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Effects of Estuarine Acidification on Survival and Growth of the Sydney Rock Oyster Saccostrea Glomerata

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Effects of Estuarine Acidification on Survival and Growth of the Sydney Rock Oyster Saccostrea Glomerata EFFECTS OF ESTUARINE ACIDIFICATION ON SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF THE SYDNEY ROCK OYSTER SACCOSTREA GLOMERATA Michael Colin Dove Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The University of New South Wales Geography Program Faculty of the Built Environment The University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW, 2052 April 2003 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Jes Sammut for his ideas, guidance and encouragement throughout my candidature. I am indebted to Jes for his help with all stages of this thesis, for providing me with opportunities to present this research at conferences and for his friendship. I thank Dr Richard Callinan for his assistance with the histopathology and reviewing chapters of this thesis. I am also very grateful to Laurie Lardner and Ian and Rose Crisp for their invaluable advice, generosity and particular interest in this work. Hastings and Manning River oyster growers were supportive of this research. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the following oyster growers: Laurie and Fay Lardner; Ian and Rose Crisp; Robert Herbert; Nathan Herbert; Stuart Bale; Gary Ruprecht; Peter Clift; Mark Bulley; Chris Bulley; Bruce Fairhall; Neil Ellis; and, Paul Wilson. I am very grateful to Holiday Coast Oysters and Manning River Rock Oysters for providing: the Sydney rock oysters for field and laboratory experiments; storage facilities; equipment; materials; fuel; and, access to resources without reservation. Bruce Fairhall, Paul Wilson, Mark Bulley, Laurie Lardner and Robert Herbert also supplied Sydney rock oysters for this work. I would also like to thank the researchers who gave helpful advice during this study. Geoff Gordon, Martin Krogh, Professor Brian Bayne and Drs Alistair Poore, Peter Cooke, Anthony Roach, Ralph Elston, Ian Smith, John Nell and Mike Heasman are thanked for advice on experimental design and data analyses. I am grateful to Bob Smith for his encouragement and help with the field investigations and Phil March for his interest in this study. The former School of Geography and the Faculty of the Built Environment, UNSW are thanked for resources and support. Thanks to Dorothy Yu and Chris Myers for laboratory assistance and help with analyses. Angelina Enno, School of Pathology, UNSW is thanked for histoprocessing of oyster samples. Allison Dove, Alan Facer, Elissa Bishop, Loren Ravenscroft, Craig Fitzgerald, Adam Wyszynski, Anya Lam and Susan Fox participated in fieldwork during this study. I would like to express thanks to Lyndal Dove for her help with printing this thesis and Greater Taree City Council for the provision of water quality equipment. Others who provided assistance and background information for this study include: Sarah Kleeman; Francis Doorman; Damian Ogburn; Mitch Tulau; Megan Burgoyne; Kavita Gosavi, Sarah Groves, Scott Mooney, Mike Horton; David Pensini; Matt Rogers; Thor Aaso; Ian Angus; Steve Filan; Professor Ian White, Professor Mike Melville, Professor Ian Burnley; and, the Neal family. In addition, I wish to thank the following organisations: NSW Fisheries; NSW Oyster Research Advisory Committee; NSW Oyster Farmers’ Association; Department of Land and Water Conservation; Hastings Council; Greater Taree City Council; and, Materialised P/L. Finally, I thank my wife Allison Dove for her enduring patience as well as my parents and family for their continual support and encouragement throughout this work. This project was funded by an Australian Postgraduate Award Scholarship with additional grant support from Fisheries Research and Development Corporation and a studentship provided by oyster associations on the Hastings, Manning and Camden Haven Rivers. I This thesis is dedicated to my wife and daughter, Allison and Leah. This work is copyright. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth), no part of this publication may be reproduced by any process, electronic or otherwise, without the specific written permission of the copyright owner. Neither may information be stored electronically in any form whatsoever without such permission. II TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………… I Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………... III List of Tables………………………………………………………………………. XII List of Figures……………………………………………………………………… XIV List of Plates……………………………………………………………………….. XVI Glossary of Terms………………………………………………………………….. XVII Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. XX SECTION I - INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND…………………….... 1 CHAPTER ONE – OYSTERS AND ACIDIFICATION: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY…………………. 2 1.1. INTRODUCTION ………………………..………………..…………...... 2 1.2. ESTUARINE ACIDIFICATION………………………………………... 8 1.2.1. Past Studies on Estuarine Acidification……………………………. 8 1.2.2. Chemistry of Waters Affected by ASS…………………………….. 10 1.2.3. Impacts on Aquatic Biota…………………………………………... 11 1.3. PAST STUDIES ON ACIDIFICATION AND OYSTERS…………….. 12 1.3.1. Overseas Studies…………………………………………………… 12 1.3.2. Effects of ASS-Affected Waters on the Sydney Rock Oyster……... 14 1.3.2.1. Shell Dissolution………………………………………….. 16 1.4. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES…………………………………… 22 1.5. RESEARCH APPROACH……………………………………………….. 23 CHAPTER TWO – BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY AREA…………………………………………………………………….. 26 2.1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………..…………. 26 2.2. ESTUARY EVOLUTION………………………………………………... 27 2.2.1. Hastings River……………………………………………………… 27 2.2.2. Manning River……………………………………………………... 28 2.3. GEOLOGY………………………………………………………………... 31 2.3.1. Lower Hastings River……………………………………………… 31 III PAGE 2.3.2. Lower Manning River……………………………………………… 31 2.4. SOILS……………………………………………………………………… 32 2.4.1. Lower Hastings River……………………………………………… 32 2.4.2. Lower Manning River……………………………………………… 33 2.5. ACID SULFATE SOILS…………………………………………………. 34 2.5.1. Formation of Iron Pyrite…………………………………………… 35 2.5.2. Oxidation of Iron Pyrite……………………………………………. 35 2.5.3. Characteristics of ASS……………………………………………... 37 2.5.4. Distribution of ASS in the Study Area…………………………….. 39 2.6. CLIMATE………………………………………………………………… 42 2.7. VEGETATION…………………………………………………………… 42 2.8. HYDROLOGY……………………………………………………………. 45 2.8.1. Rainfall……………………………………………………………... 45 2.8.2. Tidal Hydrology……………………………………………………. 45 2.8.2.1. Tidal Hydrology in the Hastings River…………………… 45 2.8.2.2. Tidal Hydrology in the Manning River…………………... 46 2.8.3. Flooding……………………………………………………………. 47 2.8.4. Artificial Drainage and Flood Mitigation………………………….. 47 2.8.4.1. Artificial Drainage and Flood Mitigation on the lower Hastings River…………………………………………….. 47 2.8.4.2. Artificial Drainage and Flood Mitigation on the lower Manning River……………………………………………. 49 2.9. LANDUSE………………………………………………………………… 49 2.10. CHAPTER SUMMARY………………………………………………….. 50 CHAPTER THREE – COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THE SYDNEY ROCK OYSTER (SACCOSTREA GLOMERATA) IN NEW SOUTH WALES………………………………………………………………….. 51 3.1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………... 51 3.2. BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE SYDNEY ROCK OYSTER…. 51 3.2.1. Systematics and Distribution………………………………………. 51 3.2.2. Anatomy……………………………………………………………. 52 3.2.3. Biology……………………………………………………………... 52 3.2.4. Reproductive Cycle………………………………………………… 55 IV PAGE 3.3. HISTORY OF PRODUCTION………………………………………….. 56 3.3.1. History of the Sydney Rock Oyster Industry………………………. 56 3.3.2. History of the Hastings River Oyster Industry…………………….. 57 3.3.3. History of the Manning River Oyster Industry…………………….. 57 3.4. OYSTER PRODUCTION IN NEW SOUTH WALES………………… 58 3.4.1. Hastings River Oyster Production…………………………………. 59 3.4.2. Manning River Oyster Production…………………………………. 61 3.5. RISK FACTORS FOR OYSTER PRODUCTION…………………….. 62 3.6. DISEASE………………………………………………………………….. 63 3.6.1. QX Disease………………………………………………………… 63 3.6.2. Winter Mortality Disease…………………………………………... 64 3.6.3. Mudworm…………………………………………………………... 64 3.7. DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………... 65 3.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY………………………………………………….. 65 SECTION II - FIELD INVESTIGATIONS…………………………………….. 67 CHAPTER FOUR - SPATIO-TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ESTUARINE ACIDIFICATION ON THE HASTINGS AND MANNING RIVERS…………………………………………………………………………… 68 4.1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………... 68 4.2. PAST STUDIES…………………………………………………………... 69 4.3. WATER QUALITY MONITORING OBJECTIVES………………….. 74 4.4. METHODS………………………………………………………………... 74 4.4.1. Drain Outflow Water Quality Sites………………………………… 75 4.4.2. Tidal Water Quality Sites…………………………………………... 76 4.4.3. Drain Water Quality Sites………………………………………….. 76 4.4.4. Oyster Lease Water Quality Monitoring Site……………………… 77 4.4.5. Discrete Water Quality Measurements…………………………….. 78 4.4.6. Water Sample Collection and Chemical Analysis…………………. 79 4.4.7. Continuous Water Quality Measurements…………………………. 80 4.5. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………. 80 V PAGE 4.5.1. Hydrological Conditions…………………………………………… 80 4.5.1.1. Rainfall……………………………………………………. 80 4.5.1.2. Tidal Hydrology…………………………………………... 82 4.5.2. Hastings River Estuary…………………………………………….. 82 4.5.2.1. Drain Outflow Water Quality Following High Rainfall……………………………………………………. 82 4.5.2.2. Tidal Water Quality Following High Rainfall……………. 84 4.5.2.3. Metal Precipitate Mobilisation……………………………. 86 4.5.3. Manning River Estuary…………………………………………….. 87 4.5.3.1. Drain Outflow Water Quality Following High Rainfall……………………………………………………. 87 4.5.3.2. Tidal Water Quality Following High Rainfall……………. 88 4.5.3.3. Metal Precipitate Mobilisation……………………………. 92 4.5.3.4. Drain Water Quality………………………………………. 92 4.5.3.5. Oyster Lease Water Quality………………………………. 93 4.6. DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………... 96 4.6.1. Characteristics of Acidification
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