sign in sign up
<<
Home , Agrotera, Aphaea, Arcas, Cynegetica (Nemesianus), Diana and Actaeon, Euphrosyne

Artemis - - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Artemis Eveline Krummen

LAST MODIFIED: 24 JULY 2018 DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195389661-0317

Introduction

Artemis is the daughter of and and a goddess of many aspects. Her cult is found in many corners of the Mediterranean, from Minor in the East to the Greek colonies of the West, in Magna Graecia and Sicily. She is one of the oldest deities, possibly attested in Linear B scripts, and was worshipped as throughout the . She is strongly connected to aspects of vegetation and wild animals, among them lions and panthers. Accordingly, she rules over the mountains, untouched nature, but also over border regions and marshes (en limnais), where we find many of her sanctuaries. She is, or appears, as the “goddess of the outside.” This is in keeping with the dominant aspect of her cult, which marks the transition of adolescents to adults: of girls to wives (young girls serve in her temples before their wedding), and of ephebes to citizens. The most famous rite in this context is certainly the most cruel one conducted in at the altar of (Artemis) Orthia, during which young boys were whipped (cf. , , ), sometimes until they died, as authors of the Roman period attest. In Sparta and elsewhere, Artemis, mainly as Agrotera (the “Wild” or “Rustic”) also appears as a goddess of war receiving before and after battle. She is not only the “nourisher” of youth (kourotrophos), but the bringer of death, especially to young women in childbirth. Her aspects as city deity are less considered in research, though she appears as such especially in Asia Minor, but also in as depicted on the frieze. She incorporates traits of the “Great Mother” with begging priests and eunuchs as part of her temple cult, similar to or Anahita. Later periods show distinct syncretistic traits of her cult, connecting Artemis to , goddess of death, or , as well as /Luna. Distinctions are blurry at best. Most important in literature are the Hymns to Artemis by and especially by Callimachus. In Homer, Artemis appears either as potnia theron (Mistress of Animals) or as a very young and even spoiled girl, but also as lovely paradigme of the young unmarried girl dancing with her companions. In tragedy she is especially involved with Hippolytus and with Artemis (Tauropolos) as ’ tragedies show.

General Overviews

Regarding Greek religion, cults, rites, and , and their relation to the cult calendar of Greek poleis, have been the focus of research in the past years. Single deities and their cults were of less interest. This holds true for Artemis as well. Ancient literature has led us to consider Artemis mostly as a deity and the goddess of young girls. Only recently have other aspects of her cult been considered, outlining the complexity of this divinity. Three monographs have been published recently. An encompassing presentation of Artemis is given by Budin 2015, whereas Fischer-Hansen and Poulsen 2009 is a fine collection of articles presenting an overall picture of a multifaceted divinity. Both books represent the latest state of research. Add the very informative online article Artemis and Petrovic 2010. Still very valuable as an introduction to Artemis are the articles in DNP (Der Neue Pauly), Graf 1997 and Burkert 1985 and Burkert 1979; comprehensive regarding the reception of Artemis in literature and art from antiquity to modernity is Föcking 2008. Artemis’s sanctuaries, cults, rituals, and their relation to myths are excellently discussed in Cole 2004. A good introduction and survey of the Roman Artemis is given by Green 2007.

Artemis. theoi.com. Very good and informative encyclopedic article on Artemis, her epithets, the most important literary texts on the subject but

1 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

also pictures; survey of the myths, the heroes and heroines related to Artemis, discussion of her estate, cult places and statues in various parts of , her titles and epithets. Recommended to all readers who look for a very succinct article on Artemis.

Budin, Stephanie Lynn. 2015. Artemis: Gods and heroes of the ancient world. London and New York: Routledge. An excellent and very detailed study of the goddess that discusses a wide range of literary, iconographic, and archaeological material from early to modern times. From a feminist angle the book is also an excellent resource for information about young girls and women. It is also very successful in discussing some modern misconceptions of Artemis. The book may serve as an introduction and is recommended to anyone interested in the subject.

Burkert, Walter. 1979. Structure and history in and ritual. Berkeley and London: Univ. of California Press. Chapter 5: “The Great Goddess, Adonis, and Hippolytus.” Authoritative survey, provides a very succinct discussion of the Great Goddess and her affinity to Artemis, even when he takes a critical stance toward Great Goddess theories. Focusing on the transmission of myths and rituals from East to West, especially , Adonis, and Hippolytus, each of them connected to the Great Goddess (i.e., Artemis) in a particular way and illustrating different forms of cross-cultural traditions. See pp. 99–122.

Burkert, Walter. 1985. Greek religion: Archaic and classical. Translated by John Raffan. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. This book is a cornerstone to religion. The chapter on the Greek gods, Artemis among them, had great influence on how we conceive them and their position and role in the pantheon of the Greek polis. Recommended as an introductory reading. See especially pp. 149–151 and 218–221. Originally: Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 1977.

Cole, Susan Guettel. 2004. Landscapes, gender, and ritual space: The ancient Greek experience. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Very useful and innovative study of Greek ritual practice based on a thorough interpretation of ancient sources. Excellent for an illustration of the profoundly gendered nature of Greek cult practices, while investigating various cults of Artemis. Particularly interesting are chapters 6 and 7, where Cole explains the placement of Artemis’s sanctuaries in the landscape of mainland Greece and their relation to specific rituals which were important for the social life of the polis. See Various Epithets and Spheres: Gender.

Fischer-Hansen, Tobias, and Birte Poulsen, eds. 2009. From Artemis to Diana: The goddess of man and beast. Acta 12. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, Univ. of Copenhagen. A fine collection of articles covering the whole span of time from the prehistoric period to Late Antiquity, at the same time offering a wide-ranging survey of Artemis’s sanctuaries and cults either in major centers of Greece or dealing with regional aspects. Very informative and recommendable are the chapters on Artemis and her cult in Roman times and the excellent analysis of the reception of Diana Efesia in the Renaissance to the age of neoclassicism.

2 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Föcking, Marc 2008. Artemis. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly. Supplemente Band 5. Edited by Maria Moog- Grünewald, 151–163. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler. An equally succinct introduction to Artemis and her afterlife (Nachleben) in literature and art from archaic to modern times. The role of Artemis in literature and its development throughout the ages (Late Antiquity to modernity) is highlighted by considering the major authors and their writings on the subject. Significant sculpture, such as the Artemis with fawn in Versailles (Hellenistic date), is used to illustrate the text. Ideal for a first orientation.

Graf, Fritz. 1997. Artemis. In Der Neue Pauly Band 2. Edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, 53–58. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler. A very concise introduction to the main aspects of the goddess as well as to the basic questions of the scholarly discussion (e.g., Artemis’s presentation in literature, especially Homer, her functions, i.e., hunting, initiation, special rites, her images in cult, but also Artemis as a city-goddess, and her worship in private). Recommended to anyone starting with the subject. See also the article by Adrienne Lezzi-Hafter on the iconograpy, pp. 58–59.

Green, Carin M. C. 2007. Roman religion and the cult of Diana at Aricia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. This is a seminal contribution to research on the Italian goddess Diana. The book is also relevant for questions of the political involvement of the emperors, especially Augustus, in Diana’s cult and rituals (especially at Aricia) and more generally for the discussion of the interpenetration of cult and politics in Roman history.

Petrovic, Ivana. 2010. Transforming Artemis: From the goddess of the outdoors to city goddess. In The gods of : Identities and transformations. Edited by Jan Bremmer and Andrew Erskine, 209–227.. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. The article gives a succinct survey of Artemis’s representation in early Greek poetry and of the impact this representation had on later Greek poetry. It is very recommended as a short and inspiring introduction into the subject focusing on‚ “a synchronic and diachronic view . . . (by) generating new approaches” as it is presented as the goal of the book. See especially pp. 217–227.

Artemis in Iconography and Art

There are some informative surveys of Artemis in iconography and art. A very good starting point and overview is Knauß 2012, whereas the articles in Lexikon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Kahil 1984 and Augé and Linant de Bellefonds 1984 and Simon and Bauchhenß 1984, present an exhaustive catalogue, each followed by excellent discussions of the subject.

Augé, Christian, and Pascale Linant de Bellefonds. 1984. Artemis in peripheria orientali. In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Band II.1.766–771. Zurich and Munich: Artemis. Supplements the article on Artemis in LIMC, Kahil 1984.

Kahil, Lilly. 1984. Artemis. In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Band II.1.618–753. Zurich, , and Munich: Artemis. Very short survey of the literary sources followed by an extensive catalogue of representations of the goddess in the plastic arts from Mycenaean time to Late Antiquity.

3 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Knauß, Florian S. 2012. Artemis/Diana – Herrin des Draußen. In Die Unsterblichen Götter Griechenlands. Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek München. By Florian S. Knauß, 126–139. Lindenberg im Allgäu, : Kunstverlag Josef Fink. Catalogue of a Munich exhibition, comprehensively presenting Greek deities and their cults in archaeological artifacts (reliefs, vase paintings, sculpture, ornaments), Artemis among them. The article illustrates with many images and an informative commentary the central function and multiple representations of Artemis (e.g., Potnia Theron, goddess of the hunt, Artemis/Diana with lunar crescent). A very good starting point and overview.

Simon, Erika, and Gerhard Bauchhenß. 1984. Artemis/Diana. In Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Band II.1.792–855. Zurich, Switzerland, and Munich: Artemis. Very valuable for Artemis’s Roman pendant Artemis/Diana; it completes both the articles on Artemis earlier in the volume, Kahil 1984 and Augé and Linant de Bellefonds 1984.

Previous Research

There are some early monographs on Artemis. Hoenn 1946 is a very succinct presentation of Artemis (chapter 1) and Diana (chapter 2) which is based on archaeological, literary, and iconographical evidence. Even if outdated in some aspects and facts, it is still worth reading. For a thorough account of Artemis’s epithets and cult places from East to West in a lexicographical style see Nilsson 1992 in Geschichte der griechischen Religion. He considers Artemis a fertility goddesss. Still outstanding in its approach to Artemis as a Great Goddess in an Oriental milieu is Helck 1971. It should also be noted that Sir James Frazer’s most important thesis of the dying and reviving god—as established in the The Golden Bough (1890)—was linked to the priest-king of the goddess Diana at Aricia at Lake Nemi. For Frazer, the world seems dominated by sexually powerful mothers and their companions like Artemis/Hippolytus.

Frazer, Sir James George. 1890. The golden bough. A study in comparative religion. 2 vols. New York: London Macmillan. Recommended to anyone interested in the history of thought

Helck, Wolfgang. 1971. Betrachtungen zur Großen Göttin und den ihr verbundenen Gottheiten. Munich and Vienna: Oldenbourg. Still the standard reference regarding the Great Goddess and her oriental milieu. In our context, the chapter titled “Die anatolische Göttin seit dem 1. Jahrtausend vor Christus” (The Anatolian Goddess since the 1st millennium BCE) is of special interest (pp. 243–283), with its connections to the cult of Artemis (e.g., Ephesus). It also addresses the dissemination of a number of motifs to the West (e.g., the images of the winged deity, the goddess with the lion).

Hoenn, Karl. 1946. Artemis: Gestaltwandel einer Göttin. Zurich, Switzerland: Artemis-Verlag. One of the first comprehensive discussions of Artemis and Diana. Still one of the major references for Artemis. For quite a long time it was the only monograph on Artemis.

Nilsson, Martin P. 1992. Geschichte der griechischen Religion. 3d ed. Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft. Teil 2. Bd.1. Munich: C.H. Beck-Verlag. English translation: A history of Greek religion. The following entries are of interest: Imported deities, Volume 1, pp. 722–728 (Hecate, the Great Mother) and pp. 481–500, here also Artemis and the animal world, as well as Artemis in the context of

4 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

arboreal and fertility cults, Artemis and water, Artemis as birthing deity; very useful as an addition to Burkert 1985 (cited under General Overviews). A list of epitheta of Artemis is compiled in the index, p. 873, and Volume 2, p. 736. (Originally the third edition has been published in 1967).

Bibliography

There is no comprehensive bibliography for Artemis. But there is an extensive bibliography in Budin 2015 (cited under General Overviews), pp. 172–178, and especially Fischer-Hansen and Poulsen 2009 (cited under General Overviews), at the respective ends of the papers, as well as in Graf 1997 and Föcking 2008. See also General Overviews.

L’Année philologique. Paris: Les Belles Lettre. The bibliography of record for the field of classical studies. In print since 1924 and now online.

Etymology and Early History

The etymology of Artemis’s name remains obscure, but it is now generally agreed that it appears in the Linear B corpus (a-ti- mi-te, dative, and a-te-mi-to, genitive), see Budin 2015, pp. 9–11, with transcription and translation. In the earliest time, Artemis appears as Potnia theron (“mistress of wild animals”). This title is already established in the (21.407; cf. Homeric Hymn 27.11). A good discussion can be found in Barclay 2013. Moreover, the title also denotes an iconographic composition widespread in Eastern art that shows the goddess (with wings) standing between symmetrically arranged animals, mainly lions or panthers, but also deer and goats. This might also represent a/the “Goddess of Nature.” For Artemis’s appearance in Mycenaean times, see Muskett 2007, for relations to Near Eastern tradition and images, and Barclay 2013.

Budin, Stephanie Lynn. 2015. Artemis. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. London and New York: Routledge. Especially pp. 14–18. This is a very informative survey and discussion of the earliest times, including pictures of Artemis, e.g., on a relief from Thebes (675 BCE) in Athens NM 355 (goddess with children and panthers). See also General Overviews.

Muskett, Georgina. 2007. Images of Artemis in ? Journal of Prehistoric Religion 21:53–68. Supplements Budin’s discussion of the Mycenaen Artemis.

Barclay, Alison E. 2013. Influence, inspiration or innovation? The importance of contexts in the study of iconography. The case of the mistress of animals in 7th-century Greece. In Regionalism and globalism in Antiquity: Exploring their limits. Edited by Franco De Angelis, 143–175. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters.

A study of the sources, adaptations, and functions of the Mistress of Animals motif in the 7th century BCE. It especially considers the material’s social and historical context, and gives an analysis of how the motif is adapted into a new culture when it is transmitted from one region to another. This helps to better understand the significance of the motif.

Greek Literature

Artemis seems to be a deity appearing mostly in the context of cults, both local and transregional (see Cult and Cult

5 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Topography). Only recently has research begun to pay attention to the literary conception of the goddess, beginning with Homer. Additionally, her connections to as it is found in poetry and literature needs to be stressed, presenting their own (narrative) forms from the Archaic to the classical age and in the Hellenistic and Imperial period. Some heroines, in cult, myth, or literarily stylized narratives, adopt traces and characteristics of the goddess, for example, Iphigeneia. Artemis, the goddess, however has, e.g., been considered religiously, sociologically, and in her function as an initiation deity, but little has so far been done in terms of literature and fictionality. At this point, a few key literary texts might be singled out: In the Iliad, Artemis is depicted as the Mistress of Animals, who exhorts her twin brother to join the fight (21.470–514). In the , we find the well-known comparison of Nausicaa, daughter of King Alcinous of Phaeacia, with Artemis, the archer, who roves over the mountains, enjoying the pursuit of boars and swift deer, and resting in the company of , while Leto, her mother, looks on with pride (6.102–109). Highly influential was also the Homeric Hymn to Artemis (27), which paints the image of Artemis with the golden bow, rejoicing in the chase, making mountains, earth, and sea tremble at her approach (6–10); she then returns to her brothers’ sanctuary, where she orders the dances of and graces. In tragedy, Artemis figures prominently in Euripides’ Hippolytus, who is wholly devoted to the deity, hearing her voice in the wilderness. His singular devotion leads to tragedy, as the neglected takes bitter revenge. In Euripides’ Iphigenia in Tauris, the heroine attempts to sacrifice her own brother, Orestes, to the cruel deity. A much more pleasant image of Artemis is painted in Callimachus’s Hymn to Artemis, in which Zeus grants to the young goddess whatever she asks, especially cities on both the mainland and the islands (3.1–40): Artemis is the protectress of cities and punishes injustice. On , waits for her kill, which he devours. Finally, the hymn lists her train, sanctuaries, and statues along with their mythical origins (182–208). Artemis figures prominently in a late antique text, the Cynegetica of Oppian, with the poet choosing to open each of the four chapters with an invocation of the deity, now also a goddess of poetry. She bestowed the art of hunting on heroes and mankind, she is the divine protectress of the poet as well as his human patron, the emperor Caracalla. The syncretistic elements of the goddess are mirrored in the poem itself.

Archaic to Classical Period

Petrovic 2010 and Shapiro 1994 have contributed groundbreaking research in this area, not only for the period involved, but also in general, though much still remains to be done. Anyone interested in Artemis’s sociological role and her function as an initiation goddess should turn to Hall 2013 and Hall 2014.

Hall, Edith. 2013. Adventures with Iphigenia in Tauris: A cultural history of Euripides’ Black Sea tragedy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. This is a groundbreaking study of Euripides’ Taurian Iphigenia, a play situated on the shore of the Black Sea. Detailed analysis of the play’s cultural background, which is highly recommended to anyone interested in the reception of the play from Antiquity (e.g., Aristoteles and ) to modernity, i.e., by ritualists like James Frazer and by feminists and in postcolonial drama. The dark and cruel side of Artemis—at least in mythic imagination—is explained.

Hall, Edith. 2014. Tragic myth as medium of social and cultural history: Black Sea Artemis and the cults of the Roman Empire. In Medien der Geschichte – Antikes Griechenland und Rom. Edited by Ortwin Dally, Tonio Hölscher, Susanne Muth, Rolf Schneider, 107–131. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Succinct summary of the monograph (Hall 2013), at the same time focusing on the afterlife (‘Nachleben’) of Euripides’ play and myth in diverse media. Essential discussion of the ancient cultural and social history, as the myth is often closely related to Artemis’s cults at various locations around the Mediterranean Sea. Important study of the ideological use and efficacy of ancient myths throughout the centuries.

Petrovic, Ivana. 2010. Transforming Artemis: From the goddess of the outdoors to city goddess. In The gods of ancient Greece: Identities and transformations. Edited by Jan Bremmer and Andrew Erskine, 209–227. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. This is not only a very good introduction to the goddess Artemis (General Overviews), the article also discusses her portrayal in the Homeric epics, especially the Nausicaa parable in the Odyssey (6.102–107), as well as Artemis in drama (especially

6 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Euripides’ Iphigenia in Tauris and in Aulis) and in the Hellenistic era (Theocritus Id. 2 and Callimachus’s Hymn to Artemis). See especially pp. 217–227.

Shapiro, Harvey Alan. 1994. Myth into art: Poet and painter in classical Greece. London and New York: Routledge. Discussion of Iphigenia in Tauris, Iphigenia, and Orestes including their representation in art. See especially pp. 167–171.

Hellenistic Period

There is a whole range of research on Artemis in Hellenistic poetry, especially on Callimachus’s Hymn to Artemis; most importantly Petrovic 2007 and Ambühl 2005; on the childhood motif, Schlegelmilch 2009. Single aspects of tradition and structure of the hymn are discussed in Fain 2004; on the depiction of the goddess, see Köhnken 2004. A commentary on verses 170–268 is found in Plantinga 2004. See also the discussions of “gods” in Hellenistic times or in Callimachus generally in Hunter and Fuhrer 2002 and Hunter 2011.

Ambühl, Annemarie. 2005. Kinder und junge Helden. Innovative Aspekte des Umgangs mit der literarischen Tradition bei Kallimachos. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters. This is a very comprehensive study of Artemis as a young child in Callimachus’s third hymn (pp. 245–307). Callimachus is a poet who regenerates both the literary tradition and the representation of gods, especially as children, according to a well- known motif in Hellenistic time (Kindheitsmotiv). A very thorough analysis of the intertextual integration of Artemis as a young girl in various poetic texts (e.g., the Iliad, Odyssey, Euripides’ Iphigeneia) is especially interesting (pp. 258–295).

Fain, Gordon L. 2004. Callimachus hymn to Artemis and the tradition of rhapsodic hymn. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 47.1: 45–56. Very thorough analysis of the hymn’s structure and references to archaic poems like the Homeric Hymn to Apollo.

Hunter, Richard. 2011. The gods of Callimachus. In Brill’s companion to Callimachus. Edited by Benjamin Acosta- Hughes, Luigi Lehnus, and Susan Stephens, 245–263. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. A very thoughtful article on the presentation of the divine in Callimachus, on the poetology of the cultic world and the importance of statues in Hellenistic poetry, followed by a most enlightening discussion of the experience of the divine and of epiphany in Callimachus’s mimetic-hymns. Even if the Hymn to Artemis is not explicitly commented on, the article is a very substantial contribution to the conception of the divine in Hellenistic poetry.

Hunter, Richard, and Therese Fuhrer. 2002. Imaginary gods? Poetic theology in the hymns of Callimachus. In Callimaque. Entretiens sur l’Antiquité classique 48. Edited by Luigi Lehnus and Franco Montanari, 143–187. Vandoeuvres and Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt. This is a very substantial contribution to the gods in the Hymns of Callimachus in general and also a very clear analysis of the Hymn to Artemis as a historical record and poetic version of her cults, including their relation to the . The article might also serve as an introduction to Callimachus’s hymns, showing, inter alia, how they integrate the gods of the Panhellenic pantheon in new contexts.

Köhnken, Adolf. 2004. Artemis im Artemishymnos des Kallimachos. In Callimachus II. Hellenistica Groningana. Proceedings of the Groningen workshops on Hellenistic poetry 7. Edited by Annette Harder, Remco F. Regtuit, and Gerry C. Wakker, 161–172. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters.

7 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

The hymn’s structure has been much debated and is often considered as diverse and shifting in focus. This article argues that the structure of the hymn is well organized and Artemis put in its center.

Petrovic, Ivana. 2007. Von den Toren des zu den Hallen des Olymp. Artemiskult bei Theokrit und Kallimachos. Supplementum 281. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. This is a seminal work on the reception of contemporary religion in Hellenistic poetry. It gives a very succinct analysis of references to contemporary religious phenomena and how they are integrated in literature (poetry), focusing on Theocritus’s Idyll 2 and Callimachus’s Hymns. Much insight can also be gained for the practice of Artemis’s cult in the (see chapters 2 and 4). Hellenistic poetry no longer seems to be mainly an intertextual play.

Plantinga, Mirjam. 2004. A parade of learning: Callimachus’ Hymn to Artemis (Lines 170–268). In Callimachus II. Hellenistica Groningana. Proceedings of the Groningen workshops on Hellenistic poetry 7. Edited by Annette Harder, Remco F. Regtuit, and Gerry C. Wakker, 257–277. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters. This is a very good analysis and overview of the Hymn to Artemis focusing on its most memorable scenes, on the jealousy- competitiveness theme between the siblings Artemis and Apollon that evolves as a principle of the poet’s narrative strategy. Discussion of the use and function of the poet’s “display of learning,” i.e., the details of local cults of Artemis, cult titles, and local mythological material.

Schlegelmilch, Sabine. 2009. Bürger, Gott und Götterschützling. Kinderbilder der hellenistischen Kunst. Berlin: De Gruyter. A very thorough discussion of the children’s portrayals in Hellenistic poetry and art, which seem mostly a result of the dynastic interests of the Hellenistic ruling houses. The book is recommended for its profound analysis of the hymn of Artemis with its scene of Artemis’s childhood and for the discussion of the much debated identification of Artemis and Arsinoe. See also the passages on the Geschwistergötter (sibling deities) in Callimachus’s Hymn 2 and Iambus 12. Especially pp. 163–243.

Imperial Period

In the (Greek) literature of the Roman imperial age, Artemis is often still referred to, appearing especially in the form of intertextual reference in typological scenes, and thus standing in a long poetic tradition. Artemis appears in the context of young girls or of the bride, and in the context of childbirth. The appearance of the goddess shows clear syncretistic traits, especially as regards her relation to Hecate, the Great Mother, to Isis, to Selene/Luna, and later to Mary, particularly in Asia Minor. There are no monographs discussing the appearance of Artemis in the imperial or Roman period. Listed below are thus only general contributions, e.g., Dowden 2010 on the Greek novel, Bernabé 2010 on the Orphic and hymns, standing, as they do, in the tradition of the Homeric and Callimachean hymns. See Bartley 2017 on Artemis in a collection of papers on the Gods of Greek hexameter poetry.

Bartley, Adam. 2017. The huntress and the poet: Artemis in the Cynegetica. In The Gods of Greek hexameter poetry. From the Archaic age to Late Antiquity and beyond. Edited by James J. Clauss, Martine Cuypers and Ahuvia Kahane, 243–255. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. A very informative and recommendable study of Artemis in the Cynegetica, an excellent analysis of the rich intertextual allusions (especially to Callimachus’s Aitia) and the different genres, each one of which is rejected, with the sole exception of the didactic epic, which the author employs. Artemis is depicted as a rival to the other gods, especially Bacchus. Her syncretistic traits are discussed, with the deity being firmly placed in the context of Near Eastern cultures.

8 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Bernabé, Alberto. 2010. The gods in later . In The gods of ancient Greece. Edited by Jan N. Bremmer and Andrew Erskine, 422–441. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. This collection of papers presents a systematic view of Greek gods by putting forth the question of what they actually are. Bernabé does so for the Orphic corpus. Of particular importance is the identification of “, and Bendis” with Artemis, while Hekate is called the “daughter of Leto.” The article also discusses the relation of Artemis-Selene-Hekate to the structure and cycles of the cosmos, especially to darkness and death.

Dowden, Ken. 2010. The Gods in the Greek novel. In The gods of ancient Greece. Edited by Jan N. Bremmer and Andrew Erskine, 362–374. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. This is a rather short but also one of the most informative articles on the gods in Greek novel. Questions such as “How important are gods to the Greek novel?” Or “Do they interfere in human life?” are dealt with. Statistically, Artemis places third in the Greek novel after Aphrodite and Dionysos. She is particularly relevant in Xenophon’s Ephesiaka and in Tatius’ Leucippe and Clitopho, where all ends with Artemis; add Heliodorus’s Aithiopika.

Cult and Cult Topography

The following section is structured topographically and comprises the cults from the East (Asia Minor) to the West (colonies in Magna Graecia and Sicily). It introduces the relevant literature on Artemis sanctuaries, cults, rituals, and votives. It aims, in this way, to paint a differentiated picture of the cult of Artemis. There is no comprehensive portrayal of the cult of Artemis. Léger 2017 mainly concentrates on two cults (Artemis in Sparta and Artemis in Ephesus), in spite of its promising title. Information on particular cults can be found using the table of contents or the indices in Budin 2015 and Fischer-Hansen and Poulsen 2009 (both cited under General Overviews).

Léger, Ruth M. 2017. Artemis and her cult. Oxford: Archaeopress. The study aims at providing us with a deeper insight into the cult of Artemis and the appearance of the goddess in general by studying the archaeological record of the sanctuaries of (Artemis) Orthia in Sparta and of the Ephesian Artemis combined with literary sources. The book is recommended for introductory information, including on the cults of the Athenian Artemis, but it should be consulted critically, especially as far as literary evidence is concerned.

General and Marriage

In literature, poetry, and iconography, Artemis is often depicted with her swarm of nymphs frolicing and playing and dancing on mountains and meadows (Odyssey 6.102–09; Iliad 16.183; Homeric Hymns 27.15 and 18). This hints at her cults, where the girls approaching marriage come together at her sanctuaries and festivals to form dancing groups. The word nymphe even refers to a (human) bride. A very detailed and encompassing study to this subject has been published by Winkler 2015.

Winkler, Hannelore. 2015. Bathyzōnos: zur Jungfräulichkeit in der Antike: die tiefgegürteten Nymphen. Nordhausen, Germany: Verlag Traugott Bautz. Taking the specific (low-sitting) seat of the belt (bathyzonos) as the starting point, the author discusses the images of young women in sculpture, as well as the topic of virginity in terms of philology, history, law history, and religious history.

Asia Minor

9 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

In Asia Minor, Artemis often appears as a civic deity. She has a great number of sanctuaries, and one of the most famous was the sanctuary and cult of Artemis in Ephesus, but other sanctuaries, e.g., in Sardis, Perga (Pamphylia), or (Artemis Leukophryene), were equally attractive and further expanded during the Hellenistic era. Artemis stands in close connection to Anatolian goddesses that were also, like Artemis, both deities of nature and of the city. Quite exceptional is the fire-walking ritual of the cult of Artemis Perasia (at Castabala/Mopsuestia). Her cults in North Ionia and especially at the coast of the Black Sea, mainly colonies of the Ionian cities in Asia Minor, are also important.

Ephesus

The temple of Artemis of Ephesus was noted as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The statue with its many “breasts” is much discussed even today and the sanctuary also had a great socioeconomic impact. It was a major sanctuary for nearly a thousand years. The sanctuary is also mentioned in literature. An example is Xenophon’s telling of the offering of Anthia and Habrokomas, who dedicated a table to the goddess, narrating their suffering and salvation by the deity. The temple is also mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles (19:34–35), as Paul visited it and caused an uproar. Muss 2008 and Bammer and Muss 1996 are excellent introductions to the sanctuary and its cult and rites, but also resources to research questions. Still worthwhile reading is Bammer 1984. Important on the early history and the appearance of Artemis in Ephesus and Asia Minor are Kerschner 2015 and Berns 2006.

Bammer, Anton. 1984. Das Heiligtum der Artemis von Ephesos. Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt. A very informative study and overview of the archaeological evidence of the sanctuary, the development of Artemis’ cults and the appearance of the goddess throughout the centuries. A worthwhile read.

Bammer, Anton, and Ulrike Muss, eds. 1996. Das Artemision von Ephesos. Das Weltwunder Ioniens in archaischer und klassischer Zeit. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: von Zabern. This is a very concise introduction to the architecture, history, cult and rites, and the farreaching economic relations of the sanctuary.

Berns, Christof. 2006. Konkurrierende Zentren. Überlegungen zur religiösen Repräsentation in Ephesos und den Städten der Provinz Asia in der Kaiserzeit. In Zentralität und Religion. Zur Formierung urbaner Zentren im Imperium Romanum. Edited by Hubert Cancik, Alfred Schäfer, and Wolfgang Spickermann, 273–308. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. This is a short but excellent presentation of the sanctuary’s history and its meaning especially in Hellenistic times and later. The focus is on a political and sociological approach asking how religion staged and created meaning, centrality and attraction. For Artemis of Ephesos, see especially pp. 275–290.

Kerschner, Michael. 2015. Der Ursprung des Artemisions von Ephesos als Naturheiligtum. Naturmale als kultische Bezugspunkte in den großen Heiligtümern Ioniens. In Natur – Kult – Raum: Akten des internationalen Kolloquiums, Paris-Lodron-Universität Salzburg, 20–22 Jänner 2012. Sonderschriften des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts, Band 51. Edited by Katja Sporn, Sabine Ladstätter, and Michael Kerschner, 187–244. Vienna: Phoibos. This is a very informative article on the early history of the sanctuary. Based on archaeological and geological evidence, Kerschner persuasively claims that the sanctuary was originally centered around a sacred tree (an old oak) and not—as was commonly held—around a sacred spring. Aetiological and founding myths of the sanctuary as well as literary testimonies (Callimachus and Dionysos of Alexandria) are also discussed.

Muss, Ulrike. 2008. Die Archäologie der ephesischen Artemis: Gestalt und Ritual eines Heiligtums. Vienna: Phoibos

10 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Verlag. The volume consists of thirty very concise articles (all in German), which give a survey of the current state of research. In the context of the temple and cult of Artemis the sections “Die Göttin” (The goddess, i.e., Artemis Ephesia and Mary) and “Archäologie und Ritual” (archaeology and ritual) are most interesting. The volume is highly recommended to anyone interested in Artemis Ephesia.

Ritual and Cult

A good introduction into various aspects of the cults and rites can be found in Muss 2008 (the chapter “Archäologie und Ritual”) and Burkert 2011. More controversial issues are the “mysteries of Artemis” (Rogers 2012) and the cult statue’s “breasts,” also discussed in Burkert 2011, furthermore in Brenk 1998 and Seiterle 1979, who argued for bulls’ testes, a thesis most famous but rather less accepted today. Often discussed is the meaning of the “beasts” of Artemis in Ephesus: see Frayer-Griggs 2013, Hooker 2013, and Strelan 1996. There is also an ongoing debate about how Artemis as a mother goddess might have influenced the conception of Mary, the mother of Jesus: Pülz 2008 and Jenny-Kappers 1986. Kasyan 2013 links Artemis Ephesia to the Old Testament’s storytelling. The relationship between the Epistle to the Ephesians and the historical and cultic background of ancient Ephesus is discussed by Immendörfer 2017.

Brenk, Frederick E. 1998. Artemis of Ephesos. An avant-garde goddess. 11:157–171. Important regarding the appearance of the goddess either as “Greek” or as “Anatolian.” Profound analysis of literary and iconographic sources, the archaeological and numismatic evidence is also taken into consideration. Excellent for the discussion of the cult statue of the Ephesian Artemis and the religious history of the city from the beginnings to the Roman period.

Burkert, Walter. 2011. Die Artemis der Epheser: Wirkungsmacht und Gestalt einer großen Göttin. In Kleine Schriften VI. Mythica, Ritualia, Religiosa 3. Edited by Eveline Krummen, 56–73. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht. Very informative for the presentation of the Artemis sanctuary as a precinct between the cultures, acknowledged by both and the rulers of “Asia.” The article also offers a discussion of the cult statue, proposing that the “many breasts” do not belong to the original cult image, but were part of the ornamental garment, while a (temporary) decoration with bulls’ testes seems plausible for Artemis the goddess of wild animals and the hunt. Originally published in 1999.

Frayer-Griggs, Daniel. 2013. The beasts at Ephesus and the cult of Artemis. Harvard Theological Review 106.4: 459–477. Discussion of the meaning of Paul in 1 Cor 15:32 (“If after the manner of men I have fought with beasts at Ephesus, what advantageth it me”), situating the “beasts metaphor” in the context of Jewish and aniconic polemics. The article is also worth reading because of its very concise survey of the cult of Artemis in Ephesus including a discussion of what is meant by the “breasts of Artemis.”

Hooker, Morna D. 2013. Artemis of Ephesus. Journal of Theological Studies 64:37–46. Similarly identifies the “beasts of Artemis” with the worshippers.

Immendörfer, Michael. 2017. Ephesians and Artemis: The cult of the great goddess of Ephesus as the Epistle’s context. Wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2. Reihe 436. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. A very comprehensive and thorough study of the context of the Epistle to the Ephesians and its references to the Greco-

11 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Roman cult practices of Artemis.

Jenny-Kappers, Theodora. 1986. Muttergöttin und Gottesmutter in Ephesos: von Artemis zu Maria. Zurich, Switzerland: Verlag.

Still a very useful and comprehensive treatment of the history of the place from the beginnings in the 6th century BCE to the 5th century CE, when the third ecumenical council was held (431 CE). Many of the Christian sources are cited and discussed, such as Saint Paul or Saint John, who both were in Ephesus; also a very critical and thoughtful discussion of the discovery of Mary’s house in Ephesus.

Kasyan, Maria S. 2013. The bees of Artemis Ephesia and the apocalyptic scene in Joseph and Aseneth. In Intende, Lector – Echoes of myth, religion and ritual in the ancient novel. Edited by Marília P. Futre Pinheiro, Anton Bierl, and Roger Beck, 251–271. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. A stimulating study of the miraculous scene of bees and honeycomb in the Old Testament’s narrative of Joseph and Aseneth and its relation to the cult and iconography of Artemis of Ephesus and her “many breasts.” Based on mythological and archaeological evidence and on Jewish Hellenistic imagery the author presents a new interpretation of a much-debated scene.

Muss, Ulrike. 2008. Die Archäologie der ephesischen Artemis: Gestalt und Ritual eines Heiligtums. Vienna: Phoibos Verlag. Most informative on this subject are the articles in the section Archäologie und Ritual (archaeology and ritual), pp. 79–200. The articles are also revealing for the kind of gifts a goddess is offered.

Pülz, Andreas. 2008. Von der Göttin zur Gottesmutter? Artemis und Maria. In Die Archäologie der ephesischen Artemis. Gestalt und Ritual eines Heiligtums. Edited by Ulrike Muss, 67–78. Vienna: Phoibos Verlag. A seminal discussion of the relationship between Artemis and Mary.

Rogers, Guy MacLean. 2012. The mysteries of Artemis of Ephesos: Cult, polis, and change in the Graeco-Roman world. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press. The book gives a comprehensive history of the celebration of Artemis’s mysteries in Ephesus from the early Hellenistic period to the disappearance of the cult after the mid-3rd century CE. It is excellent for its meticulous analysis of the literary, archaeological, and epigraphic sources. Also very valuable is the first theoretical part of the book focusing on the question of why someone undergoes initiation at all and what were the benefits.

Seiterle, Gerhard. 1979. Artemis, die Große Göttin von Ephesos: eine neue Deutung der Vielbrüstigkeit. Antike Welt 10.3: 3–16. An introduction to the hitherto unknown cult of the deity. The “breasts” of the cult image are reinterpreted as bull’s testes, with which the goddess was decorated.

Strelan, Rick. 1996. Paul, Artemis, and the Jews in Ephesos. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter. A concise overview of the cultic celebrations at Ephesus (p. 57), with extensive discussion of the sources (e.g., Lucian, Of Pantomime 15). The mysteries of Artemis “mean little more than the performance of rites” (p. 67).

12 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Sardis

Cahill and Greenewalt 2016 discusses new evidence of Artemis’s cult and temple which was built in the 3rd century BCE (300–275). Still relevant is Yegül 2012. The sanctuary is the fourth largest Ionic temple in antiquity. An archaic altar was located toward the west. There was extensive Roman construction in the 2nd century CE. The cella housed a series of colossal imperial portraits, beginning with Antoninus Pius. Stimulating studies on cultic matters are Bumke 2011 and Paz de Hoz 2016 (on cults in imperial times).

Bumke, Helga. 2011. Marmorkugeln für Artemis. In Keraunia. Beiträge zu Mythos, Kult und Heiligtum in der Antike. Edited by Oliver Pilz, 61–76. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Informative on cultic details. Five marble globes from the end of the 2nd to the beginning of the 1st century BCE. The name of a priestess of Artemis is inscribed on four globes. Considering that the cult of Artemis Ephesia is equipped with astral signs, the globes at Sardis can be interpreted as celestial globes.

Cahill, Nicholas, and Crawford H. Greenewalt Jr. 2016. The sanctuary of Artemis at Sardis: Preliminary Report, 2002–2012. American Journal of Archaeology 120.3: 473–509. Most recent report on excavations in the sanctuary of Artemis which clarifies problems of chronology and reconstruction. Evidence for a small temple building and cult offerings seem to date back to archaic times, i.e., to the Lydian period. In the Hellenistic period the above mentioned temple was built.

Paz de Hoz, María. 2016. The goddess of Sardis: Artemis, or Kore? In Between Tarhuntas and Zeus Polieus: Cultural crossroads in the temples and cults of Graeco-Roman Anatolia. Edited by María-Paz de Hoz, Juan Pablo Sánchez Hernández, and Carlos Molina Valero. Leuven, Belgium, and Bristol, UK: Peeters. Recommended for its very careful discussion of literary, archaeological, and epigraphic sources attesting to Artemis Sardiane as the main goddess in the sanctuary in imperial times. The relation to other goddesses (Demeter, Kore, Meter-Cybele) is shown as part of the religious syncretism in Greco-Roman times and of the cultic politics of the time under consideration.

Yegül, Fikret. 2012. The temple of Artemis at Sardis. In Dipteros und Pseudodipteros. Bauhistorische und archäologische Forschungen. Edited by Thekla Schulz, 95–111. Istanbul: Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Ege Yayınları. Most informative discussion of the excavations in the sanctuary and the reconstruction of the temple building, especially the Greco-Roman Temple. Discussion of dating problems.

Perga /Pamphylia

This is another place with a famous temple of Artemis (Pergaia) on a hill outside the town, what is a common location for a cult place of Artemis. Callimachus, in the Hymn to Artemis, shows us Perga as the goddess’ most beloved place (187). Petrovic 2007 gives an excellent discussion. The temple is also mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, as Saint Paul went to Perga to preach (Acts 14.25).

13 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Petrovic, Ivana. 2007. Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp. Artemiskult bei Theokrit und Kallimachos. Mnemosyne Supplementum 281. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Important for the reference to cultic reality in Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 187 (Artemis Pergaia), followed by a succinct overview of Artemis as a “city goddess” in Asia Minor. Recommended to anyone interested in the subject, especially pp. 194–221 with bibliography.

Magnesia on the Maeander

At the end of the 3rd century BCE, we know of the proclamation of a festival of “crown” games in Artemis’s honor (Leukophryene, with the white eyebrows) and for all the Greeks of Asia. Artemis was considered the founder and protectress of the town. Stewart 2014 and Bingöl 2012 are important regarding the temple architecture, Stavrianopoulou 2006 and Sumi 2004 are insightful regarding the festival of Artemis Leukophryene.

Bingöl, Orhan. 2012. Neue Erkenntnisse am Tempel der Artemis Leukophryene in Magnesia. In Dipteros und Pseudodipteros. Bauhistorische und archäologische Forschungen. Edited by Thekla Schulz, 113–121. Byzas 12: Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları. Discussion of the temple and its environment, i.e., the stadion and the theatron. New insights into the (imperial) cult of Artemis. Most important is the period of the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE with famous agones. The propylon, the , and the theatron (related to the cult of Artemis Leukophryene) as well as the stadion were rebuilt.

Stavrianopoulou, Eftychia. 2006. Normative interventions in Greek rituals. Strategies for justification and legitimation. In Ritual and communication in the Graeco-Roman world. Edited by Eftychia Stavrianopoulou, 131–149. Liège, Belgium: Presses univ. de Liège. Greek text of the inscription to Artemis Boulephoros Skiris with an English translation and explanations.

Stewart, Andrew. 2014. Art in the Hellenistic world: An introduction. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Description and map of the temple, an Ionic building, with a monumental altar built in 208 BCE by Hermogenes of Alabanda and mentioned by Vitruvius. It featured a colossal sculpture. The temple was dipteral and spacious and could protect large religious processions. The Ionic frieze was decorated with an , today in the Louvre (pp. 157–161).

Sumi, Geoffrey S. 2004. Civic self-representation in the Hellenistic world: The festival of Artemis Leukophryene. In Games and festivals in classical antiquity. Edited by Sinclair Bell and Glenys Davies, 79–92. Oxford: Archaeopress. Focusing on the inscription (Greek with English translation) in Magnesia related to the festival, the article shows the importance of the festival for the city to demonstrate its status in the context of the Hellenistic city states.

Mopsuestia (Cilicia)

Cilicia was famous for the most impressive ritual named “diabetria perasias” performed by the priestess of Artemis, who walked through fire barefooted: Taeuber 1992 and Furley 1981.

Furley, William D. 1981. Studies in the use of fire in . New York: Arno Press Very thorough analysis of fire rituals in general, especially rituals used in the cult of Artemis Laphria at Calydon, Hympolis

14 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

and Patrae, which seem to be closely linked to the idea of initiation by fire. The book is also recommended for the discussion of Artemis Perasia cults at Castabala (especially pp. 213–222, Strabon 12.2.7) and the relevant myths such as those of Orestes and Iphigeneia, somehow linked to Artemis Tauropolos. A connection to the modern Anastenarian festivals might be possible. On Artemis Perasia pp. 213–222 ( 12.2.7). Based on the author’s PhD dissertation, Cambridge University.

Taeuber, Hans. 1992. Eine Priesterin der Perasia in Mopsuhestia. Epigraphica Anatolica 19: 19–24.

On SEG XLII 1290. Very thorough discussion of an inscription of the 2nd half of the 2nd century CE from Mospuestia written on a grave altar (SEG XLII 1290). The inscription honors Eutychia as a “diabetria Perasia.” The goddess had a famous cult in Hierapolis-Kastabala and has been identified with Artemis. Strabo (12.2.7) is most informative regarding her cult and rituals, traditionally carried out by women. Artemis is called pyrphoros (fire-carrying), she is carrying torches on coins.

North Ionia

There is little research on the Ionian cults. Only recently were individual cities and their colonies considered, with a focus, however, on the god Apollo. Nonetheless, Ionia is an especially interesting region to consider in terms of colonization, where mother city cults were preserved, but the influence of local cults in the border region of Anatolia on the cult of Artemis is also evident, especially the cults of mother deities. Ionian and Apollonian traditions are interwoven. In this context, see Graf 1985, who considers four north-Ionian cities and their cults, including the local cults of Artemis. The study shows how cults and deities are to be considered in their respective contexts within the city, especially with regard to Greek religion in general, in which cult and ritual (cultic worship) are central elements, while the cults themselves and their local versions can only be understood in relation to those of other cities, i.e., in comparative perspectives.

Graf, Fritz. 1985. Nordionische Kulte. Vevey, Switzerland: Schweizerisches Institut in Rom. Thorough discussion of the evidence for the cult of Artemis on Chios (pp. 50–64), in Erythrae (pp. 227–249), where Artemis is worshipped as Phosphoros with light rituals, and, as Aithopia, probably relating to young girls (cf. ). In Clazomenae (pp. 384–386), she appears as the Ephesia type; in the Phocaea (pp. 410–417) humans were sacrificed to an Artemis Tauropolos, in connection with a fire ritual also known from other places.

Black Sea

The Black Sea colonization seemed tob e dominated by the cult of Apollo, but Artemis, too, had her share in the cults. An Artemis sanctuary has not yet been excavate and identified as hers, only epigraphical and literary sources attest to her cult. We may rather look for an Artemis-like goddess in this region. For a thorough discussion of the evidence for the cult of Artemis in this region, see Guldager Bilde 2009; for an encompassing presentation of all the material connected to Artemis Tauropolos, a blood-thirsty goddess metioned by (4.103) and Euripides in the play Iphigenia in Tauris, see Hall 2013.

Guldager Bilde, Pia. 2009. Quantifying Black Sea Artemis. Some methodological reflections. In From Artemis to Diana: The goddess of man and beast. Edited by Tobias Fischer-Hansen and Birte Poulsen, 303–332. Acta Hyperborea 12. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, Univ. of Copenhagen. This article gives a very good overview of the evidence for the Artemis cult in the Black Sea region. It can also be recommended as an introduction into methodological questions when someone is confronted with challenging sources including epigraphical and iconographical material. Artemis in the public sphere and Artemis in the private sphere are equally discussed.

Hall, Edith. 2013. Adventures with Iphigenia in Tauris: A cultural history of Euripides’ Black Sea Tragedy. New York:

15 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Oxford Univ. Press. This is a groundbreaking study of Euripides’ Taurian Iphigenia, a play situated on the shore of the Black Sea. The focus is on Iphigenia, the priestess of Artemis, but there is also a wide-ranging survey of the myth’s adaption to explain Artemis’s cults from Italy to Cappadocia (cf. Archaic to Classical Period).

Islands (including Cyprus)

There were many well-known sanctuaries on the islands. Yet there is no uniform appearance of the goddess in her various local cults nor has she been equally important for the surrounding communities. Examples are Rhodes with quite early testimonies to the Mistress of Animals (Barclay 2013), and Paros with its well-known temples of and Artemis (Polinskaya 2013 and Schuller 1991), and Crete and Cyprus. On Crete the cult of Artemis was widespread and most famous. The shrines and temples prevail in the countryside or were built in border areas, whereas in towns she is quite often included in the Apollonian Triad, i.e., worshipped with Apollon and Leto. In this context she might even have had a political function as a protectress of civic life and institutions. Dreros is a good example in the case, where she was worshipped together with Apollon Pythios in a temple on the agora. She also appears as the goddess of hunting and wild animals. In addition, she might be called on as a healer of diseases and a protectress of women giving birth and in childbed. In Gortyn she even protects and guarantees the bridal vow. Important to know is the fact that there had been a close affinity between Artemis and some pre-Hellenic goddesses like or Dictynna especially in the western part of Crete. See Sporn 2002 and Seelentag 2014. Small finds attest to her cult on Cyprus (Wriedt Sørensen 2009 and Ulbrich 2008).

Barclay, Alison E. 2013. Influence, inspiration or innovation? The importance of contexts in the study of iconography: The case of the Mistress of Animals in 7th-century Greece. In Regionalism and globalism in Antiquity. Colloquia Antiqua. Supplements to the Journal Ancient West & East. Edited by Franco D’Angelis, 143–175. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters. This article gives an outline of the sources and discusses the chronological and geographical spread of the cult and the functions of the Mistress of Animals motif in the 7th century BCE. Especially prominent are the gold, electrum, and silver ornamental plaques from Rhodes, the largest group of Mistress of Animals depictions in Greek art, pp. 157–160. See Etymology and Early History.

Polinskaya, Irene. 2013. A local history of Greek : Gods, people, and the land of Aigina, 800–400 BCE. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Most informative regarding Aeginetan cults. However, comparatively little is known about Artemis (pp. 260–263). Most famous on the island was the temple with its pedimental sculpture and the cult of Aphaea (traces back to the 7th century BCE). Yet it is debated whether Aphaea is to be identified with Artemis, cf. pp. 177–197. Pausanias (2nd century) mentions that Artemis saved Britomartis and made her a goddess (2.30.3). Her epithtet is Aphaia.

Schuller, Manfred. 1991. Der Artemistempel im Delion auf Paros. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter.

Reconstruction of the temple of Artemis at the Delion on Paros (480 BCE), which was comparable to the contemporary temple at or Olympia.

16 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Seelentag, Gunnar. 2014. Das archaische Kreta. Institutionalisierung im frühen Griechenland. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Seelentag gives an excellent synthesis and discussion of the source material. Chapter 5 deals with institution, especially the kosmos. In this context the Dreros inscription (650 BCE) is particularly relevant. It gives a good example of how law and regulation are related to Apollon and the Apollinian Triad, but also to a sacred place, where the citizen assembled for cultic meals and politics. For a review in English see James Whitley.

Sporn, Katja. 2002. Heiligtümer und Kulte Kretas in klassischer und hellenistischer Zeit. Heidelberg, Germany: Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte. This is an excellent and very detailed book on the history of the cultic sites and their rites based on the excavation reports. See especially 323–325.

Ulbrich, Anya. 2008. Kypris. Heiligtümer und Kulte weiblicher Gottheiten auf Zypern in der kyproarchaischen und kyproklassischen Epoche (Königszeit). Münster, Germany: Ugarit Verlag. On Artemis: pp. 89–91. Dedications go back to the mid-5th century. Discussion of various types of Artemis, e.g., hunter with quiver and arrows, sometimes with a deer, once with a bag of round fruit in her right hand or carrying a loaf of bread. The Cypriotic Artemis type shows the goddess carrying a fawn and with kalathos. Important for the collection of inscriptions from various towns and villages, see pp. 159–167.

Wriedt Sørensen, Lone. 2009. Artemis in Cyprus. In From Artemis to Diana: The goddess of man and beast. Acta Hyperborea 12. Edited by Tobias Fischer-Hansen and Birte Poulsen, 195–206. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. Short and very informative overview of the evidence (with pictures and bibliography). Many local limestones statuettes have been found mostly depicting Artemis as a huntress and protector of animals.

Athens and

The most famous Artemis sanctuary in Attica is at Brauron. Other sanctuaries of Artemis were at Athens and Mounichia. The sanctuary of young men was Halai Araphenides.

Brauron

The sanctuary at Brauron is well researched and documented both archaeologically and in terms of its religious history. Recent publications are Guarisco 2015 and Vikela 2009. Details regarding the votive figures and the rites are discussed in Mitsopoulos-Leon 2009, Faraone 2003, and Sourvinou-Inwood 1988. Kahil 1977 is still valid for the vase paintings; on dedication of cloths and treasure records in Athens, see Cleland 2005 and Linders 1972.

Cleland, Liza. 2005. The Brauron clothing catalogues: Text, analysis, glossary and translation. Oxford: John and Erica Hedges. List of the contents of the (thirteen extant) Brauron inventories in the period from 349/8 to 336/5; descriptions of the clothing according to type, decoration, color, fabric; commentary on the terminology used for the dresses. This is an important book and a fundamental study on ancient clothing, its terminology, and on gender studies.

17 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Faraone, Christopher. 2003. Playing the bear and the fawn for Artemis. Female initiation or substitute sacrifice? In Initiation in ancient Greek rituals and narratives: New critical perspectives. Edited by David B. Dodd and Christopher A. Faraone, 43–68. London and New York: Routledge. Comments on the problematic concept of “initiation” on which most scholars seem to agree when they discuss the arkteia at Brauron, and argues that this service (“playing the bear”) was rather meant to be a form of substitute sacrifice aimed at placating the deadly anger of Artemis. This is also an excellent analysis of the textual and iconographic sources and might well serve as an introductory reading to the cult of Artemis Brauronia.

Guarisco, Diana. 2015. Santuari ‚gemelli’ di una divinità. Artemide in Attica. Bologna, Italy: Bononia Univ. Press. A seminal study of Artemis’s cults in Attica, especially in Brauron, Mounichia (arkteia), and Halai Araphenides, including inscriptions in Greek with translations.

Kahil, Lily. 1977. L’Artémis de Brauron: Rites et mystère. Antike Kunst 20:86–98. A detailed discussion of the few and often very fragmentary vase paintings.

Linders, Tullia. 1972. Studies in the treasure records of Artemis Brauronia found in Athens. Stockholm: Svenska Institutet i Athen. Rez. CR 1975, 326. Still very valuable and often quoted.

Mitsopoulos-Leon, Veronika. 2009. Brauron: Die Tonstatuetten aus dem Heiligtum der Artemis Brauronia: Die frühen Statuetten, 7. bis 5. Jahrhundert. Athens: Archäologische Gesellschaft zu Athen. Very thorough discussion and analysis of the votives.

Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. 1988. Studies in girls’ transitions: Aspects of the arkteia and age representation in Attic iconography. Athens: Kardamitsa. Still very valuable for its thorough analysis of the krateriskoi found at Brauron and their relation to the arkteia ritual. But see now the critical discussion of her theses by Eva Stehle, “Women and Religion in Greece,” in A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, edited by Sharon L. James, Sheila Dillon (Malden, , and Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 191–203, esp. 196–201; and Faraone 2003.

Vikela, Eugenia. 2009. The worship of Artemis in Attica: Cult places, rites, iconography. In Worshiping women: Ritual and reality in classical Athens. Edited by Nikolaos Kaltsas and Alan Shapiro, 79–84. Athens: Alexander Onassis Public Benefit Foundation. The article gives a comprehensive and very informative discussion of the goddess at Brauron, its cult and its specific rites, the arkteia that are considered to be rites of passage for young girls between childhood and puberty. In this context rich garments have been dedicated. The author also discusses the sanctuaries political function and eminent significance for the salvation of the community. Iphigeneia was also venerated as a mythic paradigm for the girls.

Halai Araphenides

The Artemis sanctuary at Halai Araphenides was most famous for its close link to the Artemis Tauropolos on the Black Sea

18 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

coast. It was related to the young men and their introduction in rituals just as Brauron was the sanctuary for young women coming of age (Kalogeropoulos 2013 and McInerney 2015).

Kalogeropoulos, Konstantinos. 2013. Το ιερό της Αρτέµιδος Ταυροπόλου στις Αλές Αραφηνίδες. 2 vols. Athens: Academy of Athens. Excavation report of the sanctuary of Artemis Tauropolos at Loutsa (ancient Halai Araphenides) on the east coast of Attica (5th century BCE). The report also includes literary testimonies (i.e., Euripides’ Iphigenia among the Taurians, the aition for the temple and its bloody ritual), and inscriptions. Fragments of pottery and cooking vessels attest to feasting, maybe to the Tauropolia, but and a theater are also mentioned. Detailed summary in English.

McInerney, Jeremy. 2015. “There will be blood . . .” The cult of Artemis Tauropolos at Halai Araphenides. In Cities called Athens. Studies honoring JohnMcK. Camp II. Edited by Kevin F. Daly and Ann Riccardi, 289–320. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell Univ. Press. This is a very thorough discussion of the cult of Artemis Tauropolos at Halai Araphenides in Attica and and its relationship with Artemis at the Taurian coast.

The Peloponnese and Central Greece

The wide spectrum of Artemis veneration is shown by the cults of Artemis on the Peloponnese and in central Greece. It is remarkable that Artemis is venerated not only as the “goddess of the outside,” but rather as a prominent deity of the polis and of civic life, playing an important role in the lives of the ephebes and their initiation as well as in the lives of young girls. Her sanctuaries mark certain territories within and outside the city, they can be found both in the vicinity of the agora and on the borders. She is a warrior goddess in some places, protecting the city in full armor. She is also a goddess of healing and of (medical) plants, a goddess of birth and of female illnesses. We might even be confronted with an ambivalent interpretation of the goddess, who can cause both madness and healing, yet there is also the conventional image of Artemis as goddess of animals and the protector of youth. The cult, might even be marked by fire rituals. Solima 2011 and Brulotte 2002 give a survey, Osanna 1996 focuses on the cults in Achaea. Examples are Lousoi, Sparta, Patrai/Kalydon in Aetolia, Ano Mazaraki (Achaea), and Phocis and near in central Greece.

Brulotte, Eric L. 2002. Artemis: Her Peloponnesian abodes and cults. In Peloponnesian sanctuaries and cults. Edited by Robin Hägg, 179–182. Stockholm: Aström. Short but very informative survey of Artemis’s cults on the Peloponnese from late Geometric to Roman times. Morover, the article is useful for an analysis of the cult epithets, which show the “mobility” of the cults generally wandering from rural to urban settings. Thus, Artemis (at least in the Peloponnesian regions) presents herself a more urban than rural goddess.

Osanna, Massimo 1996. Santuari e culti dell’ Acaica antica. Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. This is a comprehensive study of the temples and cults in Achaea from the Archaic to the Roman period. It is recommended for its succinct history of the respective religious systems which are presented from city to city (kata polin), while first discussing the central sanctuaries and thus going on to the suburban and the extramural shrines (kata choran). Various temples and cults of Artemis are presented, for example, in Dyme, Aigion, , or Pellene.

Solima, Isabella. 2011. Heiligtümer der Artemis auf der Peloponnes. Heidelberg, Germany: Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte. This is a very important and informative book. It is also the first comprehensive study of Artemis’s sanctuaries and cults of the

19 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Peloponnesus. In a first part (“Heiligtümer und Kulte”), all relevant places and cults are presented in the form of a catalogue based on archaeological excavations and literary, epigraphical, and iconographic testimonies. In a second part (“Eigenschaften”), typical phenomena of the goddess’ worship are discussed. Very useful appendix of Artemis’s epithets.

Lousoi

One of the better-known sanctuaries of Artemis on the Peloponnese is the sanctuary of Artemis in Lousoi, which is also attested in literary sources. Fragments of animals, especially deer antlers, boars’ tusks, and teeth of bears may be related to Artemis’s zoo mentioned in Polybios 4.18. There might have been cultic and artistic connections to the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta and to Artemis at Brauron in Attica as well as to the sanctuary of Artemis Aontia at Rakita (Ano Mazarakis) in Achaea. Literary and epigraphic sources attest to athletic games (the Hemerasia) in the Hellenistic period (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE). This has certainly been an important Peloponnesian sanctuary for centuries. See Cairns 2005, Mitsopoulos-Leon 2012 and Mitsopoulos-Leon 1992.

Cairns, Douglas. 2005. Myth and the polis in ’ Eleventh Ode. The Journal of Hellenic Studies 125:35–50. Discusses the cult of Artemis at Lousoi which shows Artemis as a healing goddess and as the goddess of young girls of marriageable age. The cult was founded to expiate the Proetids as they had offended and were therefore struck with madness.

Mitsopoulos-Leon, Veronika. 1992. Artémis de Lousoi. Les fouilles autrichiennes. Kernos 5:97–108. Worth reading for its discussion of Artemis’s many aspects, especially Artemis as a healing goddess (hemera) and goddess of initiation. Discussion of the statuettes, which refer to the cult statue, and the cult statue’s stylistic connection to the Cretan imagery of the goddess in Daedalian time. Masks were also found.

Mitsopoulos-Leon, Veronika. 2012. Das Heiligtum der Artemis Hemera in Lousoi: Kleinfunde aus den Grabungen 1986–2000. Vienna: Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut. The book gives very good insight into the cult of Artemis, based on an excellent description and analysis of the small finds from the sanctuary. Most interesting are the 450 terracotta figurines, the bulk of them female figures, dating to the Geometric and Archaic periods, some later. Among them are five standing, naked female figures. See the bronze statuettes of the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta and the depiction of naked girls running on the krateriskoi found in Brauron.

Sparta

The most famous sanctuary in Sparta was the one of (Artemis) Orthia. The earliest evidence belongs to the 9th century BCE; an ivory tablet shows Orthia as potnia theron with connection to the East as discussed by Muskett 2014, Krummen 2013, Kopanias 2009, and Waugh 2009. Still fundamental is the excavation report by Dawkins 1929. Famous and even notorious was the whipping of boys and young men at her altar, in fact boys might actually die before the eyes of the public. The rite was supposed to have evolved out of a cheese-stealing ritual. A very thorough discussion of the sources (reaching from the early 4th century BCE to the late 4th century CE) can be found in Budin 2015 (cited under General Overviews), pp. 129–138. To Orthia’s masks and the theater in Sparta, see Rosenberg 2015 and Carter 1988.

Carter, Jane B. 1988. Masks and poetry in early Sparta. In Early Greek cult practice. Edited by Robin Hägg, Nanno Marinatos, and Gullög C. Nordquist, 89–98. Stockholm: Svenska Institutet i Athen. Still quite worth reading. Discusses the problem of the use of masks and their relation to the origins of Greek theater.

20 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Dawkins, Richard M. 1929. The sanctuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta: Excavated and described by members of the British School at Athens, 1906–1910. London: The British School at Athens. Excavation report. Still fundamental.

Kopanias, Konstantinos. 2009. Some ivories from the Geometric stratum at the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia. Interconnections between Sparta, Crete and the Orient during the late eighth century BC. In Sparta and Laconia: From prehistory to pre-modern. Edited by William G. Cavanagh, Chrysanthi Gallou, and Mercourios Georgiadis, 123–131. London: The British School at Athens. Very thorough discussion of the ivory finds. Important for the question of Sparta’s integration in trading networks reaching to the Middle East and Egypt.

Krummen, Eveline. 2013. Kolymbôsai, klinai und eine lydische Mitra. Alkman als Dichter der orientalisierenden Epoche Spartas. In Kultur(en) - Formen des Alltäglichen in der Antike. Festschrift für Ingomar Weiler zum 75. Geburtstag. Edited by Peter Mauritsch and Christoph Ulf, 19–44. Graz, Austria: Grazer Universitätsverlag. The article opens up a new perspective on the cultural relations between Sparta and Crete, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and Egypt as well as on their influence on artifacts and especially on the poetry of Alcman (Louvre Partheneion, passage concerning (Artemis) Orthia, frg. 3.64–77 Calame).

Muskett, Georgina. 2014. Votive offerings from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, Sparta, in Liverpool Collections. The Annual of the British School at Athens 109.1: 159–173.

The article presents the artifacts from the Artemis Orthia sanctuary in the Liverpool collections (8th century BCE to 3rd century CE). It is a collection of the well-known lead figurines, miniature vessels, and terracotta figurines from the sanctuary. The article may even serve as a concise introduction to the research history of the sanctuary and to earlier publications. A full listing of votive offerings from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Liverpool museums is added.

Rosenberg, Jonah Lloyd. 2015. The masks of Orthia: Form, function and the origins of theatre. The Annual of the British School at Athens 110.1: 247–261.

A new discussion of the odd terracotta masks made between c. 615 and 450 BCE and excavated in an area adjacent to the archaic temple of Orthia. The excavators’ descriptions of the masks as grotesque and the testimonies traditionally linked to the masks are critically reviewed. Thorough discussion of the theories of masking from Greek classical times to the Japanese Noh theater and of the masks’ relation to the origins of theater.

Waugh, Nicki. 2009. Visualising fertility at Artemis Orthia’s site. In Sparta and Laconia: From prehistory to pre- modern. Edited by William G. Cavanagh, Chrysanthi Gallou, and Mercourios Georgiadis, 159–167. London: The British School at Athens. Very profound discussion of the artifacts and votive images excavated at the Orthia sanctuary and modern theories of fertility connected to those objects, as well as the archaic cult of Artemis Orthia.

Messene/Taygetos (Lakedaimon)

The sanctuaries of Messene and Taygetos are characteristic boundary sanctuaries in the cult of Artemis, which served the initiation of the young, as outlined in Koursoumis 2014, Schoch 2009, and Bobou 2014.

21 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Bobou, Olympia. 2014. The costume of young cult agents. In Mädchen im Altertum/Girls in Antiquity. Edited by Susanne Moraw and Anna Kieburg, 275–287. Münster, Germany, and New York: Waxmann. Discussion of statues from the temple of Artemis Orthia at Messene, with fig. 4, p. 280: the priestess Mego (inscription) holding the breast of Artemis.

Koursoumis, Socrates. 2014. Revisiting Mount Taygetos: The sanctuary of Artemis Limnatis. The Annual of the British School at Athens 109.1: 191–222. The border sanctuary of Artemis Limnatis was of great importance in the history of ancient Laconia and Messenia. The article discusses the evidence for the Artemis cult and its significance in all of Messenia, also after 369 BCE, highlighting the cult of Artemis Limnatis as a Mistress of Animals, protectress of new mothers and children, who was worshipped with musical contests and choruses, as attested by the bronze cymbals found in her sanctuaries.

Schoch, Karen. 2009. Die doppelte Aphrodite – alt und neu bei griechischen Kultbildern. Göttingen, Germany: Universitätsverlag. Discussion of the cult statue and the cult of Artemis (Orthia) in Messene, pp. 242–245.

Ano Mazaraki (Achaea)

There is also an important sanctuary of Artemis (Aontia) in Ano Mazaraki or modern Rakita, which is attested as early as the Late Geometric period, and as found in the typical rural setting of Artemis’s shrines, it is situated on a pass at an elevation of 1,300 meters. Excavations attest to close links to the sanctuary of Artemis at Lousoi (Petropoulos 2002).

Petropoulos, Michalis. 2002. The geometric temple at Ano Mazaraki (Rakita) in Achaia during the period of colonisation. In Gli Achei e l’identità etnica degli Achei d’Occidente: atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Paestum 23-25 febbraio 2001. Edited by Emanuele Greco, 143–164. Paestum, Italy: Fondazione Paestum.

Excavation report and history of the 7th-century BCE temple of Artemis Aontia.

Patrai/Calydon (Aetolia)

Patrai was famous in antiquity for the sanctuary of Artemis Triklaria/Laphria on the acropolis. Inside the temple was an image of Artemis Laphria or Elaphebolos from Hyampolis that originated from Calydon in Aetolia (setting of the Calydonian boar hunt) and was transferred to Patras after the devastation of Calydon by Augustus. Every year, a very peculiar three-day festival was held, the so-called Laphria, a much discussed and cruel ritual. It involved the burning of live animals such as birds, deer, wolves and bears kept inside a stockade, which was built around the altar and set on fire. Animals escaping the flames were thrown back into the fire, as Pausanias describes (7.18.9); compare the ritual of Artemis Tauropolos in Phocaea. The temple itself has, however, not yet been excavated. For a thorough discussion of the sources and analogous rites, see Pirenne-Delforge 2006; for a reflection on how Pausanias exploits his sources, see Goldhill 2006; Baudy 1998 argues for an agricultural interpretation of the rite, which is rather controversial. Fundamental for cult in Calydon in Aetolia are Dietz and Stavropoulou-Gatsi 2011 and Dyggve and Poulsen 1948.

Baudy, Gerhard J. 1998. Ackerbau und Initiation. Der Kult der Artemis Triklaria und des Dionysos Aisymnetes in Patrai. In Ansichten griechischer Rituale: Geburtstags-Symposium für , Castelen bei Basel. Edited by Fritz Graf, 143–167. Stuttgart and Leipzig: Teubner. Discussion of the cults and rites of Artemis Triklaria and Aisymnetes as one of initiation and of agriculture, an

22 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

interpretation that is much debated.

Dietz, Søren, and Maria Stavropoulou-Gatsi. 2011. Kalydon in Aitolia I: Reports and studies and Kalydon in Aitolia II: Catalogues. Danish/Greek field work 2001–2005. Athens: Danish Institute at Athens. A very detailed report of the cult objects found at the sanctuary of Artemis Laphria that indicate important aspects of her cult, e.g., wild or domesticated animals, surely connected to her as a goddess of hunting and protectress of animals, but also naked pregnant women. Eating and drinking must have played an important role, as lots of (miniature) drinking vessels have been found on the acropolis dating to the Archaic period (see pp. 133–136).

Dyggve, Ejnar, and Frederik Poulsen. 1948. Das Laphrion. Der Tempelbezirk von Kalydon. København: Komm. Munksgaard. Still one of the best discussion of the Artemis cult today. See especially pp. 99–100. See also the review by T. J. Dunbabin, 1949, The Journal of Hellenic Studies 69:99–100.

Goldhill, Simon. 2006. Religion, Wissenschaftlichkeit und griechische Identität im römischen Kaiserreich. In Texte als Medium und Reflexion von Religion im römischen Reich. Potsdamer Altertumswissenschaftliche Beiträge. Edited by Dorothee Elm von der Osten, Jörg Rüpke, and Katharina Waldner, 125–140. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. A very stimulating analysis of the cult and ritual of Artemis Laphria in the religious and scholarly context of the Second Sophistic, see especially pp. 128–132.

Pirenne-Delforge, Vinciane. 2006. Ritual dynamics in Pausanias: The Laphria. In Ritual and communication in the Graeco-Roman world. Kernos, supplément 16. Edited by Eftychia Stavrianopoulou, 111–129. Liège. Belgium: Centre International d’Étude de la Religion Grecque Antique. A very informative and clear analysis of the Laphria. It considers the various semantic levels of the ritual, which was an invention of Pausanias, and puts them in the historical context, while explaining the ideology of the author. The ritual connects the Artemis of Calydon in Aetolia with Roman religious ideas of the hunter-goddess Artemis/Diana, exposing the cruel side of the sacrifice to the eyes of the (Roman) spectators and readers.

Phocis

Artemis had various appearances and identities in Phocis, which are thoroughly discussed by Ellinger 1993.

Ellinger, Pierre. 1993. La légende nationale phocidienne: Artémis, les situations extrêmes et les récits de guerre d’anéantissement. Athens: École Française d’Athènes. The article deals with testimonies which seem to refer to Artemis as a war goddess. However, there are only few references to her as such a divinity, especially Xenophon’s Agrotera, as asserted by and Pseudo-Aristotle. Critique of this theory in Budin 2015, pp. 59–65 (cited under General Overviews). Ellinger favors an assimilation between the Phocaean Artemis Elaphebolia and Artemis Laphria at Hyampolis, yet see Pirenne-Delforge 2006, pp. 103–105 (cited under Patrai/Calydon (Aetolia)).

Kalapodi and Hyampolis (Phthiotis)

The sanctuary of Hyampolis near Kalapodi, which for a long time had been ascribed to Artemis Elaphebolos, has now been

23 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

identified as the sanctuary of Apollo in Abai as Felsch 2007 shows. Even so, one of its two cult sites, the southern temple (Südtempel), where the cult practice began at the end of the Bronze Age (in the LHIIIC period) and continued down to the 2nd century CE, seems to have been dedicated to Artemis. Apollo, the oracular god, only became the main deity sometime in the 8th century as changes in the votive practice seem to attest. The temple complex was certainly most important in the category of the boundary sanctuaries, which served the initiation of the young adults and warriors. Excavations attest to much cult and festival activities. An excellent overview and introduction is given by Niemeier 2016; for a full discussion of the bronze objects and iron weapons excavated between 1973–1982, see Felsch 2007; on the cult of Artemis, see Felsch 2001; and for the updated excavation reports see the homepage of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) (N.N. Excavation Report), where the history of the sanctuary is also well documented.

Felsch, Rainer C. S. 2001. Opferhandlungen des Alltagslebens im Heiligtum der Artemis Elaphebolos von Hyampolis in den Phasen SH IIIC – Spätgeometrisch. In POTNIA: Deities and religion in the Aegean Bronze Age. Edited by Robert Laffineur and Robin Hägg, 193–199. Liège, Belgium: Univ. de Liège: Service d’Histoire de l’Art et d’Archéologie de la Grèce Antique. Very informative on the cult of Artemis and on sacrifice. Bone finds near the altar, among them the bones of six bears and three bones of lions, also of boars and red deer; the latter were traditionally connected to Artemis, the goddess of animals and hunting.

Felsch, Rainer C. S. 2007. Kalapodi II: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen im Heiligtum der Artemis und des Apollon von Hyampolis in der antiken Phokis. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: Zabern. Very thorough and comprehensive publication of the excavation of the sanctuary of the Phocian League in the border region between Phocis, Locris, and . Rich finds, among them several votive weapons. Also spindle whorls and loom weights, meaning that a female deity was worshipped; Artemis seems plausible. There is also an abundance of eating and drinking vessels with inscriptions or depicting male dancers, attesting to contacts to the Middle East. On the cult of Artemis, see pp. 102–105.

Niemeier, Wolf-Dietrich. 2016. Das Orakelheiligtum des Apollon von Abai/Kalapodi. Eines der bedeutendsten griechischen Heiligtümer nach den Ergebnissen der neuen Ausgrbungen. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag. Gives an excellent and very concise introduction to the excavation and finds of one of the most famous sanctuaries in ancient Greece. In an excellent survey the reader is informed about the history of the sanctuary from Mycenaean times to the 2nd century CE, the precious objects attesting to connections as far as the Near East, but also to splendid sacrificial feasting which proves the place to be important for the interaction among the elites of the area. On the cult of Artemis, especially p. 24.

N.N. Excavation Report. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI). Updated excavation reports, projects, history of the sanctuary, with bibliography and links to video material. Discussion of the contested identification of Kalapodi with Abai (not with Hyampolis). Further information available online

Italy and Sicily

Artemis was not really a major divinity of the colonies in the West, nevertheless there are traces of early cults especially on the peninsula of Ortygia at Syracuse and at Rhegion, where her cult may go back to the foundation times of the polis. Connections are attested to the eastern part of Greece and Asia Minor that might explain her appearance as Potnia Theron, but she is also, as in other parts of the Greek world and the respective mother cities, the goddess of the untamed world (Agrotera) and mistress of the margins while her sanctuaries are placed further away from the polis and her cult quit often

24 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

connected to initiation rites. Fischer-Hansen 2009 gives a good introduction and also discusses some famous votives.

Fischer-Hansen, Tobias. 2009. Artemis in Sicily and South Italy. A picture of diversity. In From Artemis to Diana: The goddess of man and beast. Acta Hyperborea 12. Edited by Tobias Fischer-Hansen and Birte Poulsen, 207–260. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. Important survey of the material and research discussion of Artemis’s cults in southern Italy and Sicily, including the Etruscan Artumes. See General Overviews.

Histria

Apollo is the most important deity of the colonies in the Black Sea region, due to the Milsian colonization which always includes Apollo Archegetes. A case in point is Istros/Histria, where Apollo is worshipped together with Artemis and Leto, i.e., the Apollonian Triad. The Istrian examples shows the importance of Artemis in the Milesian colony; she is worshipped as Artemis (see Avram, et al. 2008).

Avram, Alexandru, Iulian Bîrzescu, and Konrad Zimmermann. 2008. Die apollinische Trias von Histria. In Kult(ur)kontakte: Apollon in Milet-, Histria, Myus, Naukratis und auf Zypern. Akten der Table Ronde in Mainz vom 11.-12. März 2004, Internationale Archäologie 11. Edited by Renate Bol, Ursula Höckmann, and Patrick Schollmeyer, 107–144. Rahden and Westf, Germany: Leidorf. Summarizing consideration of all monuments connected to Apollo and his environment in Histria. Discussion of dedications to Artemis and the graffiti as well as sculptures; the epiclesis Pythia is here attested for the 4th century BCE at the latest, at Didyma and Olbia already in the Archaic age. She probably had a single priestess, most likely from a specific genos.

The Imperium Romanum and Early Christianity

Green 2007 and Goldhill 2006 are important studies on Artemis in Rome. Goldhill 2006 may serve as an introduction to the basic questions on religion in Roman times and how they are reflected in the texts of the Second Sophistic. Abrahamsen 1995 pays particular attention to aspects of gender.

Abrahamsen, Valerie Ann. 1995. Women and worship at Philippi. Diana/Artemis and other cults in the early Christian era. Portland, ME: Astarte Shell Press. Recommended to anyone interested in gender history in the early Christian era.

Goldhill, Simon. 2006. Artemis and cultural identity in empire culture: How to think about polytheism, now? In Greeks on Greekness: Viewing the Greek past under the Roman Empire. Edited by David Konstan and Suzanne Said, 112–161. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. A brilliant and seminal study on Artemis, the belief in the gods, religious writing in the Second Sophistic, and cultural identity. The focus is on three texts related to the goddess: Libanius’s Oration 5 (a prose hymn to Artemis), Pausanias’s Laphria, and Pseudo-Oppian’s Cynegetica.

Green, Carin M. C. 2007. Roman religion and the cult of Diana at Aricia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. This is a very important contribution to the history of Artemis cult at Aricia on the shores of Lac Nemi near Rome. The book shows in detail the history of the cult and of the wealthy and famous religious center. It gives insight on Diana and the rational

25 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

as well as ritual healing practices in her sanctuary for a period of more than a thousand years. See also General Overviews.

Various Epithets and Spheres

Most important in the context of the Artemis cult is Artemis’s relation to animals and hunting. But other aspects of Artemis —e.g., as a protectress of transitional phases, be they “birth and childbed,” the initiation of girls and boys into adulthood, or especially aspects of gender—have also been vehemently debated in recent research. Artemis’s interconnection with magic has been a focus in recent years. A more general approach, which might be read as an introduction, is given by Petrovic 2010, which explains how the goddess of the outdoors and the city goddess are connected.

Petrovic, Ivana 2010. Transforming Artemis: From the goddess of the outdoors to city goddess. In The gods of ancient Greece: Identities and transformations. Edited by Jan Bremmer and Andrew Erskine, 209–227. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Excellent overview of Artemis’s role as a city goddess, especially in the cities of Asia Minor and in the Greek West. This is a notion of Artemis as it already appears in an ode of Bacchylides and a fragment of Anacreon, but was indeed prominent later in Hellenistic poetry, e.g., in the hymn of Artemis by Callimachus. See especially pp. 217–227 and the sections General Overviews and Greek Literature.

Artemis with Animals or as Potnia Theron

As a goddess of the hunt, of forests and mountains, Artemis was also the protectress of animals since the earliest time as is discussed by Barclay 2013. As such she often appears with animals. Young girls and boys in her cult might also be compared to animals, e.g., the girls in Brauron, which are said to be “bears.” In a detailed study Klinger 2001 analyzes images of Artemis and her cult statue which is quite often shown protecting or even carrying a fawn or deer; a general overview is given by Marinatos 1998.

Barclay, Alison E. 2013. Influence, inspiration or innovation? The importance of contexts in the study of iconography. The case of the mistress of animals in 7th century Greece. In Regionalism and globalism in Antiquity: Exploring their limits. Edited by Franco De Angelis, 143–176. Leuven, Belgium, and Paris: Peeters.

A comprehensive study of the sources of the Mistress of Animals motif in the 7th century BCE. It especially considers the social and historical contexts and the ways in which they are transmitted from one region to another. See Etymology and Early History.

Klinger, Sonia. 2001. A terracotta statuette of Artemis with a deer at the Israel Museum. Israel Exploration Journal 51:208–224. Important on cult statues and images of Artemis with a deer in both hands or carrying it on her arms. Instead of a deer, young girls may cling to her. The motif is well known, e.g., on .

Marinatos, Nanno. 1998. Goddess and monster: An investigation of Artemis. In Ansichten griechischer Rituale. Edited by Fritz Graf, 114–125. Stuttgart and Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. Discusses the iconography of Artemis as an Aegean goddess of nature and her appearance in the early Archaic period, focusing on the aspects of the potnia and the huntress. The emphasis is on Artemis’s dark and cruel side as it shows in various Greek and oriental models of female divinities, i.e., and Gorgo or Lamia and Lamastu.

26 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Hunting Goddess

Artemis is most famous as a goddess of the hunt. Most informative on this subject are Sachs 2012 and Deoudi 2010, still worth reading: Meuli 1975.

Deoudi, Maria. 2010. Die thrakische Jägerin: Römische Steindenkmäler aus Macedonia und Thracia. Ruhpolding, Germany: Rutzen. Comprehensive study of the local religion in east Macedonia. The acculturation of the local population to Roman forms of religion is explained by considering monuments and statue groups of the Thracian huntress, as depicted in the rock art at Philippi. These monuments, dating to the 2nd to 4th century, were dedicated to Artemis, as expressed in the inscriptions, who is identified with the Thracian Bendis.

Meuli, Karl. 1975. Gesammelte Schriften. Vol.2 (1986–88). Basel, Switzerland: Schwabe. Though lacking a thorough description of Artemis worship, this is still one of the fundamental discussions of hunting and sacrificial customs and their relation to the gods, especially as pertaining to the dedication of the head, antlers, and hide of the hunted animal.

Sachs, Gerd 2012. Die Jagd im antiken Griechenland: Mythos und Wirklichkeit. Hamburg, Germany: Verlag Dr. Kovač. Overview over various aspects of the hunting theme. Chapter 2 focuses on Artemis, hunting myths (, , ) and hunting heroes (e.g., and Procis, Melanion and ) connected with Artemis. Helpful for its presentation and discussion of literary (with translation) and iconographic sources (with pictures) from the late 8th century BCE to the 3rd century CE.

(Divine) Birth and Childhood

In the past few years, a number of studies on children in literature and art, especially in the Hellenistic age, have been published. A good introduction is given by Stark 2012. In our context, studies on the birth of gods and children (Rigoglioso 2009, Gennimata 2006, and Dierichs 2002) and childhood deeds are relevant; in addition, Ambühl 2005, which is very informative and at the same time an excellent, if limited, introduction to Callimachus. See Hellenistic period.

Ambühl, Annemarie. 2005. Kinder und junge Helden. Innovative Aspekte des Umgangs mit der literarischen Tradition bei Kallimachos. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. On Artemis as a child in the Third Hymn of Callimachus: 245–307. This is a very comprehensive study of Artemis as a young child. See Hellenistic Period.

Dierichs, Angelika. 2002. Von der Götter Geburt und der Frauen Niederkunft. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern. Discussion of the mythic births of gods and of natural birth, including medicinal aspects of birthing aids. The author discusses artifacts such as vase paintings, statues, and relief art, as well as grave inscriptions and medicinal texts. Discussion of literary sources of Artemis Lochia, especially, pp. 234–236.

Gennimata, Maria. 2006. Artemis und der Weg der Frauen von der Geburt bis zur Mutterschaft am Beispiel von Kulten auf der Peloponnes. PhD diss., University of Würzburg.

27 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

A very informative and detailed study based on cultic evidence.

Rigoglioso, Marguerite. 2009. The cult of divine birth in ancient Greece. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. The book focuses on the question of divine birth in ancient Greece. A very thorough study of the priesthood of divine birth and a close re-examination of Greek myths lead to the conclusion that Greek civilization implicated a non-ordinary conception as condition for bringing forth leaders, kings, and superhuman beings, mostly under the protection of Artemis. Poetic, literary, and historical evidence is considered. Feminist perspective. See especially pp. 83–116.

Stark, Michaela. 2012. Göttliche Kinder. Ikonographische Untersuchung zu den Darstellungskonzeptionen von Gott und Kind bzw. Gott und Mensch in der griechischen Kunst. Stuttgart: Steiner. In this book on the myths of the births and early deeds of gods and heroes, literary and iconographic sources are systematized and thoroughly analyzed what leads to new conclusions on “children” and “childhood.” What there is on the birth and childhood of Artemis is discussed on p. 127–129, and expanded to her function as protectress especially of young girls on the threshold to adulthood.

Gender

In the last decades scholars have become increasingly aware of gender issues. Many of the above cited articles and books refer to the topic. Most explicit and thoughtful on the subject is Cole 2004 and Cole 1998. The author’s book and article can be consulted not only for thorough information, but also as an introduction to the topic. Furthermore, there are Campbell 2013, who looks at Artemis from the archetypal psychological angle as initiated by C.G. Jung; Skelley 2015 on (male) gender aspects linked to Artemis; and Göttner-Abendroth 2011, whose book was highly influential in terms of feminism.

Campbell, Joseph. 2013. Goddesses: Mysteries of the feminine divine. Edited by Safron Rossi. Novato, CA: New World Library. This is a collection of lectures by Joseph Campbell (b. 1904–d. 1987), an expert on world mythology. He focuses on the goddesses and their evolution from one Great Goddess to many, explaining their functions from the beginning in Neolithic times to the Renaissance. Special emphasis is placed on Artemis as a mother goddess. Further, the feminine divine symbolizes archetypical elements as developed by C. G. Jung and archetypal psychology. The book might be recommended to anyone who is interested in the reception of Greek myth into the 20th century.

Cole, Susan Guettel. 1998. Domesticating Artemis. In The Sacred and the feminine in ancient Greece. Edited by Sue Blundell and Margaret Williamson, 24–41. London and New York: Routledge. A short but seminal article on Artemis. Still worthwhile reading for the interpretation of fundamental texts on the cult of Artemis.

Cole, Susan Guettel. 2004. Landscapes, gender, and ritual space: The ancient Greek experience. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. This is an important book on the gendered nature of Greek cult practice and the female body. It also shows how female rituals are integrated into the polis community. Chapter 6 (“Landscapes of Artemis”) and 7 (“Domesticating Artemis”) analyze the cults of Artemis in detail as well as their connections to various stages in the lives of young adults. Special features, e.g., the location of the sanctuaries in border areas, are also discussed. See General Overviews.

28 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Göttner-Abendroth, Heide. 2011. Die Göttin und ihr Heros: die matriarchalen Religionen in Mythen, Märchen, Dichtung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. This book is a major contribution to feministic research of religions, especially matriarchal religions and spirituality, as it can be found also in Greek religion and in the context of Artemis’s cult (especially pp. 47–51). The rediscovery of basic matriarchal themes of religions and the influence of matriarchal thought modes on our culture are part of both religious and cultural history. On the impact of this book, see pp. 275–300. Originally published 1984.

Skelley, Sarah. 2015. Mr. Artemis: Masculine reflections of a goddess. In Ancient women in modern media. Edited by Krishni S. Burns and William Duffy, 101–116. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Classical Scholars. A very stimulating study which investigates the coloring that is given to fictional characters when they are linked to the names of ancient goddesses, especially Artemis.

Artemis and Magic/Hecate

Hecate is most popular in Thrace. Her realm are the crossroads and the border of civilization. She is considered a goddess. Later she becomes a sort of mother goddess through the whole world. She is most often represented with two torches or keys in her hands. In Athens she was worshipped as the protectress of family, and in the 2nd and 3th century CE she even appeared in a universal role as Soteira. Earlier, she was associated with ghosts and witchcraft (Zografou 2010 and Mili 2015), who focuses on her relationship to Artemis. Also see Johnston 1999 (cited under Initiation).

Mili, Maria. 2015. Religion and society in . Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. An important chapter (pp. 147–158) and a fresh look on the cult of Ennodia, one of the most important Thessalian deities, specifically in Pherai, but worshipped throughout Macedonia, in Athens, in some of the Peloponnesian cities, and in Sicily; Ennodia has been identified with Artemis. Presents Ennodia (Artemis) as a goddess with important polis cult and not only connected to the dead, witchcraft, and poison, as her traditional image has it.

Zografou, Athanassia. 2010. Chemins d’Hécate. Portes, routes, carrefours et autres figures de l’entre-deux. Kernos Supplément 24. Liège, Belgium: Centre international d’étude de la religion grecque antique. The book focuses on Hecates’ connections with other gods of the Greek pantheon (on Artemis, pp. 245–248). Hecate’s aspects as a chthonic goddess and her patronizing magic and witchcraft remain constantly in the background.

Initiation

The girl’s transition to marriage has been the subject of many books and articles. Johnston 1999 and Sourvinou-Inwood 1988 focus on the role of Artemis.

Johnston, Sarah Iles. 1999. Restless dead: Encounters between the living and the dead in ancient Greece. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. At first appearance this is a book on Greek ghosts and the afterlife. The subject seems unrelated to Artemis. However, special attention is paid to girls’ transitions to marriageable age and to a series of myths centered on the “dying maiden” paradigm. The book, especially chapter 6, is highly recommended for its profound discussion of myths and cults related to Artemis and her affinity to Hecate.

29 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. 1988. Studies in girls’ Transitions: Aspects of the Arkteia and age representation in Attic iconography. Athens: Kardamitsa. Still very valuable not only for its thorough analysis of the krateriskoi found at Brauron and their relation to the arkteia ritual, but also for its discussion of rites of passage and the close connection between both ritual and imagery. Even if her theses are today disputed, the book still provides much insight into a phenomenon that deeply influenced painters and poets, life and perception of the ancient society in general.

Art

For representations of Artemis on art objects in Greece and Rome, see Kahil 1984 and Augé and Linant de Bellefonds 1984, (both cited under Artemis in Iconography and Art), in LIMC (Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae). For an excellent but very selective overview, see Knauß 2012 (cited under Artemis in Iconography and Art); and for representations from antiquity to modern times, see Föcking 2008 with illustration and research literature at the end of the article (cited under General Overviews). Seminal on Artemis on votive reliefs is Vikela 2015, and for Boeotian votive reliefs from archaic to classical times, see Schild-Xenidou 2008. For a milestone in the discussion of ancient Greek statues being color painted is Artemis’s statue in Pompeii, see Kunze 2011. Recommended as an informative survey of the goddess in Roman times is Simon 1990.

Kunze, Max, ed. Die Artemis von Pompeji und die Entdeckung der Farbigkeit griechischer Plastik. Katalog einer Ausstellung im Winckelmann-Museum vom 2. Dezember 2011 bis 18. März 2012. Ruhpolding and Rutzen, Germany: F. P. Rutzen, 2011. Artemis (Nm Naples inv. no. 6008), found 1760 in Pompeii. Considers the question of whether ancient marble statues were color painted. Multiple papers.

Schild-Xenidou, Valia. 2008. Corpus der boiotischen Grab- und Weihreliefs des 6. bis 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Athenische Abteilung. 20. Beiheft. Mainz, Germany: Philipp Von Zabern. On Artemis as depicted on the votive reliefs in Boeotia (especially pp. 230).

Simon, Erika. 1990. Die Götter der Römer. Munich: Hirmer. Introduction to Diana and survey (with image).

Vikela, Evgenia. 2015. Apollon, Artemis, Leto. Eine Untersuchung zur Typologie, Ikonographie und Hermeneutik der drei Gottheiten auf griechischen Weihreliefs. Athenaia, Band 7. Munich: Hirmer Verlag. Excellent survey of the votive reliefs of Apollo and Artemis from the Archaic period to Late Hellenistic ages (pp. 75–136). Very valuable discussion of image types and literary sources, especially of the images of Artemis in classical times as Amphipyros with two torches (approximation to Hecate) and as Artemis Agrotera as well as Kourotrophos and guardian of the family. The votive reliefs are symbols for the social history and the beliefs of individuals and families.

Myth

There are a number of myths in which Artemis figures prominently. The first group places Artemis the hunter at the center,

30 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

such as Artemis and Actaeon (Moog-Grünewald 2008, cited under Actaeon), Hippolytus, Cephalus, and Procris; a further group depicts Artemis as the protectress of (young) children, especially of young girls before marriage (Niobids, Iphigenia of Tauris, Proetids); she sometimes is herself involved in fights, e.g., the Gigantomachy. Introduction and survey by Brooks 2014.

Brooks, Allan. 2014. Landscapes of the Greek myths. Huddersfield, UK: Aetos Press. On Iphigenia and Artemis, pp. 25–27; Atalanta and the Calydonian Boar Hunt, pp. 76–79; Nestani: The Golden Hinds of Artemis, pp. 124–127; Langathia: Atalante, the Arcadian Huntress, pp. 131–133.

Actaeon

The tale of Artemis/Diana and Actaeon, a passionate hunter who happens upon Artemis bathing and is turned into a stag by her and then killed by his own hunting dogs, is, in its literary form, best known from Ovid’s (3.206–224; see von Albrecht 2014), which influenced literature and art from the Renaissance to modernity (Moog-Grünewald 2008; Wismer 2008). Actaeon’s gaze of the goddess is interpreted as voyeurism, as hubris, or, in a positive reading, as the desire for knowledge in the terms of (neo-)Platonic . The earliest literary form can be found in Stesichoros (59 PMG) defining the erotic reading, Callimachus, Bath of (h. 5.107–116). The earliest depiction in art belongs to the Archaic age.

Moog-Grünewald, Maria. 2008. Aktaion. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly Supplemente Band 5. Edited by Maria Moog-Grünewald, 41–52. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Excellent and very concise introduction. Contains an overview of the literary sources and reception in art from antiquity to modernity. The more important sources (e.g., Ovid. Met.) are discussed in more detail. Also important for the reception of the myth in Christian late antiquity and in the Middle Ages. With bibliography.

Von Albrecht, Michael. 2014. Metamorphosen. Texte, Themen, Illustrationen. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter.. Very recommendable, in-depth analysis and interpretation of the Actaeon myth in Ovid. See especially pp. 102–112.

Wismer, Beat. 2008. Der verbotene Blick auf die Nacktheit: Diana und Actaeon. Museum Kunst-Palast Düsseldorf. Ostfildern, Germany: Hatje Cantz. Exhibition of the Museum Kunst-Palast in Düsseldorf. An example of the reception of the myth as narrated by Ovid, from early modern to contemporary art. Among the artists are Francis Bacon, Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Gustav Klimt, Pablo Picasso, Nicolas Poussin, Egon Schile, Andy Warhol. The “beautiful body” and the (erotic) fascination of the gaze at the naked body are at the center of the exhibit.

Kallisto and Arkas

The myth of Kallisto, Lykaon’s daughter, who was a close companion to Artemis, but transformed into a bear after she had let herself be seduced by Zeus, is most famous. As a bear she gave birth to Arkas who became a hunter and pursued his bear- mother—as he did not recognize her—up to the enclosure of Zeus’ sanctuary at . Here, they both were turned into the astral constellation of the Great Bear, which is what prevented him from killing his mother. The myth is closely linked to Artemis Lykaotis’s sanctuary in the Arcadian polis Lykoa/ (Forsén 2016).

Forsén, Björn. 2016. Artemis Lykoatis and the bones of Arkas. Sanctuaries and territoriality. In Hellenistic

31 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

sanctuaries: Between Greece and Rome. Edited by Milena Melfi and Olympia Bobou, 40–62. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Very informative and recommendable article on the excavation at Agia Paraskevi of Arachamitai. Discussion of the mythological, historical, and cultic context of Artemis’ sanctuary, especially in Hellenistic times.

Iphigenia

Iphigenia is to be sacrificed at the altar of Artemis in Aulis before the Greek armies set out to war, where she has been lured under the pretext of marrying Achilles. But Artemis replaces her with a hind and transports her to Tauris, where she now serves the goddess as her priestess and is herself called upon to perform , e.g. of Orestes, who came with Pylades to Tauris to steal the cult image. The tale has been retold many times through the ages, in antiquity (e.g. Euripides) as much as in modernity (See the section Archaic to Classical Period); see Petrowski and Klein 2008, and Lefteratou 2013.

Lefteratou, Anna. 2013. Iphigenia revisited: Heliodorus’ Aethiopica and the ‘Der Tod und das Mädchen’ pattern. In Intende, Lector: Echoes of myth, religion and ritual in the ancient novel. Edited by Marília P. Futre Pinheiro, Anton Bierl, and Roger Beck, 200–222. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Important on the reception of the Iphigenia myth in Heliodorus’s Aethiopica, especially on the combination of various versions of the “death and the maiden” motif and the plot of both Euripidean Iphigeniai in Heliodorus’s novel. Also recommended for a fundamental discussion of the sacrifice pattern as both a literary device and a reference to reality.

Petrowski, Andrejs, and Bert Klein. 2008. Iphigeneia. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly Supplemente Band 5. Edited by Maria Moog-Grünewald, 367–378. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Excellent discussion and introduction to the myth. Profound interpretation of the literary sources (Euripides’ Iphigeneia in Tauris and Iphigeneia in Aulis), as well as of Racine (Iphigénie) in the early Enlightenment, discussing a moral dilemma and theodicy (the conflict between divine despotism and human action, between myth and enlightenment). Recommended: the explanation of the subject in music. Illustrations.

Hippolytus

Hippolytus, the son of , was born in Troezen and worshipped in Athens. He served Artemis alone, so Aphrodite punished him by causing his stepmother, Phaidra, to fall in love with him. She writes to Theseus that Hippolytus desires her, causing the father to condemn his son, who dies. The myth is told by both Euripides (Hippolytus) and Ovid, Met. 15.508–514. There is a of Hippolytus in Troezen.

Grosse, Max. 2008. Phaidra. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly Supplementband 5. Edited by Maria Moog- Grünewald, 578–589. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Hippolytus, the son of Theseus, was born in Troezen and worshipped in Athens. He served Artemis alone, so Aphrodite punished him by causing his stepmother, Phaidra, to fall in love with him. She writes to Theseus a fatal letter accusing Hippolytus of being her lover. Theseus curses his son, who dies. The myth is told by both Euripides (Hippolytus) and Ovid, Met. 15.508–514. There is also a temenos of Hippolytus in Troezen. See Simon 2014.

Simon, Eva Miriam. 2014. Literarische Bearbeitungen des Phaedra-Mythos von Euripides bis A.W. Schlegel. Würzburg, Germany: Königshausen & Neumann. Very good overview of the literary adaptions and in-depth interpretation of select works. The cultural background and

32 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

intertextual references are included in the interpretation.

Niobids

Artemis and Apollo kill the children of who insulted Leto by pointing out that Leto only had two children, whereas Niobe had fourteen. In her grief, Niobe turns to stone and is carried to Mount Sipylus, where, as the Weeping Rock, she still broods upon her ills (Oster 2008). The myth is already referred to in the Iliad (24.602–620), a famous rendering is Aeschylus’ tragedy Niobe (Seaford 2005). For the reception of the myth see especially Ovid Met. 6.146–316.

Oster, Angela. 2008. Niobe. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly Supplementband 5. Edited by Maria Moog- Grünewald, 469–473. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. The article gives a very good survey of the subject in literature and art from ancient to modern times.

Seaford, Richard A. S. 2005. Death and wedding in Aeschylus’ Niobe. In Lost dramas of classical Athens: Greek tragic fragments. Edited by Fiona McHardy, James Robson, and David Harvey, 113–127. Exeter, UK: Exeter Univ. Press. Excellent introduction into the myth and its literary and iconographic evidence. The article not only gives a concise commentary on Aeschylus’s lost play but also discusses a fundamental ritualistic scheme of Greek tragedy in general, i.e., that wedding rituals turn into death rituals, taking passages of Niobe and some other plays as examples.

Cephalus and Procris

Cephalus attempts to test the loyalty of his wife Procris by dressing as a stranger. When she discovers him, she flees to the mountains, where she becomes a huntress in the train of Artemis. She receives a spear that never fails, and dogs who always find their prey. She gives both to Cephalus, also a hunter, as a sign of reconciliation. When, one day, she follows him, as she suspects him of an affair with , he kills her with the spear, believing her to be a deer (Ov. Met. 7.687–756 and 794–862). The myth was very popular in theater, poetry, and art, and as “historicizing” tale in the early modern age (Leuker 2008).

Leuker, Tobias. 2008. Kephalos und Prokris. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly Supplementband 5. Edited by Maria Moog-Grünewald, 392–395. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Very good overview. Good interpretation especially of the literary adaptions in the early modern age. Also considers the most important artworks. With illustrations.

Artemis and the Gigantomachy

Artemis fights in the Gigantomachy and kills Gration. The Pergamum Altar includes probably the most famous depiction of the scene (Heres and Kästner 2004) and there is a 3D modell in Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

Heres, Huberta, and Volker Kästner, eds. 2004. Der Pergamonaltar. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern.

Concise presentation of the Great Altar of Pergamon, which was dedicated by Eumenes II (reigned 197–158 BCE). With illustrations (in German).

33 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Presenting a concise history of the altar and an excellent 3D demonstration (sections on “Einführung, Erforschung, Kultstätte, Architektur, Bildprogramm”). Artemis: on the eastern side (Ostfries, südliche Frieshälfte).

Stewart, Andrew. 2014. Art in the Hellenistic world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.. Short discussion and presentation of the main topics of the Altar of Pergamon. Sections on History, Art, Style, description of the exterior sculptures (Gigantomachy, figures 57–59) and the interior ones (the Telephos frieze, figures 61–62). Excellent and concise overview in English. See pp. 32–34 and 105–113.

Atalanta and the Calydonian Boar Hunt

A number of myths deal with the topic of a young girl in the train of Artemis who is seduced, or lets herself be seduced, and is henceforth banned from the goddess’ circle and punished in different ways. There is, e.g., Callisto (see Myth, Kallisto and Arkas), who is seduced by Zeus, gives birth to , and is transformed by Artemis into a bear (Ov. Met. 465). Other myths speak of the neglection of the goddess’ cult, which must be punished. One such case is that of Oeneus, king of Calydon, into whose lands Artemis sends the famous boar. It causes strife among the hunters, finally killing . In this context mention should be made of the tale of the hunter and runner Atalanta. Atalanta refuses marriage unless someone can outrun her, which Hippomenes manages to do by dropping golden apples along the way, which Atalanta stoops to pick up. This scene was very popular in the early modern age (Dewes 2008 and Dewes 2011). There is no comprehensive discussion of these myths. Regarding their portrayal in antiquity, the respective volumes of LIMC (Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae) are still valid. The connection to initiation is discussed by Anagnostou-Laoutides 2001. Seminal on Atalante is Barringer 1996 (with illustrations), a discussion of theoretical approaches.

Anagnostou-Laoutides, Evangelia. 2001. Studies in ancient erotic mythology: Ritual and literary values of initiation patterns. PhD diss., University of Kent at Canterbury. Considers Atalanta as a variant of Artemis and discusses the parallels to Middle Eastern deities such as Cybele and Inanna. The significance of the apples as an erotic element are especially connected to Greek weddings, but also appear quite often in Middle Eastern magical spells.

Barringer, Judith M. 1996. Atalanta as model: The hunter and the hunted. Classical Antiquity 15.1: 48–76. This is an excellent and concise presentation of three Atalanta myths: the Calydonian boar hunt, the wrestling match with , and Atalanta’s footrace, are all put into the context of rites of passage. Atalants’s footrace, in particular, is considered a combination of prenuptial footrace and initiatory hunt. The article is based on literary sources and on visual representations, which are thoroughly discussed, and then goes on to a more theoretical approach.

Dewes, Eva. 2008. Atalanta. In Mythenrezeption. Der Neue Pauly Supplementband 5. Edited by Maria Moog- Grünewald, 164–171. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Overview from antiquity to modernity. With illustrations.

34 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Dewes, Eva. 2011. Freierprobe und Liebesäpfel. Der Mythos von Atalanta und Hippomenes in der Kunst und seine interdisziplinäre Rezeption. Petersberg, Germany: Michael Imhof Verlag. On the emergence and development of an iconic tradition from antiquity to the Renaissance and contemporary art. Literary sources are also considered.

Reception

On the reception history, see the very informative article on Artemis by Föcking 2008 (cited under General Overviews), as well as the various studies of the myths presented elsewhere in this article, which often include notes on their reception history. There are further monographs on the reception of Artemis in French literature (Nissim 2002, Fanlo and Legrand 2002) and English literature (Haroian-Guerin 1996). On single, prominent aspects of Diana as hunter goddess, see Scherf 2000 or her connection to magic in Robbins Dexter and Mair 2010.

Fanlo, Jean-Raymond, and Marie-Dominique Legrand, eds. 2002. Actes du Colloque Le mythe de Diane en France au XVIe siècle (E.N.S.Bd Jourdan, 29–31 mai 2001). Paris: Diff. Champion. That is a very important work, in fact a sort of a handbook, as it records all occurences of Artemis/Diana in France during the 16th century. It also discusses them in the broader context of history, literature, and art; special attention is given to Diana de Poitiers.

Haroian-Guerin, Gil. 1996. The fatal : Diana, deity of the moon, as an archetype of the modern hero in English literature. New York and Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. A very innovative book that offers a fresh look at the novels of Charlotte Bronte, James Joyce, George Eliot, and others. It discusses the figure of Diana as a model for the heroic woman in the 19th- and 20th-century English novel and how myth- making of modern authors might work when recreating our sense of the world.

Nissim, Liane, ed. 2002. La cruelle douceur d’Artémis: il mito di Artemide-Diana nelle lettere francesi: Gargnano del Garda (13–16 giugno 2001). Milan: Cisalpino. A number of papers on different aspects of Artemis, including further female figures which are connected to the goddess, as well as the goddess’ reception in literature and the arts.

Robbins Dexter, Miriam, and Victor Henry Mair, eds. 2010. Sacred display: Divine and magical female figures of Eurasia. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. The book is not exactly about Artemis/Diana, but primarily a survey of the iconography and mythology of goddesses and heroines of various parts of Afro-Eurasia, starting with Hathor in Egypt, followed by Greek goddesses, among them Artemis (especially 73–90). Interesting to read as it shows various aspects of a female deity in broader religious and cultural contexts. It further discusses the pervasiveness of story patterns and iconography across different times and places.

35 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33 Artemis - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-97...

Scherf, Guilhem. 2000. Houdon: Diane chasseresse. Musée du Louvre (Paris). Département des sculptures. Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux. Very famous and elegant sculpture of Diana presented by Houdon in 1777. Her nudity was a scandal to Houdon’s contemporaries. Houdon unites the tradition of Artemis’s representation in antiquity with the aesthetics of the Renaissance. He might be mentioned here as a very good example of pursuing an old tradition and creating something new.

back to top

Copyright © 2019. All rights reserved.

36 von 36 01.01.19, 17:33