprus, 21 February 2009 — Mr Jarraud with the President of Cyprus, the final plenary session. Participants HE Mr Demetris Christofias

130 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Staff matters Fabián S. RUBIOLO: Chantal ETTORI, Library Clerk, Proofreader/ Information Management Unit, Appointments Publishing Assist- Information Technology Division, ant (Spanish Resource Management Department, Shuibao LIU: Chief, language), Linguis- left WMO on 31 December 2008. Human Resources tic Services and Division, Resource Publishing Branch, Jacqueline (Jackie) HILLMAN, Senior Management Programme Sup- Secretary, Regional Office for Asia and Department, on port Services Department, on the South-West Pacific, Development 1 January 2009 5 January 2009 and Regional Activities Department, retired on 31 December 2008. Transfers Atsushi SHIMA- Labib KHARAT, Driver-Messenger, ZAKI: Scientific Michelle REIDSEMA was appointed Common Services Division, Officer, WMO Infor- Senior Secretary, Public Weather Conferences, Contracts and Facilities mation System Services Division, Meteorological Management Branch, Programme Data Represen- Applications Branch, Weather and Support Services Department, retired tation, Metadata Disaster Risk Reduction Services on 31 December 2008. and Monitoring Department and transferred from her Division, WMO position as Senior Secretary, WMO Azeddine ABDERRAFI, Digital Information System Branch, Integrated Global Observing Systems Reproduction Clerk, Printing and Observing and Information Sys- Branch, Observing and Information Electronic Publishing Unit, Linguistic tems Department, on 15 January Systems Department, on 16 Febru- Services and Publishing Branch, 2009 ary 2009. Programme Support Services Department, retired on 31 January Douglas CRIPE: Lisa-Anne JEPSEN, Administrative 2009. Scientific Expert, Officer, Intergovernmental Panel Group on Earth on Climate Change secretariat, was Marie-Thérèse (Marité) MARQUIS, Observations, on assigned to the Documents and Telephone/Telex/Telefax Operator, 1 January 2009 Publications Management Unit, Information Technology Division, Linguistic Services and Publishing Resource Management Department, Branch, Programme Support Services retired on 31 January 2009. Department, as Project Officer on Susan HANSEN- 19 January for a period of three Carolyn VAN VEEN, Conference VARGAS, Conference months. Clerk, Conference Services Unit, Services Manager, Conferences, Contracts and Facilities Conference Services Departures Management Branch, took early Unit, Conferences, retirement on 31 January 2009. Contracts and Faci- Georgi KORTCHEV, S p e c i a l lities Management Adviser, Regional Office for Europe, Staff, structure and Branch, Programme Development and Regional Activities Support Services Department, on Department, retired on 19 December organizational changes 1 September 2008 2008. The following changes became Charles A. BAU- Juan LLOBERA, Legal Counsel, Office effective in the Climate and Water BION: Junior of the Secretary-General, returned to Department on 1 January 2009: Professional the International Labour Organization Officer, Disas- on 1 March 2009 after a period of Buruhani Nyenzi: Special Advisor to ter Risk Reduction secondment which began in June the Director of the Climate and Water Division, Disaster 2006. Department and Director of the World Risk Reduction and Climate Conference-3 Secretariat Service Delivery Diane PEDLEY, Senior Human Branch, Weather and Disaster Risk Resources Assistant, Human M.V.K. SiVAKUMAR: Acting Director, Reduction Services Department, Resources Division of the Resource Climate Prediction and Adaptation on 7 December 2008 Management Department, retired on Branch and Chief, Agricultural 28 February 2009. Meteorology Division

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 131 Recent WMO publications Towards a better New book received knowledge Commission for Hydrology, of Umkehr thirteenth session measurements: a (WMO-No. 49) detailed study of data [ A - C - E - F - R - S ] from thirteen Dobson CD-ROM Intercomparisons 2008; iv + 81 pp. (WMO/TD-No. 1456) Price: CHF 16 [ E ] 2008; 52 pp. JCOMM Ship Obser- Price: CHF 30 How we know what we know about vations Team, Annual our changing climate report for 2007 Joint Report of (WMO/TD-No. 1431) COST Action 728 and Lynne Cherry and Gary Braasch 2008, 66 pp. Presentations at the GURME ISBN: 978-1-58469-103-7 (WMO/TD-No. 1457) DBCP Scientific and Price: US$17.95 Technical Workshop (DBCP-No. 32) [ E ] DBCP Annual report for 2007 2008; 124 pp. (DBCP-No. 33) Price: CHF 30 When the weather changes daily, how [ E ] do we really know that Earth’s climate 2008 WCRP Accom- is changing? Here is the science behind Price: CHF 30 plishment Report the headlines - evidence from flowers, 2007-2008 butterflies, birds, frogs, trees, glaciers Report of the Seventh Meeting of (WMO/TD-No. 1458) and much more, gathered by scientists the Ozone Research [ E ] from all over the world, sometimes Managers of the Par- 2008; 60 pp. with assistance from young “citizen- ties to the Vienna Price: CHF 30 scientists.” And here is what young Convention for the people, and their families and teachers, Protection of the WWRP/THORPEX can do to learn about climate change Ozone Layer African Science Plan and take action. Climate change is a (WMO/TD-No. 1437) Version 1 critical and timely topic of deep concern, [ E ] (WMO/TD-No. 1460) here told in an age-appropriate manner, 2008; 373 pp. [ E ] with clarity and hope. Kids can make a Price: CHF 30 2008; 50 pp. difference! Price: CHF 30 Plan for the implementation of the This book combines the talents of two GAW Aerosol Lidar WWRP/THORPEX uniquely qualified authors: Lynne Cherry, Observation Net- African Implementa- the leading children’s environmental work GALION tion Plan writer/illustrator and author of The Great (WMO/TD-No. 1443) (WMO/TD-No. 1461) Kapok Tree, and Gary Braasch, award- [ E ] [ E ] winning photojournalist and author of 2008; 53 pp. 2008; 46 pp. Earth Under Fire: How Global Warming Price: CHF 30 Price: CHF 30 is Changing the World.

Year of Tropical Convection (YOTC) WMO Technical Conference on The YOTC Science Meteorological and Environmen- plan — A joint WCRP– tal Instruments and WWRP/THORPEX Methods of Observa- International Initiative tion (TECO-2008) (WMO/TD-No. 1452) (WMO/TD-No. 1462) [ E ] [ E ] 2008; 34 pp. 2008 Price: CHF 30 Price: CHF 30

132 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Reviews

The Asian Monsoon temperature, winds at the surface the two current hypotheses regarding and aloft and rainfall patterns. The the timing of intensification, near discussion of monsoon meteorology 8 Ma or at an earlier time, closer to pays particular attention to the spatial 22 Ma. patterns of rainfall over land and ocean, as well as the role of orography Although the title of Chapter 4 in monsoonal circulation, both a indicates an orbital scale focus, the necessary context for the following chapter covers orbital, deglacial and By Peter D. Clift and R. Alan Plumb. chapters. millennial scale variability. The authors Cambridge University Press (2008) use the term “millennial” in reference ISBN 978‑0‑521‑84799‑5. Chapter 2 links Pangean to modern to variability in the 103-105 year range, ix + 270 pp. Price: £ 70/US$ 150 monsoon systems with solid Earth potentially causing some confusion tectonic processes responsible for to the reader, as “millennial” is more evolving land-ocean configurations. often reserved for variability in the Here, the focus is on the links between 103 year range whereas “orbital” Authors Peter Clift and Alan Plumb tectonics and monsoon circulation, is used for variability in the 104- target advanced students and in particular, the role of the broad, 105 year range; this differentiation researchers in the atmospheric elevated Tibetan Plateau, the closure of reflects differences in the primary sciences, climatology, oceanography, the Paratethys seaway, and the ongoing underlying forcing mechanisms, geophysics and geomorphology constriction of the Indonesian seaway, insolation forcing for orbital scale in their book The Asian Monsoon: all of which alter the underlying land- variance and internal forcing for Causes, History and Effects. Indeed, ocean pressure gradients driving millennial-scale variance. the 270 pages include materials monsoon circulation. appropriate to all these disciplines Unlike the chapters dealing with tectonic as monsoon circulation derives Chapter 3 discusses evolution of evolution, Clift and Plumb spend less from the complex interplay of the monsoon over tectonic (106- time delving into the intricacies of oceanic, atmospheric and terrestrial 107 year) timescales in the context current hypotheses regarding the processes. of the various marine and terrestrial underlying causes of millennial- and proxies used to reconstruct monsoon orbital-scale monsoon variability. The first chapter lays out the evolution. Here, the emphasis is on Rather, the treatment is more descriptive meteorological foundation, establishing the timing at which the of the dizzying array of proxies that have moving the reader quickly from an monsoon intensified into the modern been employed to assess monsoon introductory overview of planetary- system we recognize today and the variance. In this regard, the review is scale atmospheric circulation into extent to which the various tectonic comprehensive, informative and useful, low-latitude tropical and monsoonal factors introduced in Chapter 2 may covering virtually all important proxies circulation, employing a minimum contribute to this evolution. This from the marine, terrestrial and ice- of mathematical equations and a chapter presents a useful discussion core archives. particularly nice set of seasonal of the attributes and detractions of climatological mean overview figures various proxies and the consequent Chapter 5 explores the links between illustrating surface pressure, surface implications on differentiating among monsoon precipitation, erosion,

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 133 tectonic-scale exhumation and Satellite of their data to study tropical weather uplift. As with proxies for monsoon meteorology systems and constrain, validate and strength, the individual proxies and initialize NWP models. approaches employed to estimate erosion, exhumation and uplift are The book constitutes very good diverse and often somewhat under­ material for university students constrained. Clift and Plumb employ a planning a career in physics or Earth multi-proxy, multi-regional synthesis sciences, as well as a reference for approach to unravelling the influences R.R. Kelkar. BS Publications (2007). scientists involved in Earth system of precipitation and solid-earth ISBN 81-7800-137-3. research or operational weather xix + 251 pp. tectonics, with a focus on offshore prediction, in particular over tropical Price: US$ 26 sediment budgets of the marginal regions. seas. The author, R.R. Kelkar, who is currently The more general interest reader ISRO Space Chair Professor at the might consider reading Chapter 6 Observing our weather from University of Pune, India, has a long first, as it draws the all-important link space—referred to here as satellite experience in satellite meteorology at between monsoonal climate and the meteorology (SM)—has revolution- the India Meteorological Department, 66 per cent of Earth’s population that ized our understanding of how the and has done a very good job in currently live within its influence. Here, atmosphere, ocean, land and cryo- synthesizing this fast growing emphasis is on the late Holocene and sphere operate and interact as part field, highlighting its potential, as modern interplay among monsoon of a system. By the unique virtue well as the related challenges and variability and human society. In of being global, satellite data have opportunities. particular, the authors examine the radically transformed the way mete- societal impacts of abrupt monsoon orologists perform numerical weather Pierre-Philippe Mathieu change that has taken place in the prediction (NWP). Today, gigabytes of [email protected] context of slowly declining summer radiances from satellites are routinely monsoon precipitation over the assimilated into weather forecast past 8 000 years, as well as a very models. interesting synopsis of the monsoon and religion. This book traces the fascinating history of satellite meteorology This book meshes wonderfully with and its application to NWP, starting the previously published text, also from the beginning of the space era entitled The Asian Monsoon, by Bin up to the current state-of-the-art Wang (2006). Whereas Wang focuses sensors, providing the reader with on modern monsoon meteorology, a comprehensive introduction to including one chapter on paleo- remote-sensing, climate monitoring monsoons, Clift and Plumb focus and weather forecasting, with on the paleo-monsoon, including a particular focus on Indian one chapter on modern monsoon meteorology. In particular, the book meteorology. Thus, the well-rounded covers (and illustrates with nice colour Earth Science bookshelf should be figures) a variety of remote-sensing looking to add this well-written topics ranging from the orbits of the and informative Clift and Plumb satellites, the types of radiation they contribution. sense, the physical understanding of their measurement and the retrieval Steven C. Clemens of ocean, land and atmospheric [email protected] parameters, up to the exploitation

134 | WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 Calendar

Date Title Place

20 April-1 May Enhancing Climsoft Capabilities for Climate Data and Metadata Exchange (Training Lusaka, Zambia of Trainers) 20-24 April RA IV Hurricane Committee — thirty-first session Nassau, Bahamas 24 April-1 May Regional Association IV — fifteenth Session Nassau, Bahamas 21-23 April 30th session of IPCC Antalya, Turkey 21-24 April Severe Weather Forecasting and Disaster Risk Reduction Demonstration Project, Wellington, New Zealand “SWFDDP”, a Regional Subproject of SWFDP in RA V, Regional Subproject management Team 27-30 April GCOS/WCRP Atmospheric Observation Panel for Climate — fifteenth session Geneva (AOPC-XV) 27-30 April International Workshop on Adaptation to Climate Change in West African Ouagadougou, Burkina Agriculture Faso 27 April-1 May Regional Training Seminar for National Instructors of RA II and RA V Seoul, Republic of Korea 4-8 May Meeting of the GAW World Data Centre Managers, GAW Workshop and Meeting Geneva of the JSC for the Open Programme Area Group on Environment Pollution and Atmospheric Chemistry 5-7 May 2nd International Experts’ Symposium on Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems Toulouse, France with Focus on the Role of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services 11-14 May Training Workshop on Integrated Flood Management Tehran, Iran 18-21 May International Workshop on Content, Communication and Use of Agrometeoro- Toowoomba, Australia logical Products and Services for Sustainable Agriculture 18-22 May JCOMM Ship Observations Team — fifth session Geneva 25-29 May CBS OPAG Expert Team on Public Weather Services in Support of Disaster Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Prevention and Mitigation (ET/DPM) 3-12 June Executive Council — sixty-first session Geneva 4-10 June 4th International Verification Methods Workshop and Training Helsinki, Finland (co-sponsored by WMO) 18-19 June WMO Forum: Social and Economic Appications and Benefits of Weather, Climate Geneva and Water Services 29 June-3 July Seventh International Conference on Urban Climate (ICUC) Yokohama, Japan 31 August- Third World Climate Conference (WCC-3) Geneva 4 September 14-15 September RA VI Technical Conference Brussels, Belgium 16-24 September Regional Association VI — fifteenth session Brussels, Belgium 18-23 October Eleventh Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting and second Coastal Halifax, Canada Hazard Symposium 3-4 November JCOMM Technical Conference Marrakech, Morocco 5-12 November JCOMM-III Marrakech, Morocco 16-17 November Commission for Atmospheric Sciences Technical Conference Seoul, Republic of Korea 18-25 November Commission for Atmospheric Sciences — fifteenth session Seoul, Republic of Korea

WMO Bulletin 58 (2) - April 2009 | 135 The World Meteorological Organization

WMO is a specialized agency of the Services serving in an individual Elected members of the Executive Council United Nations. Its purposes are: capacity; it meets once a year to M.A. Abbas (Egypt) supervise the programmes approved A.C. Anuforom (Nigeria)* • To facilitate worldwide cooperation by Congress. O.M.L. Bechir (Mauritania) in the establishment of networks R.C. Bhatia (India) of stations for the making of P.-E. Bisch (France) meteorological observations as The six regional associations Y. Boodhoo (Mauritius) well as hydrological and other are each composed of Members S.A. Bukhari (Saudi Arabia) geophysical observations related to whose task it is to coordinate meteoro- F. Cadarso González (Spain) meteorology, and to promote the logical, hydrological and related activi- M. Capaldo (Italy) establishment and maintenance of ties within their respective Regions. H.H. Ciappesoni (Argentina) centres charged with the provi- G. Foley (Australia)* sion of meteorological and related W. Gamarra Molina (Peru) services; The eight technical commissions D. Grimes (Canada) • To promote the establishment and are composed of experts designated by S.W.B. Harijono (Ms) (Indonesia) maintenance of systems for the Members and are responsible for study- J.L. Hayes (USA)* rapid exchange of meteorological ing meteorological and hydrological T. Hiraki (Japan) and related information; operational systems, applications and J. Hirst (United Kingdom)* • To promote standardization of research. W. Kusch (Germany) meteorological and related obser- L. Makuleni (Ms) (South Africa) vations and to ensure the uniform J.R. Mukabana (Kenya) publication of observations and Executive Council M. Ostojski (Poland) statistics; President M.M. Rosengaus Moskinsky (Mexico) • To further the application of mete- A.I. Bedritsky (Russian Federation) P. Taalas (Finland)* orology to aviation, shipping, water First Vice-President F. Uirab (Namibia) problems, agriculture and other A.M. Noorian (Islamic Republic of Iran) K.S. Yap (Malaysia) human activities; Second Vice-President G. Zheng (China)

• To promote activities in operational T.W. Sutherland (British Caribbean * acting member hydrology and to further close coop- Territories) eration between Meteorological and Third Vice-President (one seat vacant) Hydrological Services; A.D. Moura (Brazil) • To encourage research and training in meteorology and, as appropriate, Presidents of technical commissions Ex officio members of the Executive in related fields, and to assist in coor- Aeronautical Meteorology Council (presidents of regional dinating the international aspects of C. McLeod such research and training. associations) Agricultural Meteorology Africa (Region I) J. Salinger M.L. Bah (Guinea) Atmospheric Sciences The World Meteorological Congress Asia (Region II) M. Béland is the supreme body of the Organization. V.E. Chub (Uzbekistan) Basic Systems It brings together delegates of all South America (Region III) F.R. Branski Members once every four years to R.J. Viñas García (Venezuela) Climatology determine general policies for the North America, Central America and P. Bessemoulin fulfilment of the purposes of the the Caribbean (Region IV) Hydrology Organization. L.G. de Calzadilla (Ms) (Panama) B. Stewart (acting) Instruments and Methods of South-West Pacific (Region V) Observation The Executive Council A. Ngari (Cook Islands) J. Nash is composed of 37 directors of National Europe (Region VI) Oceanography and Marine Meteorology Meteorological or Hydrometeorological D.K. Keuerleber-Burk (Switzerland) P. Dexter and J.-L. Fellous

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Head Office and Factory 765 Ueno, Ageo-shi, Saitama-ken 362-0058, Japan Tel:(048)725-1548 Tokyo Office (International Division) Katakura Bldg, 1-2 Kyobashi 3-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0031, Japan Tel:+81-3-3281-6988 Fax:+81-3-3281-7095 E-mail: [email protected] Weather affects the operation of the transportation systems that we all rely on ... Climate, on the other hand, affects transportation infrastructure.

M. McGuirk et al. Vol. 58 (2) - April 2009 BulletinFeature articles | Interviews | News | Book reviews | Calendar www.wmo.int L 2009 Meteorological services e 58 (2) - APRI

Volum for transportation

Meteorology and marine transportation 111

Weather monitoring and etin forecasting services for provincial highways and

MO Bull railways in China

W 118

World Meteorological Organization

7bis, avenue de la Paix - Case postale 2300 - CH-1211 Geneva 2 - Switzerland Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 81 11 - Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 81 81 E-mail: [email protected] - Website: www.wmo.int

Weather and climate change ISSN 0042-9767 implications for surface transportation in the USA 84 Meteorological services to aviation 94 Meteorology for travellers 104