VOLUME 17 NUMBER 2 DECEMBER 2018

A Professional Journal of National Defence College

Volume 17 Number 2 December 2018

National Defence College EDITORIAL BOARD

Chief Patron Lieutenant General Sheikh Mamun Khaled, SUP, rcds, psc, PhD Editor-in-Chief Air Commodore M Mortuza Kamal, GUP, ndc, psc, GD(P) Editor Colonel Muhammad Shahriar Zaman, afwc, psc Associate Editors Brigadier General Naheed Asgor, afwc, psc Lieutenant Colonel A S M Badiul Alam, afwc, psc, G+, Arty Assistant Editors Lecturer Farhana Binte Aziz Assistant Director Md Nazrul Islam

ISSN: 1683-8475

DISCLAIMER

The analysis, opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the NDC, or any other agencies of Bangladesh Government. Statement, fact or opinion appearing in NDC Journal are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by the editors or publisher.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electrical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Published by the National Defence College, Bangladesh Design & Printed by : ORNATE CARE 87, Mariam Villah (2nd floor), Nayapaltan, -1000, Bangladesh Cell: 01911546613, E mail: [email protected] CONTENTS Page Foreword v Editorial vi Abstracts vii

Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh 1 By - Brigadier General Md Sanuwar Uddin, ndc, psc

Domestic Violence Against : Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City 21 By - Brigadier General Abdul Quayyum Mollah, ndc, psc

Urban : Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City 46 By - Brigadier General Md Thakur, ndc, afwc, psc, G

Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview 72 By - Brigadier General Md Habib Ullah, SPP, ndc, afwc, psc

Energy Connectivity with Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh 97 By - Commodore Mohammad Nazmul Hassan, NPP, ncc, ndc, psc

Reforming Sub Inspector Training in : Public Expectation and Reality 118 By - Deputy Inspector General Md. Shamsuddin, ndc Developing Sinews of ’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER) 137 By - Brigadier Dheerendra Singh Kushwah, SM, ndc

Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Hill Tracts 161 By - Colonel Mohammed Idris Abdulkadir, ndc

Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and its Impact on Organizational Security of 185 By - Lieutenant Colonel Md Khurshid Alam, afwc, psc, G

Revamping Bangladesh - Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain 208 By - Lieutenant Colonel Md. Monowarul Islam Sarder, SPP, afwc, psc

Need for Doctrine Development Center in 234 By - Group Captain Md Abdullah Al-Mamun, afwc, psc, GD (P)

Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 254 By - Brigadier General Muhammad Ali Talukder, afwc, psc

IV FOREWORD

National Defence College is on its track since 1999 with a vision to be the premier national centre of excellence on defence, security, strategic and development studies - meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Since the inception the college has been relentlessly presenting time - befitting academic curricula to the potential policy planners, leaders and strategic thinker of the future. Intent of the college is to create a balanced outlook and bring a visualization amongst the Course Members with a strategic and operational level understanding. Past 19 years of track record attests to the practicability of the learning regime that has made this premier institution a centre of excellence at home and abroad. National Defence College being the premier national institution in Bangladesh, has always been emphasizing on conducting research in contemporary issues. The main aim of the research is to enable Course Members to make an original contribution to a subject of national or international interest that has a bearing on the national security and development. NDC journal is a reflection of the research works carried out by the Course Members and Faculty of the college. I am confident that selected Research Papers of the Course Members accommodating diverse subjects and merits have been included in this issue. I believe the readers will find the articles useful and intellectually stimulating. My heartiest congratulations to all the members who have contributed to this journal. I appreciate the sincere efforts of the Research and Academic Wing and acknowledge the solemn endeavour of the editorial board to bring out the journal timely. This issue of the journal is yet another landmark in the path of advancement of National Defence College, Bangladesh.

SHEIKH MAMUN KHALED Lieutenant General Commandant

V EDITORIAL NDC Journal is a bi-annual publication of National Defence College, the premier national centre of excellence on Security, Strategy and Development Studies. The articles for the journal (Volume 17, Number 2, December 2018) are mostly selected from individual research papers that the Course Members had submitted as part of the course curriculums. The College believes that a senior officer from military and civil services should have a good understanding of the major economic, political and social issues of the nation and be able to recommend measures to face the challenges. National Defence College has been very regular in bringing out `NDC Journal` every year on time. This speaks of the laborious effort and genuine commitment on the part of both the editorial staffs and writers. While research papers are of usually of 10,000 -15,000 words, the abridged versions are of 4,000 - 5,000 words. The abridgement is executed in a manner that the principal arguments and the logical basis are represented succinctly, objectively and clearly. A total 12 (twelve) have been adjudged for publication in the current issue in abridged form. The articles reflect complex and intricate multidimensional issues emanating from the long diversified experiences and the curriculum based deliberations and discourse on various topics concerning comprehensive national security during their trainings. This volume includes papers of different categories those will draw attention of varied group of readers. A reader, before getting into the pleasure of reading, can get an idea of what these papers are about from the abstracts included at the beginning of this journal. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Chief Patron Lieutenant General Sheikh Mamun Khaled, SUP, rcds, psc, PhD, the Commandant of NDC for his valuable guidance. Research is a highly committed undertaking. Despite all efforts, unintentional errors in various forms may appear in the journal. We ardently request our valued readers to pardon us for such unnoticed slights and shall consider ourselves rewarded to receive any evocative criticism. We hope that all papers included in this volume will satisfy our readers.

M MORTUZA KAMAL Air Commodore Senior Directing Staff (Air)

VI ABSTRACT

TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AS A MEANS OF ENERGY SECURITY FOR BANGLADESH

Brigadier General Md Sanuwar Uddin, ndc, psc

Solid waste disposal poses a greater problem as it leads to land pollution, water pollution and air pollution if it is not properly managed. Sustainable strategy for the waste management can improve wastes treatment with the aim to reduce their landfill disposal, minimize the environmental impact and recovery of energy to mitigate the energy crisis of the country. Moreover, the scarcity of land and its increasing cost especially in Dhaka city supplements the difficulty of finding new landfill site. Realizing the existing and future impact of waste disposal issue, appropriate Waste-to-Energy (WTE) conversion of urban areas (e.g. house hold waste) especially in Dhaka city is a prime requirement.

This study has analyzed the generation and characteristics of solid waste in Dhaka city, along with the associated environmental impacts and existing solid waste management practices. Special focus has been given on the effect of composting on final disposal of solid waste and effect of landfill site location on transportation cost. An estimation of the future generation rate indicates that the present generation rate of Dhaka city which is 7500 tons/day may exceed 15000 tons/day by the year 2030.

Technological, environmental and financial criteria were selected an analysis in this study. Three alternatives, namely, digestion (e.g. aerobic / anaerobic digestion), composting, burning techniques (e.g. incineration, gasification, pyrolysis) were chosen for the comparison.

The analysis reveals that pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, composting are the viable options for waste treatment in Dhaka city area. The advantages that anaerobic digestion offers outweighs most other conventional technologies can treat biodegradable wastes and can produce good quality methane gas without extremely toxic by-products.

VII DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: SELECTED CASE STUDIES OF DHAKA CITY

Brigadier General Abdul Quayyum Mollah, ndc, psc

Violence against women has been regarded as a global phenomenon by world back in 1993. It is considered to be the pervasive human rights violation that we frequently face. Bangladesh is one of the least developed countries in the world and prevalence of violence against women in Bangladesh is high. Different types of violence against women take place in Bangladesh, such as domestic violence, dowry-related violence, acid violence, death, rape, rape followed by death, forced or induced abortion, forced prostitution, sexual harassment, violence at work place and trafficking. Out of all types of violence domestic violence mostly prevails in Bangladesh. There are many factors contribute to domestic violence in the society. Some of the factors are social discrimination, poor education, child maltreatment, family violence, personality malady, alcohol, more than one partner, gender inequality and the masculine social system etc. Recently influence of cultural aggression added a new dimension to it. In Bangladesh, the pattern of domestic violence varies from rural to urban setting because of many factors. The poor economic condition, homeless people, street dwellers, slum dwellers, alcohol and drug users, Sexually Transmitted Diseases’ infected men are more violent to their wives. Dhaka is one of the world’s most populated cities in the world having almost 20 million people. The socio economic condition, comparatively more job opportunities, educational and medical facilities, industry and other facilities attract more people to live in Dhaka city. An endeavor has been taken to draw a comparison regarding violence against women between Dhaka and other metropolitan cities. Finally, Dhaka city was studied length and breadth to get a clear idea about the types of violence, reasons behind this and possible remedies to curb those. Few recommendations are made at the end for subsequent action plan. The government of Bangladesh is highly committed to eliminate all forms of violence against women and has prioritized the establishment of legal frameworks and institutional arrangements to support victims. In October 2010 Bangladesh has passed the Domestic Violence Protection and Prevention bill in parliament. Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is putting in their effort to grow a general awareness to keep the violence in low ebb. It is felt that, the NGOs and other private organizations also can contribute substantially against this social menace.

VIII URBAN CRIME IN BANGLADESH: IMPLICATIONS FOR NON TRADITIONAL SECURITY THREAT IN SELECTED SLUMS IN DHAKA CITY

Brigadier General Md Tajul Islam Thakur, ndc, afwc, psc, G

Anecdotal accounts among city dwellers across Bangladesh indicate that urban crime rates have increased rapidly in the last two decades, contributing to persistent fears that impede commerce, fray social capital and undermine normal urban activity. Considering the steady development prospect, change in urban demography and consequent rise of slum dweller and slum crime may surface as one of the prime concern for our overall national security from Nontraditional Security (NTS) threat perspective. Hence the issue demands immediate attention.

In this web of international relations, the threat to security is not from one nation to another but also from various non- state sources of insecurity. There is a growing debate on the need to expand the traditional notions of security to address the nontraditional threats and so to develop a more comprehensive approach to combat those. On the other hand, crime in urban slum and insecurity are connected by national and municipal governments’ inability to address grievances, combined with the growing strains on housing, infrastructure, basic services and livelihoods of the slum dwellers. Moreover, the instability of the social environment, the high incidence of violent crime and the risk of extortion also strongly affects local businesses and deters potential foreign investors. This greatly affects potential for economic development, well being of the society and so to the national security.

Research on the links amongst urban slum growth, crime and violence in Bangladesh has indicated a definite relationship. Therefore, it is evident that broad and sustainable urban slum development depends on political commitment towards a democratic and equitable vision of urban society, together with transparent and capable urban management systems. As such, policies, governance and legal frameworks must be reformed accordingly; this is fundamental for reducing the crime from urban slum and so as to reduce the national security hazard emanating from NTS threat.

IX EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT IN BANGLADESH CADET COLLEGES SINCE 1990S: AN OVERVIEW

Brigadier General Md Habib Ullah, SPP, ndc, afwc, psc

The aim of this study is to examine the Cadet College educational environment since 1990s with a purpose of making recommendations for improvements. Understandably, students’ academic performances are largely influenced by the classroom environment to include the teachers, study materials and evaluation system. However, in a specialized institution like a cadet college, games and sports, extracurricular activities, ethos and values, leadership training and graduated recreational facilities significantly contribute to the overall 360 degrees development and total upbringing of the cadets. The main objective of the study is to find out the areas that demand attention for further development. Descriptive and Exploratory Survey Research design was used in which data from 323 respondents were collected using self-administered questionnaire, from 6 Cadet Colleges of the country. Respondents were from the Faculty Members, Cadets, Ex Cadets, serving and ex principals and parents of cadets. Convenient sampling technique was used to sample the respondents. The result of the study indicated that with the change of time and national education system, certain modernization plans need to be undertaken for the cadet colleges. It is also necessary to reflect on the internal administration of the cadet colleges and performances of the cadets passing out recently. An improved educational environment with modern infrastructure, focused curricula and highly motivated teachers will deliver better performing cadets than those with fewer facilities and lesser enablers. Finally, recommendations were made to the principals, parents, teachers, educational administrators and policy makers for improving the situation.

ENERGY CONNECTIVITY WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR BANGLADESH

Commodore Mohammad Nazmul Hassan, NPP, ncc, ndc, psc

As a developing country Bangladesh needs a substantial amount of energy. The of Bangladesh is largely dependent on depleting resources. As a result, Bangladesh is exploring all other sources of energy options including those from her immediate neighbours - India, Nepal, and Myanmar. The energy endowments in the neighbouring countries can offer Bangladesh with a sustained source of energy for years to come. These include

X the existing and potential sources of hydro power from all four neighbouring states. In addition, the natural gas of Myanmar could also be a reckonable source of energy, if only Bangladesh could seal off a tri-partite agreement with India and Myanmar. Therefore, the potentials of energy cooperation for Bangladesh with her immediate neighbours are varied and many. Some concrete steps have already been taken with India, resulting into around 660 MW energy import. Both countries have showed positive intent to enhance energy cooperation further and take it to newer heights. Meanwhile, efforts are also on to enter into energy sector cooperation, through investment, if necessary, with Bhutan and Nepal. Any such arrangement will obviously require India’s consent, as the connectivity has to be over its land. On the other hand, energy cooperation with Myanmar, despite its potentials and promises, has not yet seen any breakthrough. Myanmar’s energy resources include both hydro power and natural gas. If Bangladesh can make inroads into the energy resources of Myanmar, it may contribute towards a stable platform in the bilateral relationship as well. Despite all the potentials, there are a number of challenges hindering the passage of smooth energy connectivity. The challenges are political, economic and infrastructural. At the end some pragmatic policy options have been recommended in the paper.

REFORMING SUB INSPECTOR TRAINING IN BANGLADESH POLICE: PUBLIC EXPECTATION AND REALITY

Deputy Inspector General Md. Shamsuddin, ndc

Policing is a very high rated job today. Bangladesh Police comprises of several ranks starting from Constable to Inspector General serving the nation by maintaining law and order, rendering various types of service as per need that accelerates development of the country. Investigation of criminal cases is one of the major concerns of police department and most of which is mainly done by Sub Inspectors (SI). Investigating Officers (IO) are kind of judges who are supposed to apply their own understanding over a fact with the light of evidence. For this it is required for them to be knowledgeable, skilled and professional. Becoming pro-people is the ultimate mandate of Bangladesh Police and the government as well. Sometimes our IOs failed to tackle the adverse situation, unearthing the fact of criminal cases. Moreover biasness, tortures, ill-behavior lead to a dissatisfaction of the people of the country. An SI of Bangladesh Police is in need of training reform because of its alleged inefficiency and lack of skill in different areas.

XI Police is the only department to handle all strata of population starting from a street beggar to the head of the state. Police is the first responder to the crime and widely recognized as the gatekeepers of criminal justice process. Police is bound to address the victim of crime, the accused of crime and peace loving citizen. Policing in a democratic country should be according to its constitution, different criminal acts, rules and regulation and that of the government’s directives to uphold the citizen’s right, maintaining law and order, ensuring human rights and dignity.

The study has identified some important and crucial areas like skill, knowledge, attitude, using modern scientific technology, over assignment and lacking in intelligence management of SIs of Bangladesh Police where immediate reforms are needed. It has been found that these areas are most vital for a successful policing. Hence, it can be argued that reforms in these sectors would bring a positive change in the IO in order to meet expectation of the nation.

HOLISTIC APPROACH TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND DESTINATION IMAGE OF

Colonel Mohammed Idris Abdulkadir, ndc

Bangladesh remains to be widely explored. It has abundant natural beauty and distinct culture in Chittagong Hill Tracks (CHT). Ironically it is not a tourist destination. This study was inspired by government efforts such as the 2010 National Tourism Policy that highlights needs to develop remote communities like CHT into tourist destination as platforms for socio economic development. Despite such efforts, CHT still lags development indicators such as poverty, education and infrastructures. These issues militate against its tourism. The broad objective of this study is to examine tourism attributes and its developmental impact on the destination image of CHT.

Findings established a direct relationship between tourism attributes of a destination and its image. Developing tourism and creating a positive destination image for CHT depends on how its attributes are harnessed. Benefits of developments could be in infrastructure, income and an improved economy. The study revealed that tourism engages local people in conservation of resources and creates job opportunities that interconnect productive sectors of the economy. Identified challenges were inaccessibility of lands for tourism development, inadequate infrastructure, negative image of the country and Visa and security issues.

XII Based on the study, strategies expected to facilitate tourism development and create a positive image for CHT were proffered. The strategies include providing land for tourism development, developing infrastructure, human resource development, involvement of local people in tourism and addressing the negative destination image of CHT amongst others. The study also made some recommendations in line with the strategies, which if implemented would provide socio economic benefit for CHT and Bangladesh as a country.

DEVELOPING SINEWS OF INDIA’S ACT EAST POLICY ON TRIANGULAR PIVOT OF BANGLADESH, MYANMAR AND INDIA’S NORTH EAST REGION (NER)

Brigadier Dheerendra Singh Kushwah, SM, ndc

India made a paradigm shift by adopting ‘LEP’ in 1992 in immediate wake of disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union with which it had deep economic and strategic linkages and was favouring Indian aspirations during Cold War. In 1991- 92, Indian economy was in midst of a crisis with depleting forex reserves and skewed trade balance. It was, therefore, a logical course correction in India’s foreign policy to recognise strategic and economic salience of East Asia. LEP registered impressive gains for 20 years after its inception. Institutional integration with ASEAN has been unprecedented with India becoming part of the security architecture and economic ecosystem in Asia.

In backdrop of current Indian geostrategic milieu and unfavourable bilateral trade (despite huge potential) with ASEAN; Act East Policy (AEP) announced 2014 is a logical sequel of LEP as it seeks to reinvigorate India’s relations with ASEAN as well as expand engagement to far East. India’s NER which should have been the logical gateway to ASEAN, ironically, is the missing link for variety of reasons. Connectivity remains limited to only ocean and air shipping services. With missing continental connectivity; LEP continues to be heavily loaded in favour of other Regions and States of India. Research findings through empirical and explorative study of literature reinforce strategic salience of triangular pivotal space encompassing India’s NER, Bangladesh and Myanmar as one integrated space. Despite enormous resource endowments, economic potential and 25 years of LEP; NER remains a laggard. AEP must stay the course in offsetting this dilemma and avoid seductive drift into a mere strategic outreach. India must realize, that, Bangladesh is the key to unlock semi landlocked NER and Myanmar is the gateway to SE Asia. Nepal and Bhutan are the rearward linkages of this connectivity construct.

XIII Regional Connectivity strategies are multifaceted and multidimensional having hard and soft component. An Institutional mechanism, overarching strategy based on sound conceptual framework and focussed approach is imperative for India to actualize its AEP through this critical space. Overall security environment and bilateral relations and convergence of interests amongst all stake holders in this pivotal space seem to be at an all-time high; India should not miss the bus.

SOLDIERS’ EXPOSURE TO SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON ORGANIZATIONAL SECURITY OF BANGLADESH ARMY

Lieutenant Colonel Md Khurshid Alam, afwc, psc, G

‘Social Media’ has become an important part of our social life in Bangladesh. Soldiers of Bangladesh Army are also using social media.While doing so, social media may pose threat to the organizational security. Bangladesh Army should have necessary measures to enhance the organization security. The purpose of this research was to ascertainthe impact of social media on the organizational security of Bangladesh Army with a view to reducing the threats generating through social media. This research was a cross-sectional study and followed both quantitativeand qualitative methodologies using surveys, interviews and focus group discussions as major tools. The study revealed that, social media can be used both directly and indirectly against Bangladesh Army. Soldiers with limited security knowledge are likely to disrupt the organizational security of Bangladesh Army. It has been found that organizational security of Bangladesh Army is considerably affected by the use of social media. So, necessity has been felt for enhancing Soldiers’ knowledge on the security. The study concluded that, controlled use of social media by the soldiers will augment the organizational security. The control can be done by limiting the use, effective training and regular monitoring. The findings will be useful to Bangladesh Army as well as other security organizations of Bangladesh to formulate their policy options on organizational security on social media.

XIV REVAMPING BANGLADESH - MYANMAR RELATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN ECONOMIC AND MILITARY DOMAIN

Lieutenant Colonel Md. Monowarul Islam Sarder, SPP, afwc, psc

Myanmar is the next door neighbor and the only gate way for Bangladesh to connect with china and South-East Asia. But, there is a lack of knowledge about its history, religion, culture, government system, economy, nature of population, natural resources, language, domestic policy, foreign policy, opportunities, challenges, national interest, security dilemma, alliances, etc. Bangladesh needs to establish strategic friendship with Myanmar for her own interest. There are some bilateral issues like: Rohingya issue, illegal trade, arms and drug trafficking etc, which needs to be solved immediately. Bangladesh is surrounded by India in three sides and another side is Myanmar and . To reduce the dependency on India Bangladesh has to make good relation with Myanmar so that connectivity can be done with China and South- East Asian region through Myanmar. Strategically, Myanmar is very important to Bangladesh. Recent economic and political reforms in Myanmar has opened up a new chapter for bilateral trade and investment. Big power including China, India and many others have already started participating in the development work of Myanmar. Where as, Bangladesh stands nowhere in this aspect. Therefore, this is the right time for Bangladesh to strengthen economic and military ties with Myanmar. In this view, this paper has a great economic and military significance for exploring economic and military aspect of Bangladesh-Myanmar relations. Study has been carried out to examine and explore the challenges and opportunities to revamp the relation between Bangladesh and Myanmar. Besides, endeavor has been also taken to find out credible options to be followed to enhance the relation. To analyze the research arena, the researcher has applied both qualitative and quantitative analyses throughout the study in the form of relevant document analysis, surveys and interviews.

NEED FOR DOCTRINE DEVELOPMENT CENTER IN BANGLADESH AIR FORCE

Group Captain Md Abdullah Al-Mamun, afwc, psc, GD(P)

“Free shall we keep the sky of Bangladesh” – the motto of Bangladesh Air Force (BAF). This is the driving force for BAF to develop and prepare itself as a credible force. For any professional air force it is essential that it should regularly re-evaluate its doctrine, strategies and operational concept through a formal process under an organizational set up or institute. In the context of fast changing

XV technology appropriate doctrine should be developed to ensure that BAF can meet the challenges of any future conflict or war. This research envisaged the future development process of BAF where the importance of enhancing the overall efficiency would play the vital role for effective employment of air power. How best BAF can approach towards a systematic development process to match with the contemporary operational environment remains the focus of this research. Standardization and evaluation of operational concept and training system leads to the enhancement of professional skill. At the same time the Air Force need to identify the capability needs keeping in line with its doctrine and operational concept. Thus it is imperative to have the ability to develop own doctrine and operational concept through a formal intellectual process. Within this process it is also necessary that decision makers of BAF has the means to get strategic and policy guideline for future planning looking beyond the horizon. All these could achievable with the help of a think tank institute like Doctrine Development Center in BAF.

ROLE OF BANGLADESH ARMY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 4 Brigadier General Muhammad Ali Talukder, afwc, psc

Sequel to Millennium Development Goal (MDG), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is the more comprehensive and enduring approach towards wide- ranging development issues. Capitalizing on the success of the MDG, Bangladesh embarked on the SDG initiative from the outset. As an effective nation-building partner, Bangladesh Army is capable and willing to contribute towards the achievement of SGD 4 i.e. quality education. Within the existing challenges, the Army, as an indirect contributor can assist in ensuring quality education in mainstream, technical, vocational, tertiary and special need educations up to rural areas. Addressing the budget, manpower and combat responsibility related issues, and focusing on quality over quantity, the Army has the potential to contribute significantly in national attainment of SDG 4 targets.

XVI TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AS A MEANS OF ENERGY SECURITY FOR BANGLADESH

Brigadier General Md Sanuwar Uddin, ndc, psc

Introduction

Solid waste creates a greater problem to the environment if it is not properly managed. Bangladesh is a heavily populated country and it needs to be deeply concerned about waste management. Amount of waste in Bangladesh is getting increase because of rapid urbanization, pattern of life and economic development of the country. There are 775 towns / urban centre and 6 City Corporations in Bangladesh. Daily waste generation of these city corporations is about 13,332 tons and total amount is around 27000 tons/day in the whole country of Bangladesh. With present trend of waste generation, it is likely to be doubled by 2030. Singly in Dhaka city it is around 7500 tons/day and this amount is likely to reach about 15000 tons /day by 2030 (Sayedur, 2014) .

There is a great potentiality of extracting latent heat from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) of Bangladesh and its calorific value ranges from 550 to 850 Kcal/KG (Dhaka City Corporation, Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2005). Unfortunately we are still unable to utilize this energy potential accumulated in MSW. At present, land filling is the only method for disposal of MSW and there are three landfills in Dhaka City. Development of any new landfill site is near to impossible due to land scarcity and increasing of land prices especially in Dhaka City. As per the report on solid waste management of Dhaka City Corporations (DCC), it is learned that, about 60% of generated waste is collected and dumped at landfill sites and rest remains uncollected (DNCC, 2017).

1 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

In general, Incineration and gasification can handle certain biodegradable & non degradable waste. Pyrolysis technologies utilize plastics, rubbers, polythene etc. Mechanical Biological Treatment (e.g. Anaerobic Digestion) utilizes biodegradable solid waste e.g. kitchen wastes (Sayedur, 2014). Suitable technology for recovery of energy from waste can play a very important role in mitigating the difficulties of solid waste that can act as a renewable source to augment the energy security of Bangladesh.

State of Energy in Bangladesh: Per capita consumption of energy in Bangladesh is one of the lowest across the globe. Currently per capita energy consumption in Bangladesh is about 370 kw hr and 74 percent of the total population of the country has access to electricity (Abdul Munim, Mahbubul Hakim, & Abdullah-Al-Mamun, 2010).

Present Power State in Bangladesh: At present power generation capacity is 13,179 MW which includes public sector 7054 MW (53%) and private sector 6,125 MW (47%) respectively (Annual Report of BPDB 2017).

Sources of Power Generation in Bangladesh

• Natural Gas: Natural-gas fired power generation (89.22%) is a major basis of power segment in Bangladesh.

• : Contribution of coal is around 3% of the total composition.

• : There is only one hydroelectric power source in Bangladesh. Power generation by this hydroelectric source is 2.5 % of total power consumption of the country.

• : Bangladesh has managed to apply a significant number of Solar Home System (SHS) with over three million solar panels.

Projected Power Demand: Power demand of Bangladesh is likely to reach at 34,000 MW by 2030. To meet up the additional demand, Government of Bangladesh is planning to increase power generation capacity beyond the projected demand by 2030 (Azad A. K., 2017).

2 Ongoing Projects

• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): The government of Bangladesh has started to construct a floating LNG terminal at Maheshkhali. It will have a capacity to handle five million metric tons (MT) of LNG per year (Azad A. K., 2017).

• Ruppur Nuclear Power Plants: Construction works of two nuclear power plants, each of 1000 MW capacity is going on at Ruppur, . The plants are scheduled to be commissioned by 2023.

• Renewable Energy (RE) Scenario in Bangladesh: Different government, and non-government organizations like Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL), Grameen Shaki, Rahim-Afrooz and many more have been working separately or jointly to facilitate Renewable Energy Technology (RET).

The present renewable energy state of Bangladesh is as follows:

Table 1: Present Renewable Energy State in Bangladesh Technology Off-Grid On-Grid Total Solar PV 193MW 1 MW 194 MW Wind 2 MW 0.9 MW 2.9 MW Hydro - 230 MW 230 MW to Electricity 5 MW - 5 MW Biomass to Electricity 1 MW 1 MW Total 200 MW 232 MW 433 MW Source: Bangladesh 2017

3 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

Waste to Energy ( WTE) Technology

WTE Process

WTE is a process that provides generation of energy in the form of electricity or heat. WTE provides sustainable disposal of MSW. It is a robust and helpful energy generation options to reduce CO2 emissions and other harmful gases. WTE technology is used extensively in European Countries and other developed nations. Yet, in Germany, Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) getting is more popular. Norway is using landfill gases a transport fuel. Generally, in Europe 50 million tons of garbage per year is converted into precious energy through WTE technology and still 50% of municipal solid waste becomes landfills. (Francesca, 2017).

WTE plant is feasible based on waste segregation, composition and collection. At present, both thermal and biological WTE plants exist. It depends on degree of operation, modality and investment. In UK, Anaerobic digestion is becoming popular. However, in land scarce country of Asia like Singapore, Japan and Taiwan Incineration is very common. In India, anaerobic digestion, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) is practiced. (Yusuf B. T., 2017). In Japan, 80% of MSW is treated by incineration to generate power generated from waste derived from biomass and thermal use of MSW as renewable energy is found in Tokyo. Conversely, in Europe anaerobic digestion is also getting popular. (Francesca, 2017). In China, the government is depending on all forms of solid waste management including WTE, to minimize and reduce waste management burdens and more than 50% of total wastes being disposed by anaerobic land filling.

Incineration: It is a waste handling procedure that involves the burning of waste materials. Incineration converts the waste materials into residual ash, flue gas and heat. It is also kwon as direct burning where the ash is mostly produced by the elements of the wastes, and may take the form of solid inflammation or particulates taken by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleared of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into

4 the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power.

Figure 1: Conventional Diagram of an Incinerator WTE Plant

Source: JAHS Chem

Pyrolysis: It is a thermal degradation of wastes in the absence of air and produces a syngas which is then used to generate energy. Pyrolysis is the chemical reaction of molecules that involves molecular breakdown of larger particles into smaller molecules bythe presence of heat. Pyrolysis is also known as thermal cracking, thermolysis, de-polymerization, etc.

Figure 2: Pyrolysis Process

Waste Tyre Pyrolysis Oil or Plastic Hydrocarbon Gas

Charcoal

Source: JAHS Chem

Gasification. Gasification encompasses a partial oxidation of wastes, and produces a syngas which is then used to produce energy. It converts organic or based carbon containing materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This is achieved by chemical reaction of the

5 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh materials at high temperatures (>700 °C), without combustion, under a controlled amount of oxygen and / or steam.

Figure 3: Gasification Process

Source: www.WTE.wikipedia

Bio-Chemical Process

This process is based on breakdown of organic substances of wastes by microbial action to generate methane gas and alcohol. This process is favored for the wastes of even high percentage of organic, bio-degradable matter and high level of moisture/water content to help in microbial activity.

Comparison of the WTE Technologies: A brief description of the available technologies is provided below:

• Incineration ▪▪ Burning is suitable for the raw MSW with moisture less than 50%. ▪▪ Enough oxygen is required to fully oxidize the waste materials. ▪▪ Burning temperatures are in excess of 8500 C.

▪▪ Waste is converted into CO2 and water contents into toxic substances (i.e. dioxin, furans). ▪▪ Fly ash air pollution control (APC) system of residue particulates is required.

6 ▪▪ Needs high calorific value waste to keep combustion process to continue, or else requires high energy for maintaining adequate temperatures.

• Pyrolysis ▪▪ Observance of thermal dissimilation of organic materials through the use of indirect, external source of heat. ▪▪ Temperature varies between 300 to 850O C are maintained for several seconds in the absence of oxygen.

▪▪ Product is char, oil and syngas composed primarily of O2, CO,

CO2, CH4 and hydrocarbons. ▪▪ Syngas can be used for energy manufacture or proportions of it can be condensed to produce oils and waxes. ▪▪ Syngas typically has net calorific value (NCV) of 10 to 20 MJ / m3.

• Gasification ▪▪ It is considered as combination of pyrolysis and combustion (incineration) as it involves partial oxidation. ▪▪ It is an exothermic process. ▪▪ Oxygen is added but at low amount not sufficient for full oxidation and full combustion. ▪▪ Temperature generally above 850O C and below 3000O C. ▪▪ Main products of syngas are Hydrogen, Hydrocarbon, and synthetic gas with net calorific value of 4 to 10 MJ / m3. ▪▪ Other product is solid residue of non-combustible materials (ash) which contains low level of carbon.

• Anaerobic Digestion (AD) ▪▪ Familiar skillfulness for treatment of sorted MSW. ▪▪ Biological conversion of biodegradable untreated materials in the absence of oxygen at temperatures between 55 to 75OC (most useful temperature range).

7 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

▪▪ Digestion is used primarily to diminish quantity of wastes for disposal. ▪▪ Methane gas generated to be used for electricity / energy generation or fuel for cooking, transport fuel that is substitute of CNG.

Waste Management by 3R Strategy: It is never possible to remain absolutely free from generation of waste. Since the early society, human being has been using resources of earth fort the support of life and disposing the wastes. The process of reducing, reusing and recycling of resources and products is commonly known as “3Rs.” • Reducing means selection of items with care to reduce the amount of waste generated. • Reusing involves the repeated use of an item or parts of items which still have functional aspects. It maximizes the practical use of an item. • Recycling means the use of waste itself as resources by conversion of the recyclable waste into other items thermo-chemical process. The minimization efficiency of wastes is affirmed to be better achieved by following 3Rs in a hierarchical order- Reduce Reuse and Recycle.

Benefits of 3Rs: The benefits of 3Rs are many for the society and environment: • Reduction of Green House Gas (GHG) emission. • Techniques adaptation, employment and job creation. • Production of organic gas from bio-degradable wastes. • Attracts in foreign direct investment by emission reduction facility and other environmental benefits. • Enriches soil condition and can provide a healthy environment to the people of the cities.

8 State of Municipal Solid Waste in Dhaka City Corporations (DCC)

Waste Scenario of Dhaka City: As per the joint report of Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and office of Waste Concern Consultancy (WCC) in Dhaka, about 75% solid wastes are coming from residential sector, 20% from commercial sector, 3% from the institutional sector and rest from other sectors (Hasan, 2015). The average waste generation rate from domestic source proved to be 0.46 kg/cap/day. High moisture content and low calorific value characterized the solid waste properties in Dhaka City is observed (Dhaka City Corporation, Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2005).

Composition of Waste: Field Survey has been carried out and data has been collected from the office of Waste Concern at Banani. The percentage wise MSW composition has been found as : House hold waste is Food/Vegetable -78%, Paper 5%, Polythene 3%, Plastic/Rubber -2.5%, Wood 1.5%, leather 1.5%, Textile -3.5%, Metal -1%, Glass-1%, others-3% (Maksud, 2014).

Recycling of MSW in Dhaka City: Recycling of solid waste is composed of three principal groups: namely, collectors, buyers and factory/shops for recycled products.

Table 2: Recyclable Wastes and Recycled Products in Dhaka City Types of Recyclable Wastes Recycled Products Wastes Mug, pipe, old sandal, Shoes, sandal, boots, bucket, mug, Plastic doll, plastic bucket, etc bottle, lunch box, etc. Newspaper, cardboard, Media paper, simplex board, Paper duplex board etc cement packing bag etc. Glass Any kind of broken glass Glass sheet, bottle, lamp shade, etc. Metal Iron tin, iron pieces Steel rods, nuts, bolts, pumps, etc. Others leather, rubber, bone etc Shoes, Rubber pad, Packing material etc. Source: DCC, JICA 2005

9 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

Table 3: Percentage wise Recyclable Wastes and Recycled Products Percentage of Category Contents Recycling Major recyclables plastics, paper, glass, metal 80% Others leather, rubber, bone etc 20% Source: Dhaka City Corporation, Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2005

Probability of Selection of WTE Plants

Establishment Conventional WTE Plants in Bangladesh

Recently, initiative was taken to set up a WTE plant with a capacity of 50 MW at Keranigonj Thana. After a detail survey and analysis, the investors refrained from setting up that WTE plant and ultimately the project not yet implemented. The main reasons were: heterogeneous mixture of waste stream, high moisture contents, non-steady flow of wastes in the area etc. Similarly other WTE projects also failed for similar reasons. Thatis possibly, why till now, no WTE plant could be set up in Bangladesh despite strong desire of the government (Haq, 2015).

Evaluation of Selected WTE Technology: Conversion of waste material to energy can proceed along two major pathways-thermo- chemical and bio-chemical. Thermo-chemical conversion, characterized by higher temperature and conversion rates, is best suited for lower moisture feedstock and is generally less selective for products. On the other hand, biochemical technologies (e.g. Anaerobic Digestion) are more suitable for wet wastes which are rich in organic matter and it can even treat the wastes with high moisture contents (Shahalam & Baki, 2005).

10 Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion

• Economic Advantages ▪▪ With minimum time, moving, handling and processing of manure is possible. ▪▪ Income generation can be achieved from the processing of waste (tipping fees), sale of organic fertilizer. ▪▪ Anaerobic digestion plant increases self-sufficiency. ▪▪ Transformation of the liquid manure and the manure into a fertilizer, more easily assimilated by the plants, with reduction in the odors and the disease-causing agents. ▪▪ Insect elimination at the storage pit.

• Environmental Benefits ▪▪ Biogas resulting by anaerobic digestion is a source of renewable energy because it replaces fossil energy. ▪▪ Reduction of pollution due to nitrogen stripping. ▪▪ Sustainable management of organic waste. ▪▪ Elimination of malodorous compounds. ▪▪ Reduction of pathogens. ▪▪ Production of sanitized compost. ▪▪ Decrease in Green House Gas (GHG) emission. ▪▪ Reduced dependence on inorganic fertilizers by capture and reuse of nutrients. ▪▪ Promotion of carbon seizure ▪▪ Beneficial reuse of recycled water ▪▪ Protection of groundwater and surface water resources. ▪▪ Improved social acceptance.

• Technical Advantages ▪▪ Anaerobic digestion is a net energy-producing process. ▪▪ A biogas facility generates high-quality renewable fuel.

11 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

▪▪ Surplus energy as electricity and heat is produced during anaerobic digestion ▪▪ Anaerobic digestion reduces reliance on energy imports. ▪▪ Such a facility contributes to decentralized, distributed power systems. ▪▪ Biogas is a rich source of electricity, heat, and transportation fuel.

Survey Data and Discussion

Primary Data: A detailed survey was carried out in the accommodation area of the author at Dhaka Cantonment. The area comprises with 270 houses with 4-5 persons in each houses. Out of that 30 houses were selected for the survey. Per capita waste generation was found to be .51 KG / person and detail is shown below:

Table 4: Primary Survey Data on Waste Type of Wastes Amount in KG Green Wastes 65.50 Paper 5.50 Plastic/Rubber/Polythene 6.00 Glass 6.50 Metal 7.00 Others 5.50 Amount wastes from 30 houses/ 97.50 KG Day Source: Primary Data- 2017

Price of the Recyclables: The cost of the recyclables varies according their types/categories. During the survey it was found that the cost of each category of recyclable wastes was as follows:

12 Table 5: Price of Recycle Items Unit Price Category of Wastes Remarks (Taka/KG) Price Variation depends on the Plastic/Rubber 8- 10 composition Glass 3-4 Do Metal 20-25 Do Paper 15-18 Do Plastics / Polythene 5 -6 Do Boxes of wood /tins 10-12 Do Source: Primary Survey by Author 2017

Moisture Contents and Calorific Values of MSW: Average composition of moisture content as found from secondary data is shown in the following table:

Table 6: Moisture Content of MSW Types of Wastes Moisture Contents (%) Calorific Value MJ/Kg Food/Vegetable Wastes 64 19.7 Paper 07 16.8 Plastic/Rubber 02 35 Polythene 04 35 Metal 1 - Glass 1 - Wood 12 20 Leather 07 14.4 Textiles 15 15 Others 40 15 Source: Rouf, 2011

However, recyclable wastes like plastic, polythene, rubber, tires etc can be processed in a pyrolysis plant as mentioned earlier.

13 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

Analysis of Electricity Generation There are certain tests by which, MSW can be analyzed in the laboratory e.g. proximity analysis, flash point, pour point by dry/wet basis. After completing necessary tests/analysis, electricity generation can be ascertained using certain formula. In this paper Dulong`s formula is used to ascertain the amount of electricity that can be generated from MSW through a sample test and percentage wise carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur in different constituents of the waste are shown below.

Table 7: Ultimate Analysis of “Dry Stream” Components of MSW Components MSW Chemical Comments as per percentage Types of MSW Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Food/Vegetables 46.5 4.3 42.8 2.4 .1 Paper 43.5 6.0 44.0 .3 .2 Polythene 80.0 14.3 3.2 2.0 .1 Plastic/Rubber 60.0 7.2 22.8 - - Wood 49.0 6.0 42.7 .2 .1 Textile 55.0 6.6 31.2 4.6 .2 Leather 69.0 9.0 5.8 6.0 .2 Other 26.3 3.0 2.0 .5 .2 Total Weight in % .515 % 0.0792 % .4057 % .02 ,01 Source: Rouf, 2011

The energy content of the waste can be estimated using the modified Dulong Equation or the heating value of individual waste components. Delong’s Equation for MSW Analysis: Heat (KJ/kg) = 337C + 1428 (H – O/8)+7N + 9S Where, C = Carbon (%) H = Hydrogen (%) O = Oxygen (%) N= Nitrogen (%) S = Sulfur (%)

14 Heat (KJ/kg) = 337 x 0.515 + 1428 (0.0792 – 0.4057/8) + 7x.02 + 9 x 0.01 = 214.47 KJ/kg

Now question may arise how much energy can be extracted from solid wastes of DSCC and DNCC. Theoretically, from 1000 tons of waste 7 to 10 MW electricity can be genera rated. As DNCC and DSCC are generating around 7000 to 8000 tons wastes, therefore total amount of electricity may be around 70 to 100 MW (Yusuf B. T., 2017).

Proposed Ways to Overcome: By strict observance of 3R strategy, we can overcome the burden of MSW and we can convert it into resource too. The pathways are described below:

Figure 4: Flow Chart of Proposed 3R Concept.

Source: Chodhury, Mohammad, Haque & Hossain, 2014

15 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

Pathways of Implementation Plan of 3R: Implication plan of 3R in a diagrammatic form is shown below:

Figure 5: Flow Chart of MSW Management plan

Source: Chodhury, Mohammad, Haque & Hossain, 2014

Recommendations

Integrated Solid Waste Management: For effective management and converting wastes into resource an integrated waste management to be implemented for the country. For that we can go for certain planning/ execution with different time frame as bellow:

• Short Term Planning/Execution ▪▪ Implementation of Community Based Biogas Plant of small and medium size in the green markets areas, specious/ planned residential areas etc.

16 ▪▪ Composting of MSW as bio-fertilizer for roof top nursery, where community based Biogas Plant is difficult. ▪▪ Government should make effort to buy bio-fertilizer from the stockholders to promote green technology. ▪▪ Introducing Waste Management study in the text books of Schools and College going students. ▪▪ Implementation of waste management activities by 3R Strategy can make awareness and effective use of MSW. ▪▪ Establishment of biogas filling station adjacent to the CNG Station to augment the CNG pump. ▪▪ Promotion of recycling of both organic and inorganic wastes to reduce the cost of collection, transportation and disposal of waste. ▪▪ Arrangement of orientation training for the waste pickers for small duration especially on health and hygiene aspect.

• Mid-Term Planning/Execution ▪▪ Establishment of Research & Development Centre under Ministry of Environment and Power and Energy. ▪▪ Establishment of WTE Facilities near the landfill sites.

• Long Term Planning/Execution ▪▪ Establishment of Full-fledged WTE Plants and Biogas Filling Station from MSW.

Conclusion

The waste that is generated finding their way into land and water bodies without proper treatment creates environment pollution. Openly dumped wastes also emit greenhouse gases like methane, carbon dioxide and add to air pollution. Again waste can be a resource due to its latent heat content resulting in energy generation. Varieties of options can be adopted through WTE facility, e.g., electricity, cooling, steam for heating.

17 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

Different technologies are evaluated in this paper with a focus on different parameters of energy conversion systems. The study shows potential of using waste for the production of biogas as transport fuels and thermal pyrolysis technologies are interesting for recyclable wastes e.g. plastics, polythene, rubber etc.

It seems that the use of biogas to support fuel supply can be easily managed for Bangladesh. We can also extract manure by this process from organic waste through anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion is particularly is suited to wet organic material and it is commonly used for house hold wastes including waste papers, grass clippings, leftover food, and animal waste. Anaerobic digestion provides a variety of benefits which may be classified into three groups: environment, economic and energy.

General people of our country are not at all aware of the consequence of waste dumped as land- fillings. As we cannot avoid the waste, effort has to be continued to make best use of it with waste minimization strategy e.g. 3R Strategy. Once we all will be motivated then wastes will no longer be a problematic issue. We must seek for the action plan as how best we get benefits out of the MSW. It’s only possible if we can technically manage it as a source of energy not considering it as burden. Technical Waste Management Plan for extraction of energy can lead to a substantial reduction in the overall waste quantities requiring final disposal.

Bibliography

1. Abdul Munim, J. M., Mahbubul Hakim, M., & Abdullah-Al-Mamun, M. (2010). Analysis of energy consumption and indicators of energy use in Bangladesh. Springer, link, 43 (4), pp 275–302.

2. Annual Report of BPDB:2016-17.

3. Azad, A. K. (2017). Lecture on Energy Security. Dhaka.

18 4. Azad, A. K. (2017, May 8). Infrastructure Development and Connectivity: Key to Deveopmnt in Bangladesh. Presentation given at NDC, Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladseh. 5. Chodhury, A. H., Mohammad, N., Haque, R., & Hossain, T. (2014). Developin 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) Strategy for Waste Management in Urban Areas of Bangladesh: Socioeconomic and Climate Adoption Mitigation Option. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology , 8 (5), PP 09-18. 6. Dhaka City Corporation,Japan International Cooperation Agency. (2005). The Study on the Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City. Dhaka: Pacific Consultants International Yachiyo Engineering Co., Ltd. 7. Dunn, C. (2006). Eco-Cycle: Building Zero-Waste Communities. Rome: Waste Communities. 8. Environment, D. o. (2009). National 3R Strategy for Waste Management. Dhaka: Ministry of Environment and Forests . 9. Francesca, M. (2017, August 9). Renewable Energy in Asian region. 10. Hasan, R. (2015). waste scenario of Dhaka city Corporation. Dhaka: Dhaka South City Corporation. 11. JAHS Chem. (n.d.). Waste to Energy. Retrieved 9 22, 2017, from http://jahschem.wikispaces.com/Waste-to-Energy 12. Jun Li, X. Z. (2013). Effects of Flue Gas Internal Recirculation on NOx and SOx Emissions in a Co-Firing Boiler. International Journal of Clean Coal and Energy , 51 (13), 969-982. 13. Maksud, S. (2014). Waste Stream of Dhaka city. Dhaka: Waste Concern Consultency (WCC). 14. Rahman, Z. (2012). Management of MSW. ASME (p. 50). Dhaka. 15. Rashid, A., & Rashid, A. . (2017). Bangladesh Population. Dhaka: http//: www.worldmeters.info.

19 Technical Management of Municipal Solid Waste as a Means of Energy Security for Bangladesh

16. Renewable Energy Policy of Bangladesh. (2008, December 18). Retrieved May 25, 2017.

17. Rouf, M. A. (2011). Prospect of Electric Energy from Solid Wastes of City Corporation: A Metropolitan city in Bangladesh. Dhaka: ACSIT Press, Singapore .

18. Sayedur, R. (2014). Selection and evaluation of appropriate technology to generate electricity from household waste of Dhaka . Dhaka: BUET.

19. Shahalam, M. N., & Baki, A. (2005). Waste management studies in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University of Development Alternative.

20. SREDA, Bangladesh. (2017). Solar Home System. Retrieved June 2, 2017, from http://www.sreda.gov.bd.

21. Yusuf, B. T. (2017, September 20). Waste management.

Author

Brigadier General Md Sanuwar Uddin, ndc, psc was born in the year of 1969 in Valuka, . He studied in from 1981-1987. He was commissioned in 1990 in the Corps of EME. As a student from Bangladesh Army he got admission in BUET in 1992 and did his BSc in Mechanical Engineering in 1997. He did masters in Defense Studies from Defense Services Command and Staff College (DSCSC), Mirpur in 2002. He also did Masters in Mechanical Engineering in 2005 from BUET.

As an ex EME officer he served almost all Appointments of his corps. He did UN Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) as a contingent member in 2008 and in Ivory Coast as a Contingent Commander of Bangladesh Support Company -11 (UNOCI) in 20014. He also did number of courses both at home and abroad. Presently he is pursuing PhD in Mechanical Engineering from BUET as a part time student.

20 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: SELECTED CASE STUDIES OF DHAKA CITY

Brigadier General Abdul Quayyum Mollah, ndc, psc

Introduction

Violence against women in Bangladesh is the most pervasive human rights violation that we frequently face. World Bank in 1993 referred violence against women as a global epidemic which is as fatal as any serious disease or accidents. Bangladesh is one of the least developed countries in the world and prevalence of Violence against Women in Bangladesh is high. “Today, its magnitude tends to be alarming, particularly in rural areas - generally among the poorer section (Kazi & Saidur, 2013)”. Different types of violence against women take place in Bangladesh, such as domestic violence, dowry-related violence, acid violence, death, rape, rape followed by death, forced or induced abortion, forced prostitution, sexual harassment, violence at work place and trafficking. Out of all types of violence domestic violence mostly prevails in Bangladesh. Dhaka is one of the mega cities of the world. The socio economic condition of Dhaka city has attracted people from all walks of lives for the purpose of livelihood. Therefore, women has more exposure to violence in Dhaka city.

Women in Bangladesh are not a homogenous group. They come from rich, middle and poor classes. There are difference in cultural and ethnic identities as well as in rural and urban settings. Social discrimination, lower level of education, exposure to child maltreatment, witnessing family violence, antisocial personality disorder, harmful use of alcohol, having multiple partner, gender equality and the patriarchal social system are some of the factors contribute to domestic violence in different forms in the society.

21 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Half of the total population of this country is women, therefore their contribution in overall socio – economic development cannot be ignored. Domestic violence in Bangladesh causes serious damage to the society in term of gender equality, women empowerment, social development, economic development and in many other unknown indicators which otherwise could have positive influence in overall development of the country. In any account, the society needs to come out of this social scourge.

Figure 1: Analytical Framework

Physical Cultural & Psychological Tradition Economic F Economic Sexual A Legal F C Women Political O Violence against T Trafficking Biological R Women O Victimization M Gender Role R by Fatwa S S So cialization Relational

Denial of Fundamental rights Human development goal undermined Health consequence Impact on children Socio economic Impact

Institutional Support

Services

National council for National women women development Inter-ministerial protection laws Remedial measures advisory committee Special courts Nari Nirjaton Protirodh Special Tribunals Cell District and Thana Village courts level Committee Source: Author’s own Perception

Domestic Violence-Different Forms, Factors Contributing to it and its Impacts Forms of Violence

Physical Abuse: “Physical abuse” that is, any act or conduct which is of such a nature as to cause bodily pain, harm, or danger to life, limb, or health or impair the health or development of the victim and includes assault, criminal intimidation and criminal force.

22 Psychological Abuse: “Psychological abuse” that includes but is not limited to: Verbal abuse including insults, ridicule, humiliation, insults or threats of any nature harassment; or such as restrictions on mobility, communications or self-expressions controlling behavior.

Economic Abuse: Deprivation of all or any economic or financial resources or property to which the victim is entitled under any law or custom or an order of a court or any other competent authority.

Sexual Abuse: That is, any conduct of a sexual nature that abuses, humiliates, degrades or otherwise violates the dignity of the victim.

Victimization by Fatwa: Fatwa is well practiced in the rural area than that of urban area. The less educated and sometimes illiterate mollahs in the villages give judgment on any incidents or accidents related to any crimes on women violence according to the Islamic rules and Sariah. It is sometimes misinterpreted knowingly or unknowingly to favour a particular group or sometimes to favour themselves to get economic benefits. Recent steps of government has reduced this ill practice to a great extent.

Factors Contributing to Domestic Violence

Cultural and Tradition

As per the existing rule “Child Marriage Restraint Act 1983” a girl can sit for marriage at the age of 18 not before that. But, the actual scenario is different. A poor parents try to avoid different type of social challenges in raising up the girl child and try to get rid of her the moment she gets her status to become a mother. It has also got relation with the dowry. The lesser the age of the bride, the lesser is the dowry. This under aged small girl instead of looking after the groom and his family become burden to them for many reasons. It aggravates further if the family is blessed with an untimely children. At the same time, socialization of boy and girl in the society gives an unwritten supremacy of the boys over girls.

23 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Socio Economic Condition of Dhaka

Dhaka city houses the best facilities for education, treatment, business and provides maximum facilities to the job seekers. Therefore, the women in Dhaka city are most vulnerable than any other part of the country. About 44% of people living in the capital are deprived of any sort of housing facilities which are very alarming for the country, according to a survey conducted by Center for Urban Strategies in 2007. Of the 44% homeless, 35% stay in slums while 8%-9% floating section of them reside beside roads, rail lines and parks (Hayat, 2013). A big number of this population is women. They are vulnerable to all sorts of harassments beyond expressions.

Economic

The poor women who are unemployed entirely depends on husband income vulnerable to spousal abuse. On the other hand, working women both in poor and higher society causes personality clash between husband and wife and lead to strain relation. Poor economic condition of the husbands create frustration and lead to irrational behavior to the family and family members. Economically solvent and very rich people in the society sometimes get indulge in polygamy and extra marital affair. Economic dependency on men, limited access to cash and credit, limited access to employment in formal and informal sectors are actually result of poor educational condition of the women in lower class and patriarchal attitude of the spouse in the higher class of this society.

Legal

There are many acts and rules exists in Bangladesh like, Domestic Violence Prevention and Protection Act 2010, Acid Crime Suppression Act 2002, Acid Control Act 2002, Legal Support Providing Act 2000 ( Amendment 2006), Women and Children Violation Act 2000 (Amendment 2003),The Family Court Ordinance 1985, The Dowry Prohibition Act 1980, Dowry Suppression Act 1980, The Muslim Marriages and Divorce Registration

24 Act 1974, Muslim Marriage and Divorce (Registration) Act 1974, Muslim Family Act 1961, The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act 1939, Muslim Divorce Act 1939, Immoral Act 1933, The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929, Law against Child Marriage 1929, Adult Act 1985, The Penal Code 1860. Out of above mentioned acts the perpetrators in Bangladesh is dealt with mostly violence against women for dowry, acid throwing, women abduction, rape, women killing, women wounded and others.

Political

Socially recognized, economically well off, educated and self-dependent women are less prone to domestic violence comparing to socially and politically backward women folks. Gender equality, empowerment of women and political freedom are important aspects for women violence.

Biological

There are many factors contributing to violence against women. But, has it got anything to do with biological factors? Many researcher opined that it has. Androgenic hormonal influences domestic violence (Crowell & Burgess, 1996). Many of the theories about the causes of perpetrating violence against women are drawn from the literature on aggression and general violence.

Gender Role Socialization (GRS)

It is no denying a fact that, in this patriarchal society men enjoys supremacy over women from childhood. Traditionally and culturally the men remain more exposed to the outside job of the society and they are the main driving force. In Most of the country, the women are considered as caretaker of the children and home front. Psychologically and mentally they want to be subservient to their husband and give an indirect nod to be ruled with.

Relational Factors

Differently socialized patterns of communication, separate gender role cultures, lack of understanding, communication gaps between spouses

25 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City contribute to be precursor to domestic violence. “Most frequently mentioned reasons for abuse included wife’s affairs (29.1%), failure of the wife to perform house hold work satisfactorily (17.6%), economic hardship of the family (11.5%) failure of the wife to take proper care of the children (10%), not wearing veil or conforming to expected behavior (5.5%), inability to bring money from the natal home (3%), not taking good care of in-laws and relatives (2%), and husband’s frustration in relation to his various activities (2%) (Bhuiya, et al., 2003)”.

Impacts of Domestic Violence

Denial of Fundamental Rights

Perhaps the most crucial consequence of violence against women is the denial of fundamental rights, which are affirmed by Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and other international commissions. Domestic violence against women weakens these treaties and also provides difficulties for the corresponding government to cope up with the progressive world (Khatun & Farzana, 2012).

Human Development Goals Undermined

Violence against women undermines progress towards human and economic development. Women’s participation has become key in all sorts of social development programs, be the environmental, for poverty alleviation, or for good governance.

Health Consequence

Domestic violence against women may cause numerous health consequences ranging from non-fatal simple headache to fatal death. Table 1 shows that there are several health outcomes that might happen following domestic violence ranging from simple scratch marks to fatal homicides:

26 Table 1: Health Consequences of Domestic Violence Injury (from lacerations to fractures and internal organs injury) Unwanted pregnancy Gynecological problems STDs including HIV Physical Miscarriage Health Pelvic inflammatory disease Outcome Chronic pelvic pain & Headaches Permanent disabilities Asthma Non-Fatal 1. Irritable bowel syndrome Outcomes Self-injurious behaviors

Depression Fear Anxiety Mental Low self-esteem Health Sexual dysfunction Outcomes Eating problems Obsessive-compulsive disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder Suicidal tendency Suicide Fatal 2. Homicide Outcomes Maternal mortality HIV/AIDS Source: Khatun and Farzana

Impact on Children

If the parents demonstrate insolent behaviors in front of the kids, it imprint a long term effect in their lives. They also behave in the same manner in adulthood and take it as a normal phenomenon. In the childhood they do exhibit health and behavioral problem, remain aloof in the school and cannot mix up with other friends easily. They do suffer from chronic malnutrition, and cannot grow up with full human potentials.

27 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Analysis and Findings of the Study A comparative study of the cases filed in five metropolitan cities In 2016 total number of 2461 cases have been filed in all the metropolitan cities. Out of which lowest number of cases were filed in (110) and highest number of cases were filed in Dhaka (1616).

Rape In 2016 total number of 772 rape cases were filed in all the metropolitan cities. Out of which lowest number of rape cases are reported in Barisal metropolitan city which is 17, Chattogram is 85, is 28 and is 26. Highest number is reported in Dhaka which is 616. Though population wise Dhaka city is more than three times larger than Chattogram, but crime wise it exceeds more than seven times.

Dowry In 2016 total number of 775 dowry related cases were filed in all the metropolitan cities. Out of which lowest number of cases are reported in Khulna metropolitan city and highest number is reported in Dhaka. It is to be mentioned here that, total number of 95 dowry related cases have been filed in Sylhet city is second after Dhaka, which seems to be unusual.

Abduction In 2016 total number of 549 abduction related cases were filed in all the metropolitan cities. Out of which lowest number of cases are reported in Khulna metropolitan city which is 6, Chattogram is 83, Sylhet is 33 and highest number is reported in Dhaka which is 381. It is to be mentioned that, Khulna had only six cases, which is much laser than any other cities.

Findings Amongst all the cases highest number of cases were filed related to dowry (775). Rape (772) and abduction (549) comes in the second and third position respectively.

28 A Case Study of Dhaka City Divisions of Dhaka city Before the data of all police stations are analyzed it is necessary to know about Dhaka Metropolitan Police (DMP). Dhaka DMP has divided the entire Dhaka City in to 8 Divisions. These are Ramna, Lalbag, Motijheel, Uari, Tejgaon, Mirpur, Gulshan and . There are total 49 administrative police stations under this 8 Divisions.

Area versus Population State of the Divisions

The chart shows a comparative state of area and population of 8 divisions. Area wise Uttara is the largest division but houses lowest number of population. Mirpur though stands fifth in size has highest number of population.

Figure 2: Area versus Population of Dhaka City

Area versus Population 120 97.12 100

80 65.53 60 52.29

40 34.27 31 23.22 22.35 16.46 17.68 20 6.82 11 10.79 11.97 13.62 7.7 9.92 0 Uttara Ramna Tejgaon Gulshan Lalbag Motijheel Uari Mirpur

Area - 342.24 Sq Kms Population in Hundred Thousand - 89.01 Source: BBS

Type of the Cases Filed in Police Stations

The total number of cases filed in 49 Police Stations under 8 Divisions have been analyzed. The details of the type of the cases filed in each police station is appended in below:

29 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Table 2: Type of Cases Filled in Police Stations Ser Subjects Type of the cases Physical torture for dowry and assistance Dowry and Attempt to murder for dowry 1. Dowry related Throwing inflammable materials Act of Cases Killing for dowry Committing rape Force abortion Burn for dowry Rape Attempt to rape Rape and provide assistance Causing injury in attempt of rape Rape followed by death Rape and making someone pregnant Rape Rape and Rape and forcing in illegal abortion Rape and force 2. related crime abortion Rape and recording rape scene; spreading in social media Rape and asking ransom Abduction, causing intoxication and rape Compel in prostitution and rape Gang rape and provide assistance Abduction and gang rape 3. Gang rape Gang rape and sexual harassment Abduction, claiming ransom and gang rape Abduction and provide assistance Abduction and rape 4. Abduction Abduction for ransom Abduction for dowry and causing death Abduction, rape and record rape scene Asking ransom 5. Ransom Abduction and asking for ransom Abduction for ransom and proving assistance

30 Table 2: Type of Cases Filled in Police Stations Ser Subjects Type of the cases 6. Physical Causing burn by inflammable substances Tortures Spraying hot water Burning face by spraying hot oil To scorch by hot substance Man handling Causing injury by hot cooking materials 7. Psychological Instigating in committing suicide Torture Provide assistance in committing suicide Source: DMP

Division Wise Cases Filed in the Year-2014 to 2016

The table below shows the number of cases were filed in the year since 2014 till 2016. Out of 4417 cases, 1319 cases were filed in Mirpur which was highest as per number and 236 cases were filed in Lalbag which was lowest.

Table 3: Total Number of Cases Filed in All the Divisions 2014 to 2016 Dowry Rape Abducti & & on Serious Acid Others Ser Divisions Total Dowry Rape & related Injury Throwing means related related cases 1 Ramna 116 102 82 10 - 54 364 2 Lalbag 86 53 71 7 - 19 236 3 Uari 273 177 172 2 1 41 666 4 Motijheel 197 172 168 7 - 68 612 5 Tejgaon 101 168 120 8 - 29 426 6 Mirpur 480 354 278 20 - 187 1319 7 Gulshan 146 124 85 13 - 32 400 8 Uttara 190 94 68 21 - 21 394 1589 1244 1044 89 1 451 4417 Source: DMP

31 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Year Wise Filing of the Cases

Total number of 4417 cases have been filed in all the divisions in from 2014-2016. Out of which 1438 cases have been filed in 2014, 1632 cases in 2015 and 1616 cases in 2016. It is seen that, Uttara division has shown a clear sign of improvement of the situation. On the other hand situation in Tejgaon division has deteriorated with changes of the time.

Figure 3: Year Wise Total number of Cases Filed

1400 1320 1200 1000

800 612 666 600 426 363 393 400 400 236 200 0 Lalbag Ramna Uttara GulshanT ejgaon MotijheelU ari Mirpur 2014 75 131333 1581 36 1061 71 191 468 2015 83 111133 1201 31 1311 69 187 428 2016 78 111177 1151 33 1892 72 288 424 Total 236 363633 3934 00 4266 12 666 1320 Source: DMP

Type of Cases Filed in Each Division: 2014 to 2016

Dowry Related Cases

Total number of 1589 dowry related cases have been filed in 2014 – 2016. Of which 525 cases have been filed in 2014, 509 in 2015 and 554 in 2016 respectively. Uttara division shown a clear sign of improvement whereas Uari shown a sign of deterioration.

Figure 4: Year Wise Total Number of Dowry Related Cases Filed 1589 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 480 600 273 400 101 116 146 190 197 200 86 0 Lalbag TejgaoTejgaonRn amna GulshanU ttaraM otijheel Uari Mirpur Total 2014 25 30 40 55 85 60 80 1505 25 2015 30 28 36 51 78 49 76 1615 09 2016 31 43 39 40 27 88 117 1695 54 Total 86 101011 116 146 1901 97 273 4801 589 Source: DMP

32 Year Wise Sexual Abuse related Cases

Total number of 1244 cases have been filed in 2014-2016 related to sexual abuse in all the divisions. It is to be mentioned that, sex related crime has increased with the passage of the time. Situation has worsen maximum in Motijheel division comparing to the others.

Figure 5: Year wise sexual abuse related cases filed 1400 1200 1000 1244 600 53 94 102 124 168 172 177 354354 400 200 0 Lalbag Uttara RamnaG ulshan Tejgaon Motijheel Uari Mirprpurur Total

2014 11 22 29 28 25 22 39 10323 79 2015 14 18 29 30 44 41 45 92 313 2016 28 54 44 66 99 1099 31 155996 52 Total 53 94 1021 24 1681 72 1773 355441 244 Source: DMP

Year Wise Abduction Related Cases

In 2014-2016 total number of 1044 cases have been filed related to abduction in all the divisions. No mentionable changes have been noticed from 2014 to 2016.

Figure 6: Year wise abduction related cases filed 1200 1044 1000 800 600 278 400 168 172 200 68 71 82 85 120 0 Uttara Lalbag RamnaGulshan Tejgaon Motijheel Uari Mirpur Total

2014 20 25 27 30 40 50 50 90 332 2015 18 29 26 29 37 48 47 96 330 2016 30 17 29 26 43 70 75 92 382 Total 68 71 82 85 120168 172 2781044 Source: DMP

33 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Year Wise Serous Injury Related Cases

In 2014-2016 total number of 89 cases have been filed related to serious injury in all the divisions. It is seen that, the situation has gradually improved from 2014 to 2016.

Figure 7: Year Wise Serious Injury related cases 89 90 Year wise Seroius injury related Cases 2014-2016 80 70 60 50 40 20 21 30 13 20 7 7 8 10 10 2 0 Uari Lalbag MotijheelT ejgaon RamnaG ulshan Mirpur Uttara Total 2014 12 23 24 71 1 14 44 2015 05 50 54 69 63 5 2016 10 04 12 00 11 0 Total 27 77 81 01 32 0 21 89 Source: DMP

Evaluation of the Total Cases Filed

It has been found that, 36% (1589) cases were filed related to dowry and related cases, 28% (1244) cases were rape and rape related cases followed by abduction 24% (1044) and other cases are 10% (451).

Women Support and Investigation Division

Victim Support Centre (VSC)

Our social environment and existing arrangement of the society does not give enough strength to the women to face this stigma. An initiative has been taken to provide 24 hours support to the victims in terms of legal, mental, physiological and other needs by VSC, a ground breaking initiative of Bangladesh Police to address violence against women. It stared its Journey on 17th February 2009 with the help of Police Reform Program. From July, 2011 it is totally run by Bangladesh Police budget. It Provide integrated services like counseling, medical help legal assistance and

34 guidance on access to justice. Its vision is “To introduce women friendly policing system and to ensure greater empowerment, security and total welfare of women in Dhaka Metropolitan area” (Police, n.d.).

Number of Victims Provided With the Support

The total number of victims provided with support by VSC is given below:

Table 4: Number of victims provided with the support by VSC Support to lost Date Cases filed Others Total Victims 2012 171 65 210 446 2013 268 146 214 628 2014 214 99 502 815 2015 178 151 273 602 2016 143 172 117 432 Total 974 633 1316 2923 Source: VSC

Summary of Findings

After having analyzed the data collected from all the metropolitan cities for the year 2016 and Dhaka Metropolitan city for the year 2014 up to 2016 the author came out with following findings:

• In 2016, total number of 2461 cases have been filed related to women violence in all the metropolitan cities other than Rajshahi. Out of which highest number of cases were filed in Dhaka and lowest number of cases were filed in Barisal city respectively. • Amongst all the cases highest number of cases were filed related to dowry. Rape and abduction were in the second and third position respectively. In all the cases Dhaka had highest number cases filed. • Maximum number of cases were filed for Dowry and related cases. It constitutes 36% percent of total cases. Highest number

35 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

of dowry related cases were filed in Mirpur division which is 10.86% of the total cases. Lowest number of dowry related cases were filed in Lalbag which is only 1.94%. • Rape and related cases ranks second in the list and it constitutes 28% of total cases filed. Mirpur division having 8.01% cases top in the list. Having only 1.19% cases Lalbag had lowest number of cases. • Abduction constitutes 24% of total cases filed. Mirpur tops in the list having 6.29%. Uttra ranks last in the list having 1.53%. • In 2014 and 2016 there was no case of acid throwing. Only one case of acid throwing was in 2015. It can be said, government stance on acid throwing helped improving the situation to a great deal. • In 2016, 49 police stations under 8 divisions have dealt with 1616 cases and VSC alone has dealt with 432 cases which is more than 25% of total cases filed. It can be assumed that, police stations need to give more attention in capacity building. • Only ten cases related to physical torture have been reported in 2016 in all the divisions. It can be assumed that, other than extreme cases, offence related to physical tortures are not reported. • VSC mainly deals with the cases referred by the police stations depending on the merit of the cases and its sensitivity. Moreover it deals with the cases of missing baby/child, repressed domestic help, disabled/handicraft victim and escaped victim from own resident. • Maximum respondents of VSC ages below 18 constitutes 63% of total cases. Most of the cases as the victims are minor in nature, their educational qualification, marital status and other important information are not endorsed in the concern document. • A good number of victims taking support from VSC are sent to NGOs for rehabilitation. VSC also monitor their where about time to time and provide further assistance if needed.

36 • VSC deals with rape related cases substantially. Most of the cases they are assigned with very sensitive and important cases of the state which needs delicate and intelligent handling. Recently, VSC has dealt with two rape related cases took place in hotel Rain tree, Gulshan. • It should also be noted that, a perpetrator carrying out economical and psychological violence against women in Bangladesh has got no laws to be dealt with. For this, these types of tortures normally remain unreported. • It is learnt that, Dhaka Metropolitan Police never carried out any analysis of the cases filed in different division. So, they have no idea why in a particular division a particular type of violence is taking place, the reasons for this and who are the perpetrators. • The Director of Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association (BNWLA) opined that, there is a need of confidence building program to bridge the gap between general mass and police. General people has reservation regarding professionalism, sincerity, dedication and capability of handling the cases related to the subject. They have also reiterated regarding logistical difficulty of law enforcing agencies in terms of vehicle and forces. • The cases filed against victims were not always genuine. As per the version of Deputy Police Commissioner, women support and investigation division Farida Yeasmin a good number of fake cases are filed to harass the opponent and to take the revenge of old rivalry.

Strength and Weaknesses of Existing Legislations and Remedial Measures to Overcome

• Existing National Legislations • National Women Protection Laws and policies • Special Courts

37 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

• Special Tribunals • Village Courts Institutional Support Services

• The National Women Development Policy 2011 • Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association • Inter- ministerial Advisory Committee • Nari Nirjaton Protirodh Cell Strength and Weaknesses of the Existing Legislature

Strength The Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MOWCA) has a Violence Against Women (VAW) Unit, which monitors incidents of violence and submits reports to the National Committee on Violence against Women. Bangladesh government is committed to ensure medical treatment, police assistance, legal support and psychosocial rehabilitation at one of the six One Stop centers in the country. The Bangladeshi Government is aware of its commitments to prevent VAW and has taken multiple steps to ensure that the human rights of women are respected, protected and fulfilled. Governmental structures have been gradually adopted through legislative reform to ensure the inclusion of violence against women on the agendas. Legislation has been ordained to prevent violence and discrimination against women to break the tradition of treating women as property. The Bangladeshi government further passed the Citizens Act, which allows women to transfer citizenship to their children; the Prevention of Cruelty to Women and Children Act; the Acid Crime Control Act, Child Marriage Restraint Act, Dowry Prohibition Act (1980), National Human Rights Act (2009); the Domestic Violence Act (2010. The Bangladeshi government obligates itself to respect, protect and fulfil the rights of women and to work towards the elimination of violence against women through international conventions, agreements and treaties.

38 Withdrawing reservations of article 2 and article 16.1[c] of CEDAW will allow full implementation of the convention and for the promotion of women`s full satisfaction of their rights including those related to family life. Bangladeshi women’s organizations, including the Bangladesh Women Lawyers Association (BNWLA) and Mahila Porshod, a leading women’s organization in Bangladesh, remain very active in providing different forms of assistance to women, including shelters and rescue centers.

Weaknesses According to many women`s groups and NGO`s, the state of Bangladesh harbours a narrow definition of violence against women, which brings fatal implications for its policies. Only gross violence such as rape and murder are paid attention to. Violence at the domestic level, within the limits of the family, is ignored, and thus the root cause of violence against women is overlooked. Not all forms of violence against women are recognized. Many argues Bangladesh is failing to respect the rights of women as it does not consider all forms of violence against women, including sexual harassment at the workplace or religious induced violence sanctioning immoral behaviour and fatwas which remain outside the circumference of the law. Reilly in 2009 said. The CEDAW committee further notes that there is a continuing high prevalence of trafficking for the sexual exploitation of women and girls in Bangladesh. Prostitution is another issue in Bangladesh. It is neither banned nor recognized. There are eight one-stop crisis centres throughout the country, which provide medical treatment and legal support to victims of violence against women. The committee on CEDAW reports notes a lack of counselling services and an insufficient number of shelters in all parts of the country, including rural areas. Due to a lack of government services and support, the founding member of Women for Women, Rowshan Jahan, said that “’though there are some strict laws, violence against women is still high compared to other countries of the world as the laws are not being enforced strictly and dowry and early marriage continue to afflict the people.”

39 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

Recommendations In 2014 -2016, total number of 4417 cases from police stations and 432 cases from VSC indicates that, in an average 5 cases were filed in a day in Dhaka city related to women violence. These all were reported cases. There are more cases remained unreported. The data both from police stations and VSC were analyzed. Depending on those following recommendations are made:

• Dhaka Metropolitan Police Headquarters does not have any research and analysis wing. Authorization of a research wing could have contributed positively to adopt appropriate discourse to deal with subject.

• VSC has got total number of 68 manpower which is less strength than a police station. Alone they have dealt with more than 25% of the total cases of Dhaka city with their limited resources and manpower in 2016. Measures can be taken to increase their capability in terms of manpower and logistical aspects. Increasing capability of law enforcing agencies in terms of infrastructures, manpower and logistical aspects is also a call of the time.

• Adoption of prevention strategies than suppression. The factors contributing to VAW should be adequately addressed. Women must be empowered in terms of education, economic emancipation, freedom of action and right to take decision under the auspicious authority of the government.

• Area wise Mirpur division stands as the fifth and population wise largest amongst all the divisions. But, highest number of cases were reported in terms of sexual violence, dowry, abduction and other cases. A separate research may be carried out to find out the reasons.

40 Conclusion

Women has innumerable sacrifice in all sphere of social and family life. But from the childhood they experience a different dealings from society and the more they grow the more this changes get prominent. This society views a male children differently than a girl and male children enjoys an unwritten supremacy over them. This social system slow and gradually establishes men supremacy over women and state recognizes it as a normal phenomenon. This is how the seed of becoming violent gets recognition at state level. Women also take it as a normal behavior. The women become prey of domestic violence by their husband as a routine matter. Social discrimination, lower level of education, exposure to child maltreatment, witnessing family violence, antisocial personality disorder, harmful use of alcohol, having multiple partner, gender equality and the patriarchal social system are some of the factors contribute to domestic violence in different forms in the society. In Bangladesh, though the magnitude of some of the Domestic Violence against Women is highly alarming, till now there is no organized information on the extent, nature and context of it.

The Government of Bangladesh is highly committed to eliminate all forms of violence against women and has prioritized the establishment of legal frameworks and institutional arrangements to support victims. Bangladesh is a signatory of United Nations CEDAW 1979 against Women. In October 2010 Bangladesh has passed the Domestic Violence (Protection and Prevention) bill in parliament. Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is putting in their effort to grow a general awareness to keep the violence in low ebb. It is felt that, the NGOs and other private organizations also can contribute substantially against this social menace.

Bibliography

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41 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

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42 14. Government, B., n.d. Dhaka. [Online]Available at: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Dhaka [Accessed 3 June 2017].

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43 Domestic Violence Against Women in Bangladesh: Selected Case Studies of Dhaka City

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44 Author

Brigadier General Abdul Quayyam Mollah, psc was commissioned in the corps of Infantry in the year of 1990 with 22nd BMA Long Course from Bangladesh Military Academy. In his long illustrious carrier, the officer undergone many courses at home and abroad other than the professional and basic courses. The officer did company commander course from Malaysia, Intelligent analysis course form Thailand and Transnational Security Cooptation course from United States of America. He is a graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur .The officer has served in various staff, command and instructional appointment in long tour of his carrier. He was platoon and term commander in Bangladesh Military Academy. He commanded a Division support Battalion at the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. He was a grade one staff officer of an Infantry Division. As colonel the officer served as Colonel General Staff in an intelligent organization. He has also attended number of seminar and symposium both at home and abroad. The officer commanded and Infantry Brigade for long two years before assuming present appointment. He is an alumni of Asia Pacific Centre for Security Cooperation, Hawaii, and, USA. He is a keen golfer and loves travelling.

45 URBAN CRIME IN BANGLADESH: IMPLICATIONS FOR NON TRADITIONAL SECURITY THREAT IN SELECTED SLUMS IN DHAKA CITY

Brigadier General Md Tajul Islam Thakur, ndc, afwc, psc, G

Introduction

­The year 2007 heralded a new era when for the first time in the human history majority of the world’s population started living in cities. The United Nations (UN) projects the world’s urban population to grow by 2 billion before 2030.1 More than 90% of this growth will take place in the least developed countries, and will be concentrated in the bleakest parts of the city; human settlements known as slums. Already nearly a third (32%) of the world’s population and more than three-fourths (78%) of the least developed countries’ urban population live in slums.2 Today’s slums are unprecedented in their sheer magnitude, their rapidity of growth, and their worldwide distribution. They represent a fundamental transformation of the physical and social environment of urban life and human health. Urbanization, urban violence, and urban poverty are presumed to draw increased attention of security and development establishments in industrializing or developing countries about the city and the implications for national and international peace and security.3

After Arab Spring and its subsequent residual effect in Arab world, the world is more often facing nontraditional than traditional security threat. Many a time nontraditional security (NTS) threat surpassing traditional security (TS), often and on the demarcating line between these two becomes blurred. Perceived non-traditional security threats of twenty first century for Bangladesh (BD) perspective, in the wake of strong globalization era

1. UN-HABITAT State of the World’s Cities Report, 2008/09, London: Earth Scan Publications 2. UN World Urbanization Prospect, The 2014 Revision, UN,NewYork 3. Muggah Robert, Researching the Urban Dilemma: Urbanization, Poverty and Violence, IDRC, Canada, 2012

46 are; extreme poverty, Internally Displaced Population (IDP), Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, law and order, widespread social violence, extra- parliamentary political instability and cross border insurgents.4 Poverty, IDP, law and order and social violence; these phenomenon are closely associated with slum crime and have certain implications on NTS threat for Bangladesh.

Fostered by prospects of economic opportunity, conflict-related displacement and environmental pressures in rural areas, Dhaka city is growing by an estimated 0.8 million people each year.5 Majority of this influx settle in the slums. With more than 40 percent of population below the age of 15, many of them destitute, our cities have become densely concentrated centers of unemployed young men.6 This is a combustible mix that can intensify vio­ lent crime, links to transnational organized criminal syndicates and political instability. Anecdotal accounts among city dwellers across Bangladesh indicate that ur­ban crime rates have increased rapidly in the last two decades, contributing to pervasive fears that impede commerce, fray social capital, and undermine nor­mal urban activity.

Considering the steady development prospect, change in urban demography and consequent rise of slum dweller and slum crime may surface as one of the prime concern for our overall national security from NTS threat perspective. Hence the issue demands immediate attention. We have to appreciate the security concern and evolve appropriate strategy to combat existing and potentially worsening security threat emanated from urban slum crime in order to strengthen our national security. The significance of the research lies in establishing link between urban slum crime and NTS threat of Bangladesh, suggesting pragmatic measures to offset the adverse effects thereby bolster our national security.

4. Abdur Rob Khan, Globalization and Non- Traditional Security in South Asia, Academic Press and Publisher Limited, Dhaka,2001 5. Erik German and Solana Pyne, Dhaka: Fastest Growing Megacity in the World, September 2010 6. Urbanization and Migration Study in Bangladesh 2016 Dhaka, UNFP Bangladesh

47 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

A Contemporary Perspective on Slum: Challenges of NTS Threat and Security Concerns Emanating from Slum Crime

Slum of Bangladesh: An Overview

Bangladesh is the 12th densely populated country in the world with 1.37 percent population growth per year.7 About 160 million people live in this country including 47 million poor and 7.8 million slum people. In addition, it is a “Low human development country” and ranked 147 with Human Development Index (HDI) score 0.512.8 However, Slum population increases in Bangladesh rapidly during 1986-2014 periods. In 2014, the number of slum population stood at 7.8 million which is 839 % higher than the number of 1986. During 1990, the counted slum dwellers were 2.57 million. Increasing rate is alarmingly high after the year of 2000.9 Basically, slum population increases for various reasons such as river erosion, driven out, abandoned, insufficient income, social insecurity and job seeking etc. Among the seven divisions of Bangladesh, the worse situation has seen in Dhaka where about 4.28 million (55% of total slum population) live in slum. The second highest proportion slum dwellers (20%) live in Chittagong, the second largest city of Bangladesh followed by Sylhet (8.3%), Rajshahi (7.1%), Khulna (5.7%). Only 3.9%, the lowest percentage lives in .10

Challenges of NTS Threat

The term NTS threats and challenges have become the sources of increasing concern around the world after the end of cold war. Many intellectuals even believe that these concerned become dominant after 9/11. Bangladesh is also no exception to it. Now the question is, what are they and how do they differ from ‘old’ or ‘traditional’ security threats

7. United Nations World Population Prospects Revised 2014 8. Bangladesh Human Development Index Report 2016,UNDP 9. Mohammad Shahidul Hasan Swapan, Atiq Uz Zaman, Tahmina Ahsan and Fahmid Ahmed “Transforming Urban Dichotomies and Challenges of South Asian Megacities: Rethinking Sustainable Growth of Dhaka, Bangladesh,” Urban Science, MDPI, 2017 10. Hossain Basharat. Do the Slum Dwellers Enjoy the Basic Constitutional and Economic Rights as Citizen of Bangladesh. Asian Business Consortium 2014.

48 and challenges? The concept of security challenges has to be restructured, as today’s non-traditional challenges will be traditional challenges in the future.11

Traditionally, national security is defined in terms of the ability of a state to protect against external threats, its interests, that include territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence. However in this web of international relations, the threat to security is not from one nation to another but also from various non- state sources of insecurity. There is a growing debate on the need to expand the traditional concept of security to address the nontraditional threats and so develop a more comprehensive approach to security.

Sources of Insecurity Emanating from Crime in Slum: Dhaka City Perspective

Weakening Economic Prospects The upsurge in urban slum crime is aggravating other sources of instability. It deters the building of sus­tainable political institutions, economic growth, and social reconciliation. These concerns, in turn, de­press both domestic and international investment and further weaken economic prospects.

Slums are Growing Faster than Expected It is noticed that urban slums of major cities of Bangladesh particularly Dhaka are growing faster than expected. And that is how the balance of country’s poverty is shifting rapidly from the countryside to cities. Most dangerous part is that there is a vacuum developing, because local authorities have no access to the many slums of Dhaka city.

Anti-Social Behaviour is on Rise

Slums are the places where all the evil minded people get the opportunity to come together, where peace and security is elusive and where young people cannot be protected. As such, due to the extreme inequality and 11. Workshop Paper ‘Non-traditional Security Challenges in South Asia:2025; Dhaka, November 2009.

49 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City idleness anti-social behavior is rising and which is ultimately hampering our national security.

Slum Dwellers are not Nostalgic about their Rural Background

The majority of slum dwellers in Dhaka city identify themselves with the city rather than with their native place and plan to settle permanently in the city. They greatly value improving their working situation through getting a better job. Many of the younger generation, irrespective of gender, income level and educational attainment express their regard for education and foresee upward social mobility for their children by educating their offspring as much as possible.

Threat to Environmental Health Hazard Poor sanitary conditions and poor quality of water lead to illnesses like diarrhea and other water borne diseases, affecting the life expectancy of slum dwellers12. In dense, overcrowded urban conditions it is often difficult for people to find space to build latrines. The problem is made worse during the rainy season when rubbish and excrement are washed into cramped living areas. Diseases spread rapidly among the crowded conditions and the little money that slum dwellers earn often has to be spent on medicines to help the sick recover.

Breeding Ground for Social Problems High unemployment often causes men to stay around the home growing increasingly frustrated with their pathetic situation and the worsening poverty. Cramped conditions mean that there is nowhere to go when tensions rise, a factor that regularly leads to domestic violence. Sometimes the situation goes to the other extreme, where people abandon their homes, lured by the prospect of oblivion through alcohol or drug abuse. Once people develop such social problems, they fall deeper into poverty and the problem multiplies.

12. Bangladesh Urban Health Survey 2013: Preliminary Results, October 2014

50 Child Labour and Lack of Education

Many children in the slums start work without getting any education.13 They make money by rag picking (trawling through rubbish dumps to retrieve anything that can be sold), selling newspapers in traffic jams, peddling drugs or begging. They are at risk of exploitation as well as all the health problems that accompany their lifestyles. Incest and abuse can occur and child marriages are still encouraged in some areas.

Internal and External Corruption

Some people manage to be allies of certain politicians and gain control of sizeable chunks of the community land and become slumlords.14 They have little empathy with the slum residents and exploit them by charging highly inflated prices for illegal electricity and water supplies or for constructing huts. The sheer volume of people living in slums causes them to be obvious targets for politicians wanting to increase their percentage of the vote. Slum inhabitants are often promised all kinds of support and improvements in return for political allegiance, but their trust is regularly abused. Potential Threat Posed by Slum Crime and its Impact on National Security of Bangladesh

Potential NTS Threat Posed by Slum Crime Urban People are Exposed to Crime and Violence A survey on crime and violence in four slums of Dhaka conducted in 2014/2015 provides new data on the prevalence and characteristics of crime and violence. An astounding 93 percent of respondents in the survey reported that they had been affected by crime and violence over the last 12 months with 33 different types of crime identified by the respondents of four different areas are Shahid Nagar, Rayer Bazar, Muhammadpur and Pallabi.15

13. Kamruzzaman Md and Hakim Md Abdul “Child Criminalization at Slum Areas in Dhaka City” published by American Institute of Science 2015 14. “Harsh realities of slum children in Dhaka” Newsletter UNICEF Bangladesh , Issue 25 June 2014 15. Dhaka: ‘Improving Living Conditions for the Urban Poor’, Chapter 5: Crime and Violence and the Urban Poor, The World Bank Office, Dhaka, 2007.

51 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

Most of the crimes are reported to occur within the slum, and about 35 percent within the household compound. Other high risk areas are the roadside, markets, and the route to and from work. Violence against women, particularly domestic violence, is very high and likely underreported in the survey.

Threat to Garment Sector

In Bangladesh, almost all the garments factories are located in the cities, especially in Dhaka city. The huge number of young garment workers are prone to unrest or violence. For example, on May 2012, there had been a wave of fierce class struggle in the Bangladesh garment industry: around 4000 factories in Dhaka went on wildcat strike, 16 factories were burnt down by strikers and hundreds more ransacked and looted, pitched battles were fought with cops and private security forces in workplaces and workers’ neighborhoods, main roads were blocked.16 Casualties include 3 workers shot dead, thousands injured, several thousand jailed. The Government eventually felt compelled to bring in the Army to restore ‘order’.

Political Instability

Factionalism and narrow-minded interest are often blamed to be more significant factors in party politics than national interests. The mainstream political parties are believed to patronize some armed cadres to oppress the political rivals non-politically.17 This, in turn, severely degrades the nation’s security environment and exposes the weaknesses to all opportunists. In most of the cases poor slum dwellers, particularly the youth are allegedly used as tools to achieve the goal of ill motivated political leaders.

Threat Posed Due to Arms and Drug Trafficking through Bangladesh

Bangladesh is positioned between the “Golden Triangle” and the “Golden Crescent” the two major narcotic growing areas of the world. The drug

16. Garment workers revolt in Bangladesh’ at libcom.org, Internet accessed on 28 June 2017, at http:// libcom.org/news/article.php/bangladesh-garment-revolt-140706. 17. Datta Sreeradha, Bangladesh: A Fragile Democracy, Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis, pp 67-72

52 dealers allegedly use the ports and airports of Bangladesh as transit routes for drugs. And a majority of the youth drawn into these gangs to be used as carrier is from the dense slum locations.

Considerable Threat to Law and Order Deterioration

The strength, equipment, training, and morale of the law enforcing agencies are believed to be very poor to effectively control and deter anti-social and terrorist activities. An alleged triangular nexus among the underworld criminal, corrupt law-enforcing agencies and power hungry political elites in the country are appended in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Triangular Nexus in Slum Resulting Insecurity

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Threat to Health Securities of the Nation The slum dwellers feel that they are deprived of proper health care and treatment facilities. Cost can also be prohibitive for the poor. For example, while hospitals are supposed to be free, slum dwellers report that they are required to make payments.

53 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

Threat to Education Security/Indoctrination Towards Anti Government Education System The right to is written into the Constitution, a right for all children to receive basic primary and lower secondary education (World Bank, 2015)18. The urban poor rarely send their children to school due to inadequate school facilities, distance to school, and lack of funds for the tuition, lack of parents’ awareness, inappropriate school timing, and a floating/migratory lifestyle. Lower illiteracy rate makes the slum people more prone to anti-social and criminal activities.19 Young people are more inclined to delinquent peer group than in the study. A culture of impunity makes it more lucrative for the slum dwellers to indulge in anti- government practices.

Impact of Slum Crime on National Security

Human Security Aspect

Human Development Hazard: Slums are the products of failed policies, bad governance, corruption, inappropriate regulations, dysfunctional land markets, unresponsive financial systems and a fundamental lack of political will. Each of these failures adds to the toll of people already deeply burdened with poverty.

Social Security Aspect

Impact on Social Safety Net: The vulnerability in urban slum of Dhaka city areas is exacerbated­ because of higher rates of violence and generally weaker community ties. The social safety nets, coming from programs implemented by governments or nongov­ernmental organizations (NGOs), tend to be less present­ in urban settings.20

18. World Bank Group; International Monetary Fund. 2015. “Global Monitoring Report 2014/2015 : Ending Poverty and Sharing Prosperity”. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. © World Bank. 19. Stuart Cameron “Education in slums of Dhaka, Bangladesh” Paper prepared for the 13th UKFIET International Conference on Education and Development, 2017 20. BIDS, Impact Evaluation of Social Safety Nets Initiatives, Final Report, April 2013

54 Impact of Slum Crime and Violence on Social Security: There is lack of social cohesion and considerable levels of fear and mistrust among the slum dwellers. They remain afraid of moving about their community after dark – particularly women. Whilst crime, violence, and fear are ‘routinized’ and part of daily life, they do nevertheless have an enormous impact on the poor’s wellbeing and their impacts on children are of particular concern.

Political Security Aspect

De-facto Leadership Dilemma: Lack of Policy: There exists a serious lack of an appropriate country-wide policy dealing specifically with the urban poor. Besides, appropriate guide lines for urban slum settlements are often being omitted from official policy papers or government analysis.21 Policy vacuum allows local hooligans, political leaders and landlords to set up their own jurisdiction inside and around slum area. These create serious threat to security situation.

Marginalizing the Rule of Law and State Agencies by Politico Criminal Nexus: Underworld criminal’s through their political nexus does not allow the state mechanism and state agencies to function for the safety and welfare of the citizens. Few even take the role of politician through political rehabilitation when he reaches to the status of “White Collar” criminal.22 Political-criminal nexus forms a hidden administration both at local and central level that marginalizes the rule of law and legitimate state agencies.

Impact on Economic Security

The crime and violence influence the economic emaciation in the slum area.23 In a country like Bangladesh, as crime increases, access to financing declines; spending on formal and informal security measures increases and

21. The Urban Spectrum, Metropolition to Mofussil. Edited by Hossain Zillur Rahman , PPRC 2016 22. Dr. Kudrat-E-Khuda Babu “ Who will stop white-collar crimes in Bangladesh? Editorial, the Daily Independent January 2017 23. Buvinic, M, Morrison, A, Violence as an Obstacle to Development1999.

55 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City workers’ productivity declines.24 This greatly affects national security as Robert McNamara said, “Security is not a standing army though it may include it, security is not military hardware though it may encompass it, security is the economic development.”25

Impact on Environmental Security

The poverty, inadequate food and shelter, insecure tenure, physical crowding, poor waste disposal, unsafe working conditions, inadequate services, overuse of harmful substances, and environmental pollution in urban slum of Dhaka city generates a considerable security threat to the community, on to the personal and as a whole to the environment of the urban residents. And thereby, environmental hazards in urban areas mainly affect low-income people-especially women, children, and migrants-the people who are least able to avoid the hazards and or least able to deal with the illness or injury they cause and thereby affecting the human security of the nation.

Way Forward to Combat Urban Slum Crime in Reducing National Security Hazard

Policy Reform Ensuring Good Governance

Adoption and implementation of a comprehensive urban policy and improvement of urban management within a local government system is perhaps the best possible path to address the urban insecurity issues against the back drop of high population growth in urban slum.26 And such policy should essentially address the burning issues like social, economic, environmental and health hazards of urban slum dwellers.

24. Crime , Violence, and Development: Trends ,Cost, and Policy Options in the Caribbean. May 3, 2007 25. Mely Caballero Anthony An Introduction to NTS Studies-A Transitional Approach, SAGE Publications Limited, Singapore, 2016 26. Interview with Hon’bl Mayor M Anisul Haq, Dhaka North City Corporation on 01 June 2017

56 Formulation of Urban Slum Management Policy Urban slums manifest a different scenario in the community, service and security aspect. At present, Government machineries, Municipal Authorities, NGOs, Corporate Societies and other stake holders have their own agenda and goal regarding slum development. Absence of integrated policy and guideline made these efforts disjointed and haphazard. Following steps may be taken to formulate a comprehensive slum management policy:

• A well knitted policy guideline for the management of Dhaka city should be formulated considering the demographic zones and economic stature including slum policy as a separate head. • City’s service providers, such as: PDB, WASA, RAJUK etc. should also have explicit policy and action plan how those objectives would be enabled. • National level policy should delineate the spectrum of activity for the NGOs and Corporate society. • Armed Forces and other internal law enforcing agencies and Civil defence should have structured and integrated policy to have a proactive security environment. Formulation of Slum Crisis Management Committee At present, National level security and disaster management committees are in vogue but these are not potent to efficiently control slum related violence and crime. The committee should be capable of addressing the entire issue from the perspective of development and security simultaneously.

Coordination among State Agencies Undeniably, maintaining social, economic and environmental security concern is a gigantic task and it is not possible for the urban authorities alone to handle it. Assuring proper co-ordination among ministries, divisions, departments, regulatory bodies, and faster decision-making in the implementation process will enhance the development work in the urban slum area27. 27. Interview with Hossain Zillur Rahman on 17 May 2017.

57 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

Tackling Corruption and Capacity Building of Local Government

Tackling corruption of government agencies responsible for facilitating slum improvement need to be an urgent priority. In this regard, top priority should be placed on capacity building of the local government institutions to handle the problems generated out of the unplanned urban slum development.28

Judicial and Legal Reforms There is need for capacity building in the judicial system in order to ensure speedy disposal of cases involved in slum crime. Archaic laws, especially those related with violence and crime should be updated in line with the needs of the day.

Short Term Strategies for Slum Crime Reduction

Development of Education Slum dwellers are devoid of quality education and vocational training. Following steps may be taken to develop education in the slums:

• City Corporation and NGOs should have a coordinated approach to establish school in the slum areas and introduce Compulsory Primary Education Program and the Food-For-Education (FFE) program.

• Significant improvement in vocational education may be introduced by private system of vocational education and training.

Employment Generations and Imparting Skill Training to the Young People of Slum Areas In the case of Dhaka, the challenge is to create enough remunerative employment opportunities for all the new entrants and the unemployed.29 The priority areas are:

28. Interview with Maj Gen Md Mizanur Rahman Ex DG Ansar and VDP on 07 May 2017 29. Interview with Mr Anisul Huq, Hon’ble Mayor, Dhaka North City Corporation on 10 May 2017

58 Encourage Growth through New Job: New areas for employment generation should be identified so that young and new migrants can be absorbed periodically.

Improving Skill of Workers: State Agencies should encourage Private sector and NGOs for capacity building of the work force, by mobilizing substantial resources. The training will raise productivity and increase the income earning potential of the urban poor.

Increasing Access to Credit: It is estimated that some 19.3 million individuals received help from various micro-finance programs in 2004.30 Much of the micro lending is done through four NGOs, Grameen Bank, BRAC, ASA and Proshika, which accounted for approximately 86 percent of micro-finance lending. State Agencies need to involve State Banks to promote micro-credit side by side encourage other entrepreneurs in promoting self-employment.

Comprehensive Approach to Face the Slum Crime Related Security Challenges

Police and Judicial system may use coercive methods to control the slum crime, but long term resilience needs comprehensive approach as follows:

• Slum area may be provided with a separate police station basing on the density of population and frequency of crime. Community policing may be introduced. • Security Agencies should work with communities and NGOs to identify the communities’ priorities, problems, and strengths. • Security Agencies, City Corporation (CC) and NGOs should launch legal awareness, literacy and advocacy campaign to educate slum people on the crime, violence and legal rights.

30. Dewan A. H Alamgir State of Micro Finance in Bangladesh Prepared for Institution of Microfinance ,2009.

59 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

Preparation of Armed Forces for Military Operations Other Than War (MOOTW)

Armed forces may be deputed to control the situation while the insecurity is of larger extent. Armed Forces should prepare as follows: • Doctrine of MOOTW should include the procedure and resources allocation to restore the slum originated mass violence. Army units in the Dhaka city should conduct coordinated training exercise with Police and RAB. • Armed Forces Division along with CC may organize seminar and workshop to generate awareness against violence. • Armed Forces may plan to launch medical camp, security awareness campaign and service providing program to establish rapport with the slum dwellers.

Strengthening Rural-Urban Linkage

The urban population in Bangladesh have grown from 5 percent in 1971 to 27 percent in 2008.31 Following steps may be taken to foster rural bond of the slum dwellers:

• State agencies may take rehabilitation programme for the migrants identifying the root causes. • Municipality along with NGO and State Agencies should formulate the plan to resettle the people in extreme cases, and prepare database to keep an accountability.

Discouraging the Creation of New Slum

To discourage the creation and expansion of the slum area in Dhaka city, following steps may be taken:

• City Corporation (CC) may issue an Identity Card of the slum dwellers for each slum separately to keep the account. 31. Tavares-Goodman, Nadia, ‘Review of UNICEF Interventions in the Urban Sector and Potential Future Interventions’, UNICEF Bangladesh, February 2010.

60 • Specific areas may be acquired simultaneously to accommodate or shift new migrants. • Establishing of new industrial area and Export Economic Zone may be encouraged outside of the Dhaka city. These will attract the job seekers to move out of the city.

Action by the Civil Society

Civil society may assist in the development of the slum people in the following ways:

• Civil society may create a general awareness against crime and violence amongst slum dwellers, by cultural function, seminar, sharing of experience and motivational lecture by celebrities. • Civil society can effectively assist State Agencies in breaching gap with the NGOs and INGOs. • Civil society may promote anti-violence and anti-social campaign in the slum area. Long Term Strategies to Reduce Slum Crime

Upgrading the Existing Slum In South Africa, for example, there have been some very successful initiatives in which people devoid of urban services were supplied with water, sanitation, and access to housing. These activities should be undertaken cooperatively among all parties involved-residents, community groups, businesses as well as local and national authorities if applicable, for Dhaka City.

Balanced Urban, Rural and Slum Development Absence of coordinated strategy engenders inequalities in urban and rural development. Slums have the worst indicator values of all surveyed areas.

61 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

Table 2: Comparison of Indicators for Urban, Rural and Slum Development Slum Worse Serial Indicator Urban Rural Slum Than Rural Areas (%) 1. Under 5 Mortality Rate(Per 1000) 53 66 95 44% 2. Skilled Attendant at Birth 45% 19% 15% -21% 3. Improved Sanitation Facility 54% 54% 09% -83% Net Attendance Ratio in Primary 4. Education 84% 81% 65% -20% Net attendance ratio in secondary 5. Education 53% 48% 18% -63% 6. Dropout in Primary Education 01% 01% 08% 700% Youth literacy (women aged 15- 7. 24 years) 77% 70% 51% -27% Adult literacy (women aged 15-49 8. years) 66% 48% 35% -27% 9. Birth registration 53% 54% 28% -48% Source: MICS Bangladesh 2009

This information empirically reflects the development inequalities in Slum areas, that influence insecurity in municipal area. Following approach should be taken to reduce exclusion of slum population: • Basic needs of slum people need to be addressed with a comprehensive framework. • Security Agencies should formulate criterion in providing stable law and order situation so that UN organizations and NGOs may undertake development project. • Separate development framework should be formulated basing on the demography and prevailing inequalities of the different slums in the Dhaka city.

Alternative Townships Development Several urban conglomerates having big industrial areas considered was “Delhi model,” under which satellite townships can be developed in places outside the existing urban areas. Similar project of Satellite Township may be constructed with following options:

62 • The construction and maintenance of the plots should be within the economic reach of slum dwellers. State Agencies with Dhaka City Corporation and the traditional sector that controls land should make a combined effort for the construction of satellite township. • An effective system of controlling and inspecting the use of land must be created and maintained. Involved community should be taken on board in controlling security and administrative aspect of the residential area. • Community monitoring and persuading system should be evolved to prevent excessive density.

Re-locating Garments Factories

At the beginning of the year 2000, RMG sector provided 76 percent of Bangladesh’s foreign earnings.32 RMGs employed about 200,000 workers in 1985 which grew to approximately 2 million in 2003.33 Much of this job growth has been in Dhaka, which now employs about one-fourth of all garment workers. Most garment workers are women (approximately 90 percent), who support an estimated 10 million dependents.34 Moreover, related service activities are estimated to employ another 2 to 5 million people depending on the source.35 At microeconomic level, the financial contribution of Dhaka’s Garment workers accounts for one third of their family income. These garments are another source of insecurity because indiscriminate labour agitations have ubiquitous effect on the security situation. In 2013, RMG workers have gone berserk and vandalized 10 factories and 120 vehicles for the demand of pay hike.36 This incident

32. A National Strategy for Economic Growth, Poverty Reduction and Social Development (Government of Bangladesh, 2003) 33. BGMEA Publications 2015, “Market Access Guide to the New and Emerging Market for BD woven Garments Manufacturers and Exporters.” 34. Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016, Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change. A joint publication of the World Bank Group and the International Monetary Fund © 2016 35. BGMEA Publications October-December 2016, The Apperal Story- Unstoppable Bangladesh 36. ‘Garment workers revolt in Bangladesh’ at libcom.org, Internet accessed on 28 June 2017, at http:// libcom.org/news/article.php/bangladesh-garment-revolt-140706.

63 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City projects the extent of unrest and violence that may take by the agitated workers. Following approach may be undertaken to reduce the risk in RMG sector:

• Government of Bangladesh may relocate RMG factories in the outskirt of the Dhaka city. State Agencies may launch a Private- Public Partnership programme combining Private sector and workers for developing residential areas for the workers.

• The whole relocation process will involve budgetary allocation and simultaneous prosecution. Ministry of Labour and Employment and Ministry of Industries should make a comprehensive time bound plan for the shifting of factory and workers.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made to reduce the crime in urban slum with a view to minimizing the national security hazards:

Adopting a Community Based Approach

Community based approach should be followed in addressing crime and violence in the slum area.

• Political leaders combined with CC should attempt to build the virtually non-existent trust between security agencies and the communities, to empower communities and act together with the police to prevent and reduce crime. • Security Agencies should work with communities and NGOs to identify the communities’ priorities, problems, and strengths. • Security Agencies should take multiple projects, such as: motivational campaign, Vigilant patrolling to improve resilience of the community against crime.

64 Implementing Integrated Slum Upgrading Approaches

Physical upgrading of public and slum spaces will promote community appropriation of these spaces and prevent crime and violence from occurring in these places. This would include:

• Selection of ‘hotspot’ areas for intervention. • Diagnosis of relevant problems and of neighborhood perceptions of public space and insecurity in these areas. • Assessment of already existing and related programs and new initiatives. • Creation of a local partnership and strategy that includes the community, residents’ associations, NGOs, community leaders, and state agencies. Discouraging the Development of New Slum

Government combined with CC may undertake comprehensive strategy to prevent the creation of new slum:

• DCC may issue an Identity Card of the slum dwellers and create a database for each slum separately. • Specific areas may be acquired simultaneously to accommodate and shift new migrants. • Establishing of new industrial area and Export Economic Zone may be encouraged outside of the Dhaka city. These will attract the job seekers to move out of the city. Improving inter-institutional Co-ordination

Government should immediately formulate a comprehensive policy for the slum encompassing security and development. Formulation of national crisis management committee should also be formed to supervise the slum administration prudently.

65 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

Improving Co-ordination between Security Agencies and the Community

Dhaka Metropolitan Police may raise separate police station for the larger Slums. Community policing should be the focus to promote crime and prevention.

Improve the Judicial System vis-a-vis Culture of Impunity

Slum Judicial Service or tribunal should be launched to improve security environment.

• Separate Judicial branch may be formed so that pending cases can be solved quickly. • Judicial processes should speed up-possibly through working with ‘Shalish’- (informal community courts). Security Agencies should monitor domestic violence and anti-social crime strictly to prevent proliferation of culture of impunity. • To improve access of poor people to legal aid by working with legal aid providing NGOs. • Media campaign should be launched for the prevention of culture of impunity.

Implementing Programmes for the Prevention of Anti-Social and Anti-Violence Activities

State agencies with DCC and NGOs should implement programmes to reduce social crime and violence, by comprehensive and integrated approach.

• Security Agencies, DCC and NGOs should launch legal awareness, literacy and advocacy campaign to educate slum people on the crime, violence and legal rights. • Legal training of Police and Judicial service should be arranged on anti-violence and anti-social issues so that victims of the violence can access the justice system without fear.

66 • “One Stop Crisis Centre” may be provided by Police coupled with community police to assist the victim quickly. Conclusion

Slums are the products of failed policies, bad governance, inappropriate legal and regulatory frameworks, dysfunctional markets, unresponsive financial systems, corruption, and not least, a lack of political will. The multi-faceted problems of the growing urban centers in BD will require action on both national and local levels. The private sector and civil society, including community organizations, have to be involved.

Research findings show that slums are growing rapidly and crimes are increasingly destroying social fabrics, law and order, environment and youth generation. Law enforcing agencies are inadequate to arrest the expansion of urban crimes at this state. The cumulative effect is a NTS threat. The negative perceptions of people living in slums have contributed directly to a serious deterioration in public security in BD. Slum-dwellers are more likely to be victims of both gang and police violence. Where police protection is provided, it is often very limited. This has ultimately allowed local criminal and drug factions to dominate virtually every aspect of life. In a number of cases, slum residents who have tried to report crimes or make complaints about the conduct of state officials have reported difficulties in getting their cases registered, investigated or prosecuted.

Combating urban crimes is a long term gruesome affair of every state. The evil tentacles of crimes are so spread that many organs resists the preventive measures. Both tangible and intangible measures are essential to attain a sustainable result. Intangible measures include policy reforms, modern slum management steps, accountability and transparency, anti-corruption drives, judicial reforms, youth sensitizations and integrated approach with NGOs. Tangible stances are multifaceted and both -short and long terms. Development of education, skilled manpower development, vocational training and creating job opportunities are few antidotes which can be directly injected to the target group. However, most sustainable 67 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City strategies are long terms which includes strengthen law enforcing agencies, strengthen rural-urban linkage, development satellite towns/ relocation of slums and relocating heavy industries and garments away from major cities. Occasionally law enforcing agencies may be strengthening by Armed Forces and para military forces to deliver a strong drive.

The strategies mentioned in the research will initially create a preventive shield around the slums which will restrict the spillover effect. Later, the existing slums will pose less NTS threat when human development index will rise with the initiative of all stakeholders. Isolating slums from mainstream city dwellers will reduce adverse effect on ingredients of social, economic, political and environmental security. The long term strategies if completely implemented will discourage people to live in slums, villages will offer lucrative opportunities, job will be created and law will be enforced with adequate strength. The society will be free from urban crimes and defeat rise of slums in Bangladesh.

Bibliography

Books/Publications/Booklet 1. Khan Abdur Rob, Globalization and Non –Traditional security in South Asia, Published by Academic Press and Publishing Ltd, Dhaka for Region al Centre for Strategic Studies 2001.

2. Judy L Baker Dhaka:Living Conditions for the Urban Poor, Bangladesh Development Series Paper No.17. The World Bank Office Dhaka, June 2007.

3. Ahmed Bulbul Mohammad and Khan Camellia, A Crucial Observation on Juvenile Delinquency: Bangladesh Perspectives, 2011.

4. Flores Robert J. Child Delinquency, published by U.S. Department of Justice, 2003.

68 5. Kabir Mohammad Humayun, National Security of Bangladesh in the Twenty-First Century, Published by Academic Press and Publishers Limited, 2000.

6. Mufleh R. Osmany and Shaheen Afroze, Religious Militancy and Security in South Asia Published by Academic Press and Publishers Limited, 2006.

7. Ahmad Dr Kholiquzzaman and Alam Mr Mesbahul “Rio+20 National Report on Sustainable Development” by Ministry of Environment and Forest, National Strategy Paper May 2012.

8. Hosaain Basharat, Do the Slum Dwellers Enjoy the Basic Constitutional and Economic Rights as a Citizen in Bangladesh? Global Disclousre of Economic and Business, Volume 3, No 3/2014.

9. UN-HABITAT Tracking Improvement in the Lines of Slum Dwellers, Slum Almanac 2015/2016.

10. UN-HABITAT State of the World’s Cities Report,2008,London: Earthscan Publications, 2008/2009.

11. Muggah Robert, Researching the Urban Dilemma: Urbanization, Poverty and Violence, IDRC, Canada, 2012.

12. Urbanization and Migration Study in Bangladesh 2016 Dhaka, UNFPA Bangladesh.

13. German Erik and Pyne Solana, Dhaka: Fastest Growing Megacity in the World September 2010, Global Post.

14. Mitric. S, Urban Transport for Development: Towards an Operationally-Oriented Strategy,Washington DC, 2008.

15. Tavares-Goodman, Nadia, ‘Review of UNICEF Interventions in the Urban Sector and Potential Future Intervention, UNICEF Bangladesh, February 2010.

69 Urban Crime in Bangladesh: Implications for Non Traditional Security Threat in Selected Slums in Dhaka City

16. Mely Caballero Anthony An Introduction to NTS Studies-A Transitional Approach, SAGE Publications Limited, Singapore, 2016

Article /Journal / Report 17. Khan Anisur Rahman “Domestic Violence against Women in Bangladesh: A Review of the Literature and the Gaps to fill-in by Future Interventions,” Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Volume 18, Number 3, 2015. 18. Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016, “Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change”A joint publication of the World Bank Group and the International Monetary Fund © 2016. 19. Jahan Dr Sarwar, National Urban Sector Advisor and his team “Supporting urban government reform”, Final Report, April 2005. 20. “Non-Traditional and Human Security in South Asia” published by Institute of Regional Studies, Islamabad, 2007. 21. “Bangladesh Population Policy”- Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka October 2014.

22. Sultana Razia, “Unplanned Rapid Urbanization in Bangladesh: A Threat to Human Security” BIISS Journal, Volume 31, No 3, July 2010.

23. “Rapid Urbanization and food security”- Contributed paper prepared for presentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Beijing, China, August 2009.

24. Hasan Mahmud, “Human Security or National Security: the Problems and Prospects of the Norm of Human Security”, Article in Journal of Politics and Law, Vol 1, No 4, 2008.

25. Stuart Cameron “Education in slums of Dhaka, Bangladesh” Paper prepared for the 13th UKFIET International Conference on Education and Development, 2017.

70 Author Brigadier General Md Tajul Islam Thakur, afwc, psc, G was commissioned with 21st BMA Long Course on December 1989. He is credited with three Higher Command and Staff Courses, in addition to specialized professional courses both at home and abroad. General has completed his M Phil (part 1). He has three Masters Degree in his credit namely; Masters on Defence Studies from National University and on Business Administration from Royal University and Masters in Science (Technical) from National University, Bangladesh.

He served in various Artillery units in different capacities. The officer served as Directing Staff in War College wing of NDC and in Artillery Centre and School as Instructor. Under the UN umbrella he served in UNMIH, Haiti as member of Bangladesh Contingent and also served in UNMIL, Liberia as Staff Officer at the Forces HQs.

Brigadier General Tajul has commanded an Artillery Brigade, an Air Defence Regiment Artillery and a Battalion of Border Guard Bangladesh. He served in the Military Training Directorate, Army Headquarters as Grade One Staff Officer. He also served in HQs Army Training and Doctrine Command as Grade One Staff Officer. The officer also served as Grade two Staff Officer and PS to PSO AFD, in Armed Forces Division.

71 EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT IN BANGLADESH CADET COLLEGES SINCE 1990S: AN OVERVIEW

Brigadier General Md Habib Ullah, SPP, ndc, afwc, psc

Introduction

Background Cadet Colleges may be traced back to the public school systems of England during 19th century (Rob 1884). After partition in 1947 first Cadet College was established at Hasan Abdal by the Government of Pakistan to educate and train the military students in 1952. Following the demand of the then , first Cadet College was established at Foujdarhat of Chattogram in 1958 with Colonel Moris Brown (Retired) of Scotland as the Principal. Seeing the performance of Hasan Abdal and, few more cadet colleges were established in . Indo-Pak war 1965 has some link to the establishment of more cadet colleges in the then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). During this period, the need for defense and security vulnerabilities were exposed in one side (East Pakistan), while the valour and fighting spirit of the East Bengal Regiment (composed of Bangalee officers and men) established that Bangalees were no less than the “Marshal Race”. As a result, three more cadet colleges were established immediately with a view to improving the percentage of officers’ intake in the Armed Forces from the young students of eastern part.

Cadet Colleges are specialized autonomous residential institutions that impart an all-round liberal education to the young learners of the secondary and higher secondary levels following the English version of national curricula prescribed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board and also emphasizing co-curricular and extra-curricular activities (SOP 2009). A statistics shows that so far 17,378 cadets have passed out from cadet colleges of which 2,282 graduates have joined the Army, 387 joined the

72 Navy and 200 joined the Air Force (Matiur 2017). At the same time 136 qualified for BCS, 2360 became engineers, 1984 doctors, 700 professors, 571 businessmen and 8200 employed in other professions. This signifies that some 16.50% of the cadets joined the armed forces and about 50% of the cadets were employed in various professions other than medical, engineering, education and Bangladesh Civil Services (BCS).However, in recent years, the results of cadets in admission tests for medical, engineering or public universities are disappointing. This paper emphasizes on reforms in internal administration and management, modernization of facilities and infrastructure, stakeholder motivation, changes in academic activities and incorporation of external collaboration.

Aim of Cadet Colleges

To educate and train young Cadets as future leaders, promising professionals and civil/military officers endowed with knowledge, high standard of morality, sense of responsibility and spirit of patriotism.

Objectives of Cadet Colleges

Following objectives are intended to be achieved by Cadet College system:

• To provide Cadets with liberal quality education up to higher secondary level through a well-planned academic programme enabling them to pursue higher studies in different disciplines. • To provide Cadets with essential elementary military training with a view to preparing them for induction into Armed Forces as Officers. • To impart complementary knowledge, training and skill necessary for the all-round development of cadets through a package of co- curricular and extra-curricular activities. • To arrange necessary physical training, games and sports, cultural program and maintain a diet program ensuring a balanced physical and mental health.

73 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

• To infuse in them a high sense of morality, responsibility, integrity, leadership quality, discipline and patriotism through motivation, counseling, practices and programmed activities. • To provide them with training, exercises and instructions to develop a high standard of communicative skill (oral & written), enhancing confidence and individual ability. • To educate them on manners, etiquettes and social conducts in conformity with their age level and socio-cultural standard.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis was done considering the internal and external factors that might affect the educational environment and overall output of the cadet colleges. Keeping the aims and objectives in view, the SWOT of the Cadet Colleges were analyzed and depicted as below:

Figure 1: SWOT Analysis of Cadet College Helpful Harmful

Strength Weakness • Selected students and teachers. • Lack of teachers’ training on • Disciplined and organized pedagogy and educational study, sports and recreational management. activities. Internal • Laboratory facilities-back dated. • Secure environment. • Lack of variation in personal Origin • Students are free from political study setting (class room/ influences and socio-economic teacher/class mates). hardship. • Exam focused, rush to • Healthy and competitive complete syllabus; learning is environment. overlooked. • Caters for all round development. • Lack of initiative of the teachers.

74 Figure 1: SWOT Analysis of Cadet College Threat • Vested interest groups may Opportunity cause emotional disorder of • People’s perception and adolescents may affect study impression of the cadet college and grooming. works as a motivational tool. • Difficult for a cadet to catch • Alumni associations inspire up if he falls back in initial and support the institutions’ days. growth and encourage lifelong • Friends, Seniors and teachers fraternity with individuals. may affect mental stability and • Expandability: Location, area learning. and organizational structure • Indiscriminate use of may allow expansion with gadgets, mobile phones, External minor adjustment and minimal social media (even when on Origin marginal cost. leave) may create distraction • Scope to foster creativity on and affect desired grooming specific field of interest. of the cadets. • Collaboration with world class • Any breach of security institutions to add value. may have far reaching consequences and affect all the cadets, teachers and parents. Source: Author

The main focus of cadet college education is achieved by a combination of academic performance, physical education and training, moral and ethical education and leadership training. Discipline and the cultural/recreational events are other factors that also contribute to the all-round development of the cadets.

Academic Environment Academic environment relates to the issues involving teacher- student ratio, reading materials, exams, promotion to next class etc. Teachers remain as the guide, mentor, evaluator and inspiration of the cadets in all spheres of cadets’ existence. The numbers of teachers vary between 30-35 making an average Student-Teacher ratio 10:1.

75 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Class Room The classroom accommodates some 25 desks and chairs for a ‘Section’ or ‘Form’ of students. Teachers (72%) and cadets (95%) opined that the scope and need for improvements of educational environment of cadet colleges.

Books Cadet Colleges use the books prescribed by the National Council for Text Books (NCTB) in English version since 2003. Previously, Bangla version books were used. Reportedly, some subjects do not have any text books (Geography, for example) published as yet. Cadets study from notes, handouts, guide books (Bangla version).

Assessment (GPA Systems) It is said that what is measured gets done. This may be related to the public criticism of scoring full grade by the majority students following the Grade Point Average (GPA) system of assessing in different public examinations. This has depleted the motivation of the students, especially cadets to achieve high scores in various subjects.

Analysis Observations on negative impacts on cadets due to GPA system are as follows:

• Poor Outcome: Poor performance in admission tests for higher studies (Medical/Engineering/Universities). Reportedly, 7 cadets started their military training in the Bangladesh Military Academy who failed to secure a GPA 5 in their HSC in 2017 and their training is liable to be terminated. A number of cadets cannot sit for the admission test for BUET and other reputed universities.

• Reluctance: Competitiveness among cadets is fading away and not many have the endeavor to rise above the crowd like the 90s (securing positions in the combined merit list in the Board).

76 • Over Confidence: Cadets fail to assess their own standard before it is too late. In 2016 only 07 out of 56 cadets had marks good enough to take the test of BUET. Interview with officers form ISSB reveals that, in 2016, 198 ex cadets appeared (2nd time) at the ISSB who failed to get admitted in higher education institutes in previous year (Kalam, 2017).

• Voluntary Withdrawal: Owing to understanding and assimilation difficulties, there is an increasing trend of voluntary withdrawal amongst cadets of class IX. A cadet performing poorly in Mathematics and Science subjects are not usually given Science Group but he is not motivated to study Humanities, so he withdraws from Cadet College at the beginning of class IX. In 2015 and 2016, a total of 115 cadets withdraws from Cadet College in class VII to class XII.

Quality of the Student

Old saying goes that a good student makes a good teacher. With the improvement of socio-economic condition of the people, many urban dwellers and affluent families can afford to manage better and elitist type of education in good schools at home and abroad. On the other hand, many not-so-well students are trying to get through in the cadet colleges relying on the coaching centres. Coaching centres train the students on certain skills only to prepare them for cadet college entrance exam. Thus the cadet colleges get ‘preparation based’ students not ‘merit based’ students (Bakir, 2017).

Games and Sports

Recent re-introduction of various sporting competitions on inter cadet college basis in every/alternate year, focus has turned to winning the trophy, compromising maximum cadets’ learning and participation. A large number of students do not know how to play football at the time of entering in Cadet College. The problem arose due to following realities:

• There are hardly any play grounds in the urban or even rural areas these days.

77 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

• Many of the cadets are single child of the parents and they did not get scope to play outdoors. • Almost 80% of the boys were engaged in ‘cadet coaching’ and there were no time to play. • Many of the students preferred computer/video or mobile phone games and did not care about outdoors. Parents also felt these were risky and better to avoid.

Swimming as a Life Skill During the 90s, approximately 70-80% of the cadets knew how to swim. Presently, in an average 65% do not know swimming. Swimming is also considered important requirement in the Army, Navy and in the Marine Academy. Yet, it is noteworthy that except one, none of the cadet colleges have swimming pool facilities.

Psychological and Moral Training Moral and ethical component deal with the appropriate application of acquired knowledge and skill and sets a moral compass in young learners to differentiate between right and wrong, ethical and unethical, and humane and expedient. Recently, “Ethos and Values” Card that has been introduced in line with the Army, is given below:

Table 1: Ethos and Values in Cadet Colleges Ethos Values I am proud to be a Cadet Honour and Pride I abide by rules and regulation of the College Honesty and Integrity I do not lie, cheat or steal Trust and Faith I shall be the best and brightest professional Knowledge and leader Communication I shall uphold the honour of my Alma Matter Confidence and Excellence Endeavour and Perseverance Patriotism and Selflessness Comradeship Source: Author

78 Cadets are also guided by the “Honour Code” system that declares that a cadet shall lead a life of honour and integrity. He shall not lie, cheat and steal. This helps the cadets develop a sense of honour and dignity, camaraderie, learning desire, perseverance and acceptance and a moral strength to stand for the right.

Leadership Training In the cadet colleges, cadets are given the opportunity to practise their leadership qualities. To select a Prefect, his/her qualities like personal discipline, personality traits, academic performance, special quality, etc should be of prime considerations (SOP 2009). Cadet appointment holders are designated from the senior most batch (class XII) for a duration of 01 year.

Discipline Concept of discipline has been outlined in the college SOP. Discipline may be inculcated if Cadets in general exhibit their decent and respectable behavior in public. The standing orders of the Cadet Colleges cover a wide range of areas to build a co-operative community characterized by discipline, human-fellowship and social progress with a sound basis in character building.

Cultural and Stage Competitions (CSC) CSC helps the cadets’ mental growth and their ability to express. These are extra curricular activities that give someone an edge over non-cadets and often regarded as additional qualifications. These activities also inspire doing something extra which makes the difference between ordinary and extra-ordinary.

Present Challenges and Gray Areas

Overview

It is important to identify the challenges to improve upon the standard, plug in the gaps and lacunae and focus on the gray zones.

79 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Absence of Research and Development Discussions with some cadet college veterans including cadets/principals/ Adjutant/ Teachers/Parents it was felt that there had been almost no study on the ways to improve the situation. Some research that had been carried out were by the military officers during their professional courses (Staff Course) in a limited scale and the output were perhaps never shared with the cadet colleges or AHQ. Without research and periodic reform cadet colleges are becoming vintage (Kaiser 2017).

Teachers Teachers are the greatest assets of the cadet college systems. The relevance and importance of teachers in a boarding school environment has but increased while following are the issues being raised regarding some of the present day teachers:

Selection • Cadet colleges are failing to attract good and qualified teachers. In the recruiting exam for 35 seats in 2016, some 1647 persons applied out of them only 746 came to take the test while others preferred to try their luck for banking profession, and also the registration exam of Government teachers held on the same day. • May be selected in line with the BCS/PSC like teachers of government colleges. • May be, a suitability test through ISSB would be effective to get the best of the lot. Training and Capacity Building • Training on teenage/child psychology may be arranged regularly. • Pedagogy and class room management is rarely emphasized. • B. Ed, M. Ed, PhD qualification may be considered for career advancement. Job Satisfaction • Better pay/allowances: most of the teachers are not happy with the compensation package and display a low state of morale.

80 • Teachers are not forthcoming and reluctant to command confidence and respect of the cadets. • Teacher-student relationship remains a topic of concern inter-personal skill of the teachers need improvement. • Reduction of non-academic engagement.

Career Building Opportunity • Good and qualified teachers are leaving the cadet college for a better options (BCS or job in private school/college). • Teachers are not in a habit of self-improvement, lack commitment and motivation. Language of Imparting Lesson It was observed that learning was hampered because of the communication difficulty of both teachers and cadets while taking class in English. The teachers were not comfortable in imparting and explaining lessons in English. The survey shows that 26% of the teachers and 57% of the Cadets agreed/ strongly agreed to this.

Discipline and Implementation

It demands discretion when it comes to implementing military discipline on to a teenager student. The same rude and ruthless attitude which sometimes is applied on a soldier must not be dispensed on cadets with all its weight and force. Too much of strictness might become counterproductive. For example, whenever a cadet gets chance, he wears long hairs and dresses up very casually. This is perhaps due to harsh military discipline enforced on him in such issues (Kaiser 2017).

Budgetary Issues

The tables and desks, cupboard, accommodation, laboratory and library and other components of educational environment have not seen changes mostly for budgetary constraints. The budget comes from the Grant in Aid (Code 5901) that is allotted from the Ministry of Finance through the

81 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

AG’s Branch. Most of the infrastructures that were very modern during the 70s have become old and cannot keep pace with the demand of time.

Principal and College Administration

Saying goes that the “School is, as is the Headmaster”. Mahfuz (Mahfuz 2017) suggests that promotion to such positions must be fully on the basis of professionalism and not on humanitarian ground. Frequent change of the principal affects the continuity and impetus of college activities and the development programmes. A statistics shows that since 1990 in an average there were 12-15 times the principal changed in different cadet colleges.

Vice Principals and Their Concerns

In recent times the Vice Principal (VP) was changed almost every year. This was done mostly for the promotion and adjustment requirements of the AHQ. Table below shows the average duration of VP in a college in recent 10 years:

Table 2: Number and Frequency of Change of Vice Principals Serial Cadet 1985-1995 1995-05 1906-2016 Average College Number of Number of Number Duration VP VP & Average of VP of VP in & Average Duration (yr) last 10 Duration (yr) years 1 FCC 4 2.5 4 2.5 8 1.25 2 RCC 5 2 4 2.25 6 1.66 3 CCR 3 3.3 5 2 8 1.25 4 BCC 5 2 4 2.25 8 1.25 5 MGCC 3 3 5 3.2 7 1.42 6 FGCC - - 9 1.1 7 JGCC - - 9 1.1 Source: Author

82 Governing Body and Adjutant General’s Branch

Few of the respondents observed that the staffing at the AHQ was relatively weak and over tasked. Owing to the busy schedule Chairman of the Governing Body can hardly give the cadet colleges needed focus and time. A number of suggestions came up from discussions of the respondents. Some opined to consider to raise the Cadet College Section to the level of a Directorate with a senior officer (Brigadier General) at the helms of affairs. In such a situation, raising the capacity and number of cadet colleges also came in discussion. Delegating some of the responsibilities to the Area Commanders were also considered by some. Several principals and adjutants perceived that sometimes the Cadet College Section at the AHQ tried to micromanage certain issues while hesitating to provide required guidance, decisions and support.

Malpractices and Under Currents

Typical to any boarding school environment, certain malpractices have become so called traditions in the cadet colleges. Hence, it is essential that the boarding school syndromes are understood, acknowledged and addressed. In most of the cases parents and the teachers fail to unearth these. Some common malpractices are as below:

• Senior cadets beating and mishandling the juniors. • Senior asking the juniors to polish their shoes, doing assignments etc. • Bringing food from the canteens. • Physically abusing. • Asking to wake him up/ report at specified times at night disturbing the sleep and rest. • Asking for the coupons from juniors to buy things and never refunding. • Requesting for household items on loan and never returning. • Clothing items/ shoes/ personal effects getting missed. • Lying to cover up/save the seniors/ friends from detection of wrong- doing.

83 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Analysis, Findings and Way Forward

Cadets’ Findings

A recent seminar on the academic performances of the cadets in a college came out with certain problems and likely solutions that are appended below:

Table 3: Cadets’ Finding Serial Problems Solution Remarks 01 Practical classes Synchronization of theory and Teacher’s efficiency are conducted practical classes must be ensured. in sequencing hurriedly before lessons questioned completing theoretical classes 02 Various writers’ Abridged hand notes on particular Teachers should do books for senior topic can be supplied. this extra work classes 03 Time wastage in Teaching more lessons in class XI Planning of time class XI without leaving for class XII in the and study load need classroom. to be better 04 Lack of A team consisting recently passed Teachers and motivation and out ex-cadets can be invited who also ex-cadet’s knowledge about have got chance in armed forces, associations should career BUET, medicals and renowned be doing this on a universities home and abroad. regular basis. 05 Cadets are Particular internet browsing hours Undesirable sites separated in a week under strict monitoring may be blocked. from rapidly can be arranged developing IT world 06 Academic failure Motivation and releasing pressure House Masters need in junior classes from any corner should be ensured. to be more effective 07 Less time of PT may be excused May be considered preparation before examinations 08 Pressure of Should be reduced before exams. May be considered over schedule (excessive activity)

84 Table 3: Cadets’ Finding 09 Providing A photocopy machine is highly Library should have teachers’ hand required and cadets will collect such reproduction/ notes on any documents on payment. printing facilities important topic/ chapter 10 Library facility Library should be open for all the May be considered cadets in different schedule 11 Constant Teacher Teacher should be fixed for Teacher’s efficiency (for a particular particular topics/chapter for in class/content topics) particular classes. management 12 Frequent Requesting for the strategy of Teacher’s Resignation of authority motivation teachers Source: Author

Educational Research and Curriculum Review

Over the years it has remain mostly unchanged. To evaluate the performances and improving upon the standard, it is essential to conduct academic research by competent professionals.

Issues • System that rarely takes cadet’s concerns into consideration. • Facing challenges to remain better, updated and attractive. • Problems getting complicated with technology, difficult to maintain standard. • Cadet Colleges losing privacy and relevance.

Way Forward • May be done by the AHQ centrally on specific issues of academic, sports, internal administration etc for all Cadet Colleges. • Academic researchers or Alumni associations may be called in for necessary support and consultancy.

85 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Cadet Intake System

Issues • Academic background and standard falls short of expectation. • Attracting better materials becomes challenging.

Way Forward • Outreach programmes may be conducted by a team of faculties to inform and motivate students to take entrance exams. • Maximum circulation through DC Office, Thana Education Officer to relevant schools may prove useful. • Modernization of the exam system so that genuinely meritorious students get selected. English Version and Teaching-Learning Difficulties

Issues • 27% of the teachers and 20% of the cadets agreed to such problems related to cadets. • 26% of the teachers and 57% of the cadets agreed to such problems related to teachers Cadets face difficulties in comprehension in learning (memorization, retention, conceptualization, analysis and creative thinking). • English text books are scarce and there are numerous mistakes (perhaps the translations were not done by the technical subject experts). • Teachers only follow the slides and narrate what is there on the screen while the students get disconnected from eye-to-eye communication of the teachers.

Way Forward • There is hardly any alternative to raising the standard of the teachers and the teaching method. A separate Research may be carried out to find out how it really works learning in second language starting at the junior secondary level and its practical relevance. 86 • Separate training and enrichment programmes may be continuously undertaken to improve the methods of instruction • Learning is best achieved in mother tongue. If felt feasible, previous system of Bangla medium may be continued for Class Seven Cadets to allow time to cope up with other aspects of being out of family. Academic loads may be increased gradually. • More interactive and participatory forms of classes to be organized compared to lectures.

Less Time for the Cadets to Study

Findings of the survey shows 96 % of the cadets opine that they really have less time to study.

Issues • Cadets need to participate in numerous non-academic activities like games, CSC, inspections. • Strict adherence to lights out timing • PT and Drill are military subjects; cadets’ military training may be eased up. • Wastage of time for ‘fall in’ and numerous competitions

Way forward • Reduction of ICCSM, ICCLMM and similar other competitions • Reduction of PT, drill to 2 days a week for examinees • Introduction of morning preparation time. Fazar prayers may be made obligatory and morning preparation should follow that. • Increase timing of after-dinner study for senior classes (XI and XII) by 30-45 minutes. • Delay lights out time for seniors XI, XII by 45 minutes (2330 hours). • Utilize academic hours for absolutely for studies; competitions may be sometimes arranged at in the afternoon or evening.

87 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Quality and Motivation of the Teachers

Issues • About 28% of the teachers feel that there is no need for improvement of present educational environment (5% in cadets’ opinion). • 50% did not want to opine about their difficulty in teaching in English. • Teacher’s engagement in non-academic and administrative activities. • About 67% of the teachers feel that education environment of cadet colleges is very good and extremely good (2% in the opinion of cadets). • It may be inferred that a sense of complacency( with or without evaluating properly) exists in the mindset of teachers regarding standard of college • A non-committal and stay safe syndrome is observed among the faculties. • Motivation (or, lack of it) to consider teaching a job per se, not a passion. Way Forward

Selection • May be done through BCS, PSC and ISSB. • Direct entry with higher qualification/experience may be considered (like BUP). • Performance based/ meritocracy should be the criteria for promotion. • Military officers may be posted from the cadet college background to perform as House Masters Training Teachers should have periodical/ refresher’s training on creative question setting, pedagogy, child psychology etc. • NAEM and similar institutes may be approached for taking courses on education management, research or B Ed and M Ed degrees.

88 Job Satisfaction

• Better social status, like BCS and PSC selected teachers would perhaps ensure social security and career development needs. • Better pay and allowances. • Respecting their expertise and reduction of pressure from non- academic engagements. • Offering a lucrative career as ‘Cadet College Faculty’ that the cadets may also feel worth pursuing themselves.

Malpractices and Cadet Bullying

In cadet college environment bullying and teasing have almost become a common practice that must not lose the sights of the authority, parents and of course the teachers. Cadets usually indulge in these malpractices out of fun, but, however, these may turn serious if overlooked. A perceived sense of subjugation, deprivation of family love and affection and compulsions regarding food, rest, and academic pressure may cause depression and an urge of withdrawal from routine and regular activities. This may get complicated if not handled with care. Over the years beating and physical abuse of junior cadets, name calling and mistreatment stood in the way of development of the cadets.

Budget and Financial Management

Issues • 38% teachers and 47 % cadets ‘Strongly Agree’ that budget is not sufficient. • Bureaucracy delays allocation and release of budget causing problems in paying monthly salaries and retirement benefits for the pensioners. • College administration sometimes lack knowledge on financial procedures.

89 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Way Forward

• Source of budget should not be ‘Grant in Aid’; it should be properly coming through MOE or MOD • Sources of fund should be increased and diversified • Financial affairs may be made more streamlined, quick and efficient Moving Forward in Quality and Numbers

Issues • Remaining a seat for excellence in academics in the country and need for creating global citizens. • Content developing, sharing, collaboration, training and exposure. • Keeping pace with technological changes and leveraging from that.

Way Forward • Collaboration with world class institutions like International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO). • Invite guests to lecture on various professions, inspiration and issues. • May establish a Global Teaching Lab with Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for a global exposure of cadets. • Duke of York scholarships may be expanded for more cadets and teachers. • Increasing the number of cadets in every colleges may be thought of, while a major study may be carried out to establish more number of Cadet College. • Need for opening up a separate wing in English medium like O and A levels may be studied. This may be implemented in one or two colleges as pilot project.

Development of an Evaluation System

The purpose of the evaluation system would be to encourage hard work to rise above the crowd and also to improve upon the standard of the

90 individuals. This would also encourage striving for standard, competitive spirit and help cadets set and meet objectives. Following may be useful:

• ‘Super Six’ concept of assessment - recognizing best six all rounder cadet in a year from a class. • No sifting within the study syllabi -Geometry, calculus and other chapters. • Making challenging questions (reduced time, arbitrary setting for internal exam).

Internal Administration and Management

Frequent change of the principal and vice principal affect the total performance of the college. There should exist a system of accountability of the principal that should make him proactive, responsible and responsive. In the same count, they should be allowed to work freely. It may be noted that certain colleges like MGCC, JGCC or FGCC have never seen the military officers as the principal. As such, the performances of internal administration, motivation of the girl’s cadet colleges towards military discipline and the profession have been sometimes, a point of concern.

• House administration revamping: House Masters from military officers. • Senior-junior relations (reducing malpractices) should be addressed with a greater attention. • Parents’ involvement in maintaining discipline and standard. • Teachers’ development programmes should continue throughout. • Computer aided database cadets and need for research and development. • Posting or a periodic visit of a clinical psychologist may be considered. Recommendations

Immediate Action Plan • Improvement of infrastructure and the physical condition of the classroom, laboratories and other allied facilities.

91 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

• Increase of study time, especially for the senior cadets (Class XI and XII). This may be done by delaying the lights out time, introduction of morning prep saving three days from morning PT and drill. • Study should be conducted to evaluate the performances of the cadets, teachers and the college as a whole.

Mid-Term Targets • Invest on teachers. The standard of the teachers especially their role as a mentor, training as an educator, understanding of the context and motivation to best perform as the strategic partner of Cadets’ development need to be raised. Selection test of the teachers may be done through BCS or PSC. Necessary steps for status up gradation, recognition and pay rise should be undertaken to make them feel good and do more. • Adequate budget should be allocated and flow to be streamlined and simplified. Ministry of Education and MOD should devise a mechanism to run by some dedicated budget other than the ‘Grant -in-Aid’. • Bring in changes in the Intake exam and conduct of internal examinations to encourage learning and creativity.

Long Term • A research based logical framework needs to be worked out and modalities detailed in a reviewed SOP. This will help all concerned understand their specific tasks and roles and know how to reach the goals. • Improvement in the overall quality of the college. Modalities for international collaboration need to be outlined. Co-operation with International Baccalaureate, MIT need to be established. Scholarships like Duke of York may be pursued for more vacancies. • Within the legal frame work the Governing Body should exercise more authority to delegate responsibility and freedom of action to the Principals. At the same time, it should pursue for a happier and more successful fraternity adequately equipped and motivated to pay back to the nation.

92 Conclusion

Since its inception, cadet colleges have performed extra ordinarily in developing the human resources in terms of quality leaders in the fields of academics, men in uniform and other professions of entrepreneurship and bureaucracy. The main purpose of the cadet colleges are to provide liberal quality education up to higher secondary level. But it is almost 60 years now that the cadet college education system did not see research directed reform. With the progress of science and technology and information revolution, it is important to examine the efficacy and assess the educational environment of the cadet colleges.

Cadet colleges are the specialized institutions managed by the military to provide an all-round education to young learners of class VII to XII. Academic and intellectual development gets a prominence. However, physical fitness, moral and ethical grooming and the leadership development are also emphasized. A thorough analysis of the educational environment and research of the complimentary and conflicting issues of teaching- learning process by educational researchers is essential for modernization of the cadet colleges.

Cadet colleges were built to select and prepare Bangalee nationals for potential recruitment in the officer’s cadre of the armed forces. By the time Bangladesh started her fight for the independence, there had been only 4 cadet colleges. Nation was happy to see many of her cadet college trained officers’ fighting spirit and dedication. By early 80s, six more cadet colleges were established. Cadets have also found their way to the universities, technical fields, politics, law and diplomacy, business and enterprises for social reform. Developed with the outlook similar to British Public Schools, Cadet Colleges are still one of the best institutions that the country can offer for the quality education. Should the cadet college products march towards the military professions in bulk, or should look for global relevance, is a point to ponder.

93 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

Concept of security, arguably no longer hinges on military might alone. Diplomacy, trade and commerce, scientific and technological developments, socio-politico dynamics and particularly information and communication technology are certain other issues that dominate professional discourse at present. All these call for modernization of the educational environment of the quality education institutes like cadet colleges.

Over the years although some changes have taken place, yet the quality of students, teachers and other enablers of effective learning are facing questions. An empirical study of 10 major factors and 24 sub-factor or issues have been considered to explore the present situation of the cadet college educational environment. Efforts have also been made to spot the challenges and gray areas. Issues were discussed with key players and major stakeholders like Faculty and Cadets, Ex-Principals and Ex Cadets, academicians and other professionals. The response mechanism is the outcome of the shared understanding of many that have been put forward for consideration for implementation in due course of time. Based on the urgency and ease of accomplishment these have been graded as immediate, mid-term and long term action plans.

References Books 1. Azam, Shafiqul, (2015), Cadet College Shiksha: Swarup o Swatantray, Dhaka, Naba Avijan Prokashoni.

2. Rob, F M Abdur, (2000), Public School Shikkha O cadet College, Dhaka, Ahmed Publishing House.

3. SOP (2009), Standing Operating Procedure for Cadet Colleges 2009, Adjutant General’s Branch, Army Headquarters Printing Press, Dhaka.

94 Articles/Seminar Papers/ Newspaper 4. Haque, Ashiqul, Major, Contribution of Girls’ Cadet Colleges in Developing Potential Leaders for Bangladesh Army, Individual Research Paper, Defence Services Command and Staff College, December 2015.

5. Mazhar, Al Kabir, Major, Evaluation of Cadet College as Feeder Organization for Bangladesh Army, Individual Research Paper, Defence Services Command and Staff College, December 2011.

Interviews and Interactions/Discussions 6. Ahmed, Kaiser, Ex Principal, and Principal Scholastica, Dhaka, date 17 February 2017.

7. Haque, Ahtasamul, Major, Bangladesh Military Academy, Chattogram date 08 October 2017.

8. Humayun, Mohammad Kabir, Lieutenant Colonel, Bangladesh Militaary Academy, Chattogram, 15 march 2017.

9. Kabir, Ahsanul, Professor, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, date 28 July 2017.

10. Kalam, AKM, Abul, major, Inter Services Selection Board, Dhaka, date 20 July 2017.

11. Mamun, S M Mostafa Al, Professor, University of Dhaka, date 28 July 2017.

12. Nabi, Hedayetun, Principal, Joypurhat Girl’s Cadet College, 26 August 2017.

13. Nuruzzaman, Mohammad, Brigadier General (Retired), Ex-Principal, Rajshahi Cadet College, Dhaka, date 22 April 2017.

14. Rahman, Saifur, Captain (BN), Principal, , date 08 February 2017.

95 Educational Environment in Bangladesh Cadet Colleges Since 1990s: An Overview

15. Rahman, Md Mahfuzur, Lieutenant General, Principal Staff Officer, Ex Chairman Governing Bodies of the Cadet Colleges 21 July 2017.

16. Rahman, Matiur, Major General, Adjutant General, Adjutant General’s Branch, Army Headquarters, Dhaka, 22 April 2017.

17. Rahman, Mohammad Habibur, Colonel, Principal Rajshahi Cadet College, date 20 September 2017.

18. Rakib, AKM Uddin, Colonel, Principal Fouzdarhat Cadet College, Chattogram, date 08 October 2017.

19. Reza, Lieutenant Colonel, Ex Principal, Fouzderhat Cadet College, Dhaka, 22 April 2017.

20. Sazzad Hossain, Brigadier General, Ex Principal, Jhenidah Cadet College , Dhaka date 26 July 2017.

Author

Brigadier General Md Habib Ullah, SPP, afwc, psc was commissioned in the Corps of Armoured on 20 December 1991. He is a Graduate from the Defence Service Command and Staff College, Mirpur and attained Master of Defence Studies Degree from the National University, Dhaka. He is also a War Course graduate from National Defence College, Bangladesh. He has served in various Command, Staff and Instructional appointments in his career. He was an Instructor in School of Infantry and Tactics. He served as Brigade Major in an Armoured Brigade and General Staff Officer Grade 1 in an Infantry Division and in Army Head Quarters Military Training Directorate. He commanded an armoured regiment. He served as a Military Observer in United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) and United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor Leste (UNMIT). He studied in Rajshahi Cadet College and was fortunate to serve his Alma Mater as the Principal.

96 ENERGY CONNECTIVITY WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR BANGLADESH

Commodore Mohammad Nazmul Hassan, NPP, ncc, ndc, psc, BN

Introduction

Bangladesh is an energy starved country. In order to continue its pursuit for sustainable development it needs a continuous supply of energy at an affordable cost. Its immediate neighbours have energy resources in near proximity of its borders. Recently, Bangladesh has started getting electricity from India. However, there have not been substantial progress for Bangladesh in exploiting the energy sources of all the neighbouring countries, i.e. India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar.

There exist a number of potential areas where Bangladesh can explore the benefit of energy connectivity with her neighbours. However, this paper will limit its scope to connectivity in electrical power and gas pipeline. Studies by World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB) and other organizations found that, the barriers to stronger regional energy cooperation were predominantly political and economic in nature. However, institutional and infrastructural incapacities are also posing challenges to successful energy connectivity between regional nations. Nevertheless, there is a new era of opportunities for Bangladesh in sub regional energy connectivity with India, Nepal and Bhutan. Similar cooperation with Myanmar could be highly beneficial on many accounts. However, it needs favourable political climate in Myanmar and relentless diplomatic persuasion by Bangladesh to get connected in the energy sector. This paper will look into the entire gamut of challenges and opportunities faced by Bangladesh in energy connectivity.

97 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

Energy Resources in Bangladesh and its Neighbourhood

Energy Resource Mix

The energy sector of Bangladesh is facing a constant challenge to keep up with a high rate of economic growth. Energy sector is facing a rise of 10 percent demand every year. The need for energy typically grow by 2-3 percent over the GDP growth rate simply to match the economic development. The country must therefore address critical energy concerns that will determine not only its national economic expansion plans, but also its ability to bring the entire population onto the energy grid. The energy resource mix in 2016 and projected fuel mix in 2041 are shown below.

Figure 1: Energy Resource Mix 2016 Diesel Power Coal 7.29% Import 2.07% 4.14% Furnace Hydro Oil 1.91% 20.77%

Natural Gas 62.19%

Power Import Coal Hydro Natural Gas Furnace Oil Diesel Source: Power Division, MoPEMR, 2017

98 Figure 2: Projected Fuel Mix 2041

Source: Power Division, MoPEMR, 2017

Power Generation Scenario

The present installed power generation capacity including captive power reached 15,379 MW including 600 MW import from India. The actual power generation recorded on 21 June 2017 was 7581 MW during day peak and 9166 MW during evening peak. (BPDB Website, 2017). PSMP- 2010, published by the Power Division, MoPEMR had a vision to provide power supply to all by 2021. PSMP-2016, published in September 2016, envisages achieving a power generation target of 24,000 MW by 2021, 40,000 MW by 2030 and 59,000 MW by 2041. The report also includes plan of energy import from neighbouring countries like India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar. (Power Division, MoPEMR, 2016).

99 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

Figure 3: Bangladesh Power Sector Roadmap till 2041

Source: Power Division, MoPEMR, 2017

Sources of Cross Border Energy

Hydro Power Potentials in BBIN Sub-region: India, Bhutan and Nepal have great potentials to produce hydropower. In reality, more than 90% of the resources are still unutilized in Nepal and Bhutan, combined. In case of India, about 50% is already explored and utilized. Therefore, in future Nepal and Bhutan can meet not just their own electricity needs, but also serve energy needs of Bangladesh and India. India already has ongoing power sector cooperation with Bhutan and Nepal. To harness the huge hydropower potentials of Nepal or Bhutan, India has to be taken onboard. Because the onward transmission will have to take place through Indian territory.

Power Exported by India: The power export to Bangladesh from India has increased in recent years. Bangladesh started power import with 500 MW from NTPC of India through Baharampur-Bheamara grid line in 2012. The export to Bangladesh was augmented by commissioning of second cross border interconnection between Surjyamaninagar (Tripura) in India and , Bangladesh in March 2016. At present, 660 MW power is being exported by India to Bangladesh. (Power Division, 2017)

100 Power Potentials of Nepal: Nepal has huge potential for hydropower development. Only 460 MW has been developed so far from the major projects out of the potential capacity of 42 GW. The current major hydro power projects are presented in Graph 1.

Graph 1: Major Hydro Electric Projects of Nepal

Source: Nepal Electricity Authority (Pandey, 2016, p.44)

BPDB officials have stated that, Bangladesh intends to import at least 2000 MW of power from Nepal’s potential hydro-electric projects.

Sources of Energy in Bhutan: So far Bhutan has identified and assessed as technically feasible some 23.76 GW out of an estimated potential of 30 GW. Total installed capacity is currently 1.488 GW. This is generated by four large hydropower projects. A further four large projects are in various stages of construction. (Price & Mittra, 2016). Bhutan’s ambitious 10/20 program, is to create 10,000 MW power by 2020. This is expected to come from 10 mega projects (Dharmadhikary, 2015). As per BPDB officials, Bangladesh intends to import more than 1000 MW power from Bhutan’s potential hydro-electric projects.

Hydro Power in Myanmar: Myanmar is endowed with abundant hydropower potential of around 39,720 MW. At present, Myanmar is a major exporter of hydropower and natural gas in the region, and in

101 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh particular to China. Following 2011 general elections, Myanmar government launched several political and economic reforms to come out of decades of isolation. According to estimates of Directorate of Investment and Company Administration of Myanmar FDI in oil and gas is over $15 billion and in power sector it is $13.29 billion (Kattelus et al., 2015). With increasing demand on electric power in China and throughout South and Southeast Asia, large hydropower is being planned by Myanmar (Adam Smith International, 2015).

MBI Pipeline: The proposal for a gas pipeline from Myanmar to India through Bangladesh territory was first tabled in 1997 by the Dhaka-based private firm Mohona Holdings. This 900 km, one billion dollar pipeline was meant to transfer an estimated 5 billion cubic metres of gas from the Shwe field off the Bay of Bengal through the Rakhine State in Southern Myanmar, from where it would turn east to enter the Indian state of Tripura. The pipeline would then enter Bangladesh at and traverse the country till it exited at Jassore and terminated at the state of India (Muniruzzaman, 2011, p.148).

For Bangladesh, in addition to the option of retaining some of the gas, transit fees of an estimated $125 million per annum and an investment of $100 million would have greatly assisted the country’s economy. However, due to lack of foresight and absence of strong political will in the three countries the proposal was practically abandoned by end of 2005 (Agrawal, 2009).

102 Figure 4: Myanmar, Bangladesh, India Proposed Pipeline

Source: http://voices.nationalgeographic.org

Existing Regional Energy Cooperation and Challenges to Energy Connectivity

Efforts for Power Sector Integration by Regional Organizations

SAARC: In January 2000, a Technical Committee on Energy was set up by SAARC. The first meeting of the SAARC Energy Ministers was held in Islamabad, Pakistan, on 1st October 2005. India organized the South Asia Energy Dialogue on March 5, 2007, to bring together experts, academic think-tanks and other stakeholders in the region and to make recommendations to promote energy sector cooperation. The Energy Ministers in the third meeting held in Colombo, Sri Lanka, in January 2009, approved the concept of a South Asia Energy Ring (Usman, 2015).

103 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

Figure 5: Proposed SAARC Energy Ring Power Grid

Source: The 8th Japan-SAARC Energy Symposium on Medium Term Vision for Energy Connectivity in the SAARC Region, Islamabad, 2015

SAARC Energy Centre (SEC): The 13th SAARC summit held in Dhaka in 2005 decided to establish the SEC in Islamabad. In the Dhaka Declaration, the Heads of the State or Government welcomed the joint statement of the first SAARC Energy Ministers meeting held in October 2005 in Islamabad. They also agreed to: • Promote development of energy resources, including hydropower. • To trade energy within the region. • To develop renewable and alternative energy resources and • To promote energy efficiency and conservation in the region. BIMSTEC: The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) instituted the ‘BIMSTEC Trans Power Exchange and Development Project’ for power trade between BIMSTEC countries. After the First BIMSTEC Energy Ministers’ Conference in 2005 the BIMSTEC Energy Center (BEC) was established. The 15th Ministerial Meeting of BIMSTEC was held on 11-12 August 2017 in Kathmundu, Nepal. The Foreign Ministers agreed to sign the MOU on BIMSTEC Grid

104 Connection at the earliest. It was also decided that the next meeting of the Energy Ministers will be arranged by Nepal in early 2018 (MEA India, 2017). MoPEMR officials stated that, Bangladesh plans to import around 3,500 MW of additional electricity through bilateral and sub-regional joint ventures from India, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan by 2030, under the umbrella of BEC, if possible.

Challenges to Energy Cooperation In the South Asian regional context, the risks associated with forging an intra-regional, cross-border energy cooperation which include political, legal, and institutional challenges would be greatly mitigated if the economic benefits were given priority. Other barriers to energy trade include lack of trans-national infrastructures, such as transmission networks and gas pipelines; inconsistent framework for regional planning; incongruent pricing policies and access regulations; differences in energy subsidization policies; and lack of coordination among regional transmission utilities.

Regional Political Dilemma: South Asia as a region has great potentials in terms of rapidly growing economies, human resources and untapped energy potentials. The countries within themselves have forged a good number of regional, sub-regional and multilateral organizations for mutual cooperation. However, other regions like Europe or South East Asia, have flourished tremendously in regional cooperation. But, as a region, South Asia has not been able to attain such pace. The Geo-politics have always dominated Geo-economics in the regional affairs. As such, all sectors of cooperation have been affected including energy cooperation.

Political Climate with India: During Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s two-day visit to Bangladesh in 2015, India and Bangladesh opened a new chapter in improving economic relations including energy connectivity and cooperation. The bilateral relationship reached newer heights with the visit of Prime Minister to India in April 2017. The two countries signed 22 agreements to link their economies. Concurrently, 11 agreements/MOUs have been signed in the energy sector

105 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh cooperation both between the two Governments and private sectors of both countries. However, continuity and consistency in bilateral relations is critically important for maintaining and also enhancing cooperation in the energy sector.

Political Impediments with Myanmar: Bangladesh’s relations with Myanmar could not reach any significant level and the relationship quite often become strained or uneasy due to the influx of large number of Rohingya refugees from Myanmar to Bangladesh. These bilateral irritant between Bangladesh and Myanmar has regularly affected any cooperative efforts, including energy sector cooperation. From the Bangladesh Embassy officials in Myanmar and the officials of Petrobangla it is learnt that, since 2010, Bangladesh has attempted to revive the energy connectivity initiative with Myanmar. Accordingly, a Joint Working Group (JWG) was formed to carryout technical feasibility with experts from both countries. Two possible options were discussed at the JWG meetings; those are:

• A hydro power project on the Laymro River of Myanmar with a target of producing 500 - 600 MW power.

• A second hydro power project on a River in North Buthidaung of Rakhine State. This had a target of producing 70 - 80 MW power.

Unfortunately, due to the Rohingya crisis of 2012, the JWG proposals were shelved. As per the statement of incumbent Bangladesh Ambassador to Myanmar, Bangladesh took renewed initiative to enhance bilateral ties with Myanmar with a broader canvas in 2014. The Adviser to the Honourable Prime Minister on Energy visited Myanmar on 01 February 2014. In the meeting between the two sides, Bangladesh proposed to invest in the energy sector of Myanmar especially in Rakhine and Chin States. In addition, proposals were given by Bangladesh for Joint exploration and data sharing of Maritime gas blocks. Lastly, in August 2017, Honourable Deputy Minister for Power, Energy and Mineral Resources Mr. Nasrul Hamid visited Myanmar. However, officials of Petrobangla stated that,

106 the latest crisis arising from Rohingya issue has practically stalled any possibility of energy cooperation, at least for the time being.

Economic Challenges

In South Asia, most countries are energy-deficient and lack the capacity to trade in electricity. Large-scale investments are necessary to attain long- term benefits. Ironically, both decision makers and the people at large perceive short-term improvements in domestic power availability as higher investment priorities. Moreover, retail power prices remain subsidized in Bangladesh and northern India. (Gippner, 2010). Nevertheless, some of the project locations in Nepal with comparatively lower cost of production were earmarked for exports. Overall, though, the cost of developing new projects in Nepal is often higher than a similar investment in Bhutan and India.

Institutional and Infrastructural Barriers

The challenges arising from importing power and their countermeasures are discussed below (Power Division, MoPEMR, 2016).

Energy Security: In the case of importing power from other countries, the risk of supply interruption caused by adverse relationships between the two countries needs to be considered. Electric power, which is different from other types of supply, is technically easy to shut down even in minutes. So it is necessary to avoid excessive reliance on other countries in order not to place oneself in a serious situation. Specifically, the capacity of imported power from one country should ideally be within the limit of generating reserve margin and also 10% of all supply capacity in order to continue the supply in the event of unforeseen interruption.

Massive Blackout due to Large Scale Power Loss of Supply: It is desirable to import as much power as possible through one connecting point from the viewpoint of economic efficiency. However, if a huge amount of power is transmitted through one connecting point, it can lead

107 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh to the risk of massive blackout. Such a massive blackout occurred on 1st November 2014, triggered by 500 MW power loss / break down on the inter-connection line from India. In order to avoid such risk, the maximum level of import capacity in one inter-connection point has to be decided through proper technical study.

Mutual Interference due to Grid Accidents: Conducting power trading means transmission lines are connected between two neighbouring countries, which will lead to the possibility of mutual interference due to grid accidents. But the influence can be minimized by connecting DC lines. Current inter-connection lines between India and Bangladesh apply DC lines or non-connected lines by switching the load. There may be a few mutual interferences due to grid accidents in Bangladesh. The probability of interference will vary with the share of power import vis-a-vis own power supply.

Key Issues for Sub-Regional Power Market

As per the statement of PGCB officials, before entering into a common energy market, the following issues of the existing power infrastructure of Bangladesh are to be considered: • There are occasional congestion in the national grid at certain places at some peak hours. The grid system needs up-gradation to avoid such congestion. The future power traffic must also be catered while upgrading the existing transmission system. • The transmission lines in Bangladesh are either 11 kV/ 132 kV/ 230 kV/ 400 kV lines. For cross border and long distance interlinks 800 kV HVDC lines are necessary in future. • Currently, PGCB has undertaken a total of 19 projects for constructing new grid stations, transmission lines and other associated development works. • Power connectivity with another country needs matching of systems as a starter. Subsequently, an agreed ‘Grid Code’ needs to be adhered to by the connected parties.

108 Exploration of Opportunities and Future Prospects Future Programs

The government has outlined its vision targeting to become a developed country by 2041. In keeping with the Vision 2041 the PSMP-2016 has been prepared. As per PSMP- 2016: • New power plants will be established under public, private and PPP. • 3500 MW Power will be imported from the neighbouring countries. • 1500 MW electricity will be generated from renewable energy resources. • Coal based power plants of 4000 MW will be established by 2017 and 20,000 MW by 2030. • Nuclear power plants for 4000 MW will be established by 2030.

Cooperation with India - Future Potentials

Some future plans in power sector cooperation (bilateral and sub-regional) as learnt from MoPEMR, BPDB, PGCB and Petrobangla officials through the interview are mentioned below: • India has agreed to export another 500 MW power through Bheramara-Bahrampore grid Interlink after the capacity expansion programme is completed on bothsides of the border. • A major power transmission line is planned to be constructed from Assam (Bornagar) to (Katihar) across Bangladesh. Bangladesh would access this transmission line for importing 1,000 MW of electricity by setting up a grid substation at Barapukuria, Parbatripur. • Adani Power Limited of India signed an MOU with BPDB to supply 1600 MW of power from its plant under construction in , India. This power plant will be a dedicated one for exporting power to Bangladesh.

The MoPEMR of Bangladesh is currently working to import further 2000 to 3000 MW of power from India from following offers / options:

109 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

• Supply of 400 MW power from Haldia Power Plant of West Bengal. • Import of 340 MW power from NTPC Power Plant at Bongaigaoun, Assam. • Supply of 1000 - 1500 MW power from Sagardighi Power Station, West Bengal. • Sale of up to 1100 MW power by December 2019 from Palatana Project of ONGC Tripura Power Company Ltd (OTPC).

Prospect of Cooperation with Bhutan and Nepal

Bhutan: Bangladesh has been pursing to make a deal with Bhutan to invest in hydropower project in the landlocked country to re-import the electricity. It is part of a regional power trade. The Power Division under the MoPEMR has already given its consent on the draft MOU with Bhutan. Bangladesh has completed preliminary talks with Bhutan as well as India to facilitate import of hydroelectricity crossing over Indian territories (Rahman, 2017). Once the MOU is signed by the governments of Bangladesh, India and Bhutan, all three countries will jointly participate in the construction of the 1,125 MW Kuri - 1 hydropower project in Bhutan. The project construction is expected to start soon while the costs are expected to reach US$1.25bn, of which US$1bn will be provided by Bangladesh (Energy world, 2017).

Nepal: Nepal and Bangladesh began holding discussions on power trading in August 2014. Preparations to sign a power trade agreement between the Governments of Nepal and Bangladesh are underway. The draft outlines protocols for conducting energy trade between the two countries, in line with SAARC Framework Agreement for Energy Cooperation (SASEC, 2016). Meanwhile, during the visit of Honourable Prime Minster of Bangladesh to India in April 2017 an MOU was signed between National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) Limited of India and BPDB. Within the scope of a three-nation cross-border connectivity initiative, NTPC Ltd of India entered into a preliminary pact with BPDB for supply of power from Nepal. The estimated value of the deal is US$3.15 billion. (Rahman, 2017)

110 Energy Cooperation with Myanmar

With the total completion of construction of the Kaladan Multi- Modal Transit Transport Project there is a feasibility of building a pipeline upto Mizoram. Alongwith the roadway, a gas pipeline could traverse. Pragmatically, India may continue to engage with Bangladesh on connecting the pipeline from Mizoram to Kolkata. The advantage of going through Bangladesh is that, a large amount of Indian investments can take place in Bangladesh (Thandi, 2013).

Policy Recommendations for Bangladesh

Bangladesh has to carry the key responsibility for advancing energy cooperation with its neighbours. The recommended policy options for Bangladesh are depicted in the model given below. The details are enumerated in subsequent paragraphs.

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111 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

Consistent Political Commitment: Bangladesh, like any other country in the world has outstanding bilateral issues with both its neighbours: India and Myanmar. However, in the greater interest of peaceful coexistence Bangladesh has to:

• Display firm and consistent policiestowards the bilateral relations with its immediate neighbours. • Adopt a sustainable and viable commercial approach to power and energy trade rather than a politically popular adhoc approach. • Take bold and timely political decision to avail opportunities / offers of multilateral energy connectivity.

Prioritizing Geo-Economy over Geo-Politics: Despite the geo- political and security concerns, efforts are to be made to prioritize geo- economic considerations in the cross border energy trade. The policy recommendations are:

• Through the regional and sub-regional organizations like BIMSTEC, SAARC and BBIN the prospect of energy cooperation has to be constantly pursued by Bangladesh.

• By utilizing the leverage of powerhouses like India and China, Bangladesh may enter into tripartite energy connectivity with Myanmar.

Energy Diplomacy: Bangladesh needs to pursue effective energy diplomacy in bilateral level as well as in multilateral forums. Following measures are recommended:

• At the summit level talks of BBIN, Bangladesh’s major objective has to be to remove the barriers for regional power grid connectivity with Bhutan and Nepal through Indian territories.

• MoFA may seek assistance of veteran diplomats and energy experts to devise a roadmap to bolster diplomatic efforts and

112 pursue it constantly for effective bilateral and sub-regional energy diplomacy.

Capacity Enhancement: On its part, Bangladesh has to take measures to enhance its own capability in power sector for safe and efficient power transmission. Following measures are recommended:

• Wherever necessary separate transmission systems and operators are to be generated for sub-regional power connectivity.

• Power grids are to be harmonized and synchronized with the neighbouring countries, which will also facilitate conventional imports and exports.

• Upgrading (765 to 800 kV HVDC) and enhancing capacities of domestic power grid every year to allow for enhanced future power supply and transmission.

• Cooperation may also be sought from developed as well as neighbouring countries to introduce smart grid, grid code, technology transfer etc. to achieve energy efficiency.

Economic Security Assurance: Together with its immediate neighbours, Bangladesh needs to create an environment of security for private and foreign investors. The suggested measures are:

• FDI may be arranged not only for large scale power generation plants but also to upgrade sub-regional energy infrastructure as a whole.

• In order to pay back the investors and also to ensure economic well being of the people, the price fixation has to be realistic based on reliable market signals.

• The imported power price per unit also needs to be set to ensure win - win situation for both the buyer (Bangladesh) and the seller (neighbouring country).

113 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

Regulatory Framework Improvement: To increase energy cooperation, some important future steps are to be taken. The recommended measures are:

• Bangladesh may pursue for a formal structure under BBIN for sub- regional power exchange to review the power systems in individual countries. The structure has also to take into account commercial requirements and compatibility for cross-border trade.

• Establishment of independent regulatory regime may be proposed to improve investment environment for the private sector for both electricity generation and transmission.

• Independent legal framework may be proposed to deal with cross-border trade. This body may also be given the authority for resolution of disputes arising from energy trade between two or more countries.

Conclusion Energy is the key ingredient for the development of any country. This research analyzed the current state of the energy sector of Bangladesh, as well as the energy potentials in her immediate neighbourhood. It attempted to highlight the existing cross-border energy connectivity in the region and sub-region, involving Bangladesh. The political, economic infrastructural and institutional challenges posing barriers to energy connectivity with the neighbouring countries i.e. India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar was deliberated upon. An analysis of various initiatives and efforts taken by the government for energy connectivity vis-a-vis the intent of immediate neighbours offering opportunities in the sector of energy cooperation was explored.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Bangladesh, forging an intraregional, cross-border energy cooperation is primarily affected by political barriers. However, it can be effectively minimized if the long term economic benefits are better understood. Lack of trans-regional energy infrastructures, such as transmission networks and gas pipelines; inconsistent regulatory framework for regional planning; payment risks; incongruent pricing policies and access

114 regulations; differences in energy subsidization policies; and the lack of compatibility among regional transmission utilities also need to be addressed. Balanced against these challenges and barriers are several benefits of cross border energy cooperation. In theory, cross border trade among the sub regional countries could lead to lower relative prices and the improved welfare of participating countries. For example, both Bangladesh and India could fulfil their growing economic needs through imported hydropower from Bhutan and Nepal. Bangladesh could also benefit from the huge energy potentials of Myanmar, which also has huge hydroelectric power potential, either by having bilateral or regional arrangements. Practically, though, any bilateral cooperation with Myanmar seems to be a remote possibility under the shadow of deepening Rohingya crisis.

Bibliography

1. Adam Smith International, 2015. Institutional and Regulatory Assessment of the Extractive Industries in Myanmar. World Bank and UK Department for International Development. 2. Agrawal, P., 2009. China and India: A comparative Analysis of Approaches to Energy Security. USI Papers, [Monograph] pp.26-28. 3. Ali, S., 2013. Thesis Paper on Myanmar, Bangladesh and India: Prospects for Energy Cooperation. [Online] Available at: http:// voices.nationalgeographic.com. 4. BPDB Website, 2017. BPDB Home. [Online] Available at: http:// www.bpdb.gov.bd/bpdb. 5. BPDB, 2016. Maximum Generation. Dhaka: BPDB website. 6. Dharmadhikary, S., 2015. Hydropower in Bhutan - Time for a Rethink? [Online] Available at: https://www.internationalrivers.org. 7. Energyworld, 2017. Energyworld. [Online] Available at: http://energy. economictimes.indiatimes.com. 8. International Energy Agency, 2015. World Energy Outlook.

115 Energy Connectivity With Neighbouring Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for Bangladesh

9. Gippner, O., 2010. Energy Cooperation in South Asia: Prospects and Challenges. Discussion Paper. Kathmundu: South Asia Watch on Trade, Economics and Environment (SAWTEE). 10. Kattelus, M., Rahaman, M.M. & Varis, O., 2015. Hydropower development in Myanmar and its implication on regional energy cooperation. Int. J. Sustainable Society, 7(1). 11. Muniruzzaman, A., 2011. Towards a Gas Corridor in South Asia: Overcoming the Challenges. In D.S. Chandran & J. Jeganaathan, eds. 12. Pandey, N.N., 2016. Energy Security in South Asia: A Nepalese Perspective. In M.A. Rahman & S. Afroze, eds. Dhaka: Pathak Shamabesh. 13. Petrobangla Annual Report, 2015. Petrobangla Annual Report-2015. Dhaka: Petrobangla. 14. Petrobangla Website, 2017. Gas Block and Reserve. [Online] Available at: https://petrobangla.org.bd. 15. Petrobangla, 01-02 April 2016. Daily Gas & Condensate Production and Distribution Report. Dhaka: GM Production & Marketing. 16. Power Division , 2015. Bangladesh Power Sector: An Overview. Document. Dhaka: Power Division, Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources. 17. Power Division, MoPEMR, 2016. Power System Master Plan. Master Plan. Dhaka: MoPEMR. 18. Price, G. & Mittra, S., 2016. Water, Ecosystems and Energy in South Asia: Making Cross Border Collaboration Work. Research paper: Asia Programme. London. Interviews/Interactions 19. Rahmat Ullah Mohd. Dastagir, ndc, Additional Secretary, Power Division, MoPEMR interviewed at BPDB Head Office, Dhaka 20. Sheikh Faezul Amin PEng, Joint Secretary (Development), Power Division, MoPEMR, interviewed at Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka

116 21. H.E. Mohammad Sufiur Rahman, Ambassador of Bangladesh to Myanmar, interacted at the Ministry of Foreign affairs and later interviewed over telephone 22. Engr. Pranab Kumar Roy, Chief Engineer (P&D), Power Grid Companyof Bangladesh Ltd. (an Enterprise of BPDB), interviewed at PGCB Office, Dhaka

Author

Commodore Nazmul was commissioned in the Executive Branch of on 1st July 1986. He completed his initial training from Britannia Royal Naval College, UK. Commodore Nazmul did his long Navigation course from Cochin, India in 1993. He is a distinguished graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur and Naval War College, USA. He also attended Naval Command Course at US Naval War College. His academic qualifications include Bachelor of Science degree from Chittagong University and Masters in Defence Studies from National University, Bangladesh. Commodore Nazmul has a blend of Command, Staff and Instructional appointments throughout his career. He worked as Director General, Civil Military Relations at Armed Forces Division, Naval Operations and Director Naval Intelligence, Naval Head Quarters. His instructional career started as the Naval DS at Bangladesh Military Academy, as a Directing Staff (DS) and a Director at BNA and as DS in DSCSC. He was also appointed as the Commandant of Bangladesh Naval Academy. His Sea Commands include BN Ships BISHKHALI, TISTA, MADHUMATI and training frigate, BNS UMAR FAROOQ. He also commanded the Navy’s Special Force (SWADS). Commodore Nazmul has received the third prize in the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) Essay Competition 2015. He has also written an article in the UN Peacekeeping Journal 2016 published by the Armed Forces Division, Bangladesh.

117 REFORMING SUB INSPECTOR TRAINING IN BANGLADESH POLICE: PUBLIC EXPECTATION AND REALITY

Deputy Inspector General Md. Shamsuddin, ndc

Introduction

Bangladesh Police comprises of several ranks starting from Constable to Inspector General serving the nation by maintaining law and order, rendering various types service as per need that enhances peace and development of the country. Investigation of criminal cases are one of the major deeds of police department that is mainly done by Sub Inspectors (SI). SIs of Bangladesh Police are the key to investigating the criminal case namely the First Information Report (FIR) lodged in and recorded by the Officer-in- Charge (OC) of police station. Basically, the SIs are also ingrained strength to make the foundation of a criminal case. After the first responder to the Place of Occurrence (PO) and crime scene by the officers of Police Station (PS), the SIs are significant stakeholder to begin and uphold the journey of justice. From collecting evidence to giving testimony to the court of justice, SIs plays a pivotal role. But the quality and professionalism in the way of providing services to the people they are not completely capable to demonstrate all the times due to lack of accuracy in training.

Who are Sub-Inspectors? According to Police Regulations of Bengal (PRB) Rule 241, SIs are the entry level police officers who are the key performers of Bangladesh Police. SIs are selected by the Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) either by direct appointments or by departmental appointments. After the character and antecedents of the persons (SI) selected have been verified and found to be such as do not render him unfit for appointment in the service of the Republic, the DIG of Ranges shall send the lists of selected candidates to the Police Headquarters.

118 What is Training?

According to Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2006, “Training is the process of learning the skills someone needs to do a particular job or activity”.

Dale S. Beach defines training as ‘the organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and/or skill for a definite purpose’. Training refers to the teaching and learning activities carried on for the primary purpose of helping members of an organization acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes needed by a particular job and organization.

SI Training

Almost all the developing as well as developed countries expect that their land would be flourishing in democratic policing. In fact, democratic policing is about much more than simply “maintaining law and order”. It is about establishing and nurturing a healthy relationship with the community, based on mutual respect and understanding. But in order to do this law enforcement agencies need to change their mindset. Emphasis ought to be on providing a service as a means to uphold that law.

Definition of Reform

Reform can be defined, ‘is an effort to apply new ideas and combination of ideas to an administrative system with a conscious view to improving the system for positive goals of development’ (Lee, 970:7). He contributes two concepts, i.e:

• New ideas are necessary and related to improving the system; and Whose application is related to positive goals of national development (Lee, 1976).

119 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

Police Training Reform in Some Developed and Developing Countries:

Almost all the developed and developing countries expects that their land would be flourishing in democratic policing. In fact, democratic policing is about much more than simply “maintaing law and order”. It is about establishing and nurturing a healthy relationship with the community, based on mutual respect and understanding. But in order to do this law enforcement agencies need to change their mindset. The emphasis ought to be on providing a service as a means to uphold the law”.

Table 1: Police Reform in some Developed and Developing Countries Country Committees/ Operational Suggestions Organizational Plan Suggestions Japan Police Reform Self-improvement, Enhancement of Committee Affirmative response Transparency, (PRC)- 2000, to Citizen’s Complaints, Support Victims, Strict Inspection over National Police by PRC, Public Safety Strong measures Commission, against organized Development of crimes, Enhancement Human Resources, National of international crime Public Agency Burden reduction cooperation to cope through new with transnational crime technologies and and cybercrime. increase in personnel. England The long term Increase in Deployment of and development professionalism, specialized and Wales of British qualified personnel in police system Increasing focus on the management of the police performance, police, Changed vision of Gradual centralization police work between of the authority over a ranges of agencies police, to be carried out in partnership at the local level.

120 Table 1: Police Reform in some Developed and Developing Countries Pakistan New Police New Police Ordinance Introduction of Order 2002 solicit voluntary support manifold accountability replaced the and cooperation of the measures and 1861 Police people. independence from Act district magistrate’s Enabled police to act oversight at the district proactively for ushering level. in a culture of rule of law. Source: PSC Journal, Volume 1, Issue 1, Dhaka, pp 63-79

Legal Service Delivery Mechanism in Thana: Bangladesh Police Perspective

People’s satisfaction depends on getting services without any obstacle. But the scenario is that service seekers are not fully satisfied. They face many difficulties to get service from Thana. Mst. Tania Hashan (2015) conducted a study named “Legal Service Delivery Mechanism in Thana: Bangladesh Police Perspective”. The study was done at 06 Thanas (urban 03 and rural 03) on 60 respondents (30 police personnel and 30 general public) and got the scenario which was really disappointing and obviously it’s not the sign of good policing. Police service seekers are harassed and delaying in response. She also finds lack of facilities, shortage of manpower, lack of knowledge and unwanted influences are prevailing in police service.

Table 2: Level of Satisfaction about Police Response and Behavior Response Behavior Level of satisfaction Number Percent Number Percent Very Satisfied 4 13.3 4 13.3 Moderately Satisfied 7 23.3 5 16.7 Satisfied 11 36.7 13 43.3 Dissatisfied 6 20.0 5 16.7 Very Dissatisfied 2 6.7 3 10.0 Total 30 100 30 100 Source: PSC Journal, Volume 2, Issue 1, Dhaka, pp 35-48.

121 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

The level of satisfaction is higher than dissatisfaction but it could not possible to ignore the percentage of dissatisfied service seekers in case of police response and behavior. The study also tried to find out the solution how to solve the obstacles which are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Measures to remove obstacles in Police Response Time

(QIRUFHQHFHVVDU\VXSHUYLVLRQ 5HPRYHSROLWLFDO,QWHUIHUHQFH 5HFUXLWPHQWRI4XDOLILHG3HUVRQ &KDQJHWKH0HQWDOLW\ Source: PSC Journal, Volume 2, Issue 1, Dhaka, pp 35-48.

Most of the respondent emphasized on two important issues those are to recruit qualified personnel (23.3) in police and to increase the salary of police at Thana level.

Training Overview of Bangladesh Police

Existing Training Institutions and Conducted Courses

There are 52 authorized police training centers in Bangladesh. Police Academy (BPA), Sardah, Rajshahi is providing one year basic training and in-service training of different duration from Constable to ASP. Police Staff College (PSC), Dhaka is providing various in-service training to the BCS (Police) officers only. Police Training Center (PTC) , Rangpur, Khulna and Noakhali are providing both basic and in-service training, others are providing in-service training. SI recruitment is followed by one year-long training course at BPA, Sardah as Outside Cadets. After this, the recruits are put through another year-long practical training at different field level operational police units. After successful completion of

122 practical training SIs are confirmed in the post and eligible for conducting responsibilities including investigation. SIs also undergoes different in- service departmental and extra-departmental training courses.

Figure 2: Basic Training of SI at BPA, Sardah, Rajshahi

Source: Author

Role of Police in Quality Investigation

‘Investigation’ is ‘collection of evidences’ and criminal investigation as articulated by the American Law and Legal Information is process of collecting information (or evidence) about a crime in order to -

• Determine if a crime has been committed • Identify the perpetrator • Apprehend the perpetrator • Provide evidence to support a conviction in court.

If the first three objectives are successfully attained, then the crime said to be solved. Several other outcomes such as recovering stolen properties, deterring individuals from engaging in criminal behaviors and satisfying crime victims have also been associated with the process.

Strength of Police Station

The numerous duties leave the Thana unable to respond to all the needs of the people within their jurisdiction. Keeping aside all other factors if the number of manpower now available in a Thana is taken into consideration one can easily observes extreme inadequacy in this regard.

123 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

Table 3: Strength of a Thana Pattern Inspector SI ASI Constable Others M F M F M F M F M F Metropolitan 3 0 24 3 9 4 46 2 3 0 District 3 0 9 1 4 1 26 5 2 0 2 0 4 0 1 0 21 0 3 0 Source: TIB (2004), Investigation Report on Three Police Station, Dhaka.

Presently, there are a total of 615 (including 65 model Thana) sanctioned Police Stations of which 80 in Metropolitan areas. The lowest but the most stratum of the police system is the Thana. Thus effectiveness of police in the performance of their functions can best managed by the efficiency of the Thana. With the passage of time the facets of crime have changed and the rate of crime has increased in manifold. Simultaneously demand for police service has increased at a rate faster than the growth and expansion of the service delivery capacity of the police (Iqbal 2015).

A gap remains between expected service of the people and the actual services provided by the police. It is always creating big distance from each other. The undergoing cause is people’s level of expectation which appears to be always higher than the level of capacity held by the police force.

Necessity of Reforming SI Training Sub Inspector of Bangladesh Police is in need of training reform because of its alleged inefficiency, attitude and lack of skill in different areas. They are lacking behind in using modern scientific technology. Training is for need-based, problem oriented and high stress based. SIs should have positive attitude, creative and innovative thinking, planning and decision making ability, commitment and integrity to society. So, it has become one of the important government agenda which needs immediate attention to reform training curriculum and facilities which should be technology based and practical oriented. To tune them in such a way that they should be capable of handling any situations both physically and mentally for which need to go through series of training. Training should be

124 Designed to Enhance

• Practical Police-work • Personal dignity • Sense of responsibility • Consideration for the feelings of subordinates and of the people. Research Analysis

A questionnaire was distributed among 100 police personnel of different ranks starting from SI to DIG at different units of the country and also among 50 higher levels of citizens including government and nongovernment officials, civil and military, NGO and businessmen. A total of 10 questions (open and close) on police training system, need for reform, activities, skill, efficiencies, attitudes to crime victims, investigation and use of scientific method, technology based investigation, public expectation and realities were asked. 55% Police and 80% Non-Police personnel opined that present training system for SI need to reform.

Field of Reform in Skill, Knowledge and Attitudes of SI’s

Most of the respondents opined that there are major deficiencies in regard to skill, knowledge and attitudes of SIs. Suggested field of reforms are:

• Psychologically positive and human rights training to be imparted. • Cyber Crime, Mobile Tracking and ICT related training to be ensured. • Recruitment should be proper and fair.

Field of Reform in Behavior, Norms and Customs • There are deficiencies in attitude, behavior, norms and social customs. • Developing self-respect, public dealing and attitude towards service seekers to be positive. • Negative attitude and hostile behavior should be given up.

125 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

Field of Reform in Crime

93% police and 90% non-police opined that SI’s should undergo two weeks training per year. Both 74% police and 90% non-police are agreed on important cases to be investigated by expert team. Field of reforms are:

• Crime scene investigation and analysis of the exhibits need to be more realistic. • Victims should not be harassed and grievances should receive cordially. • Trust in police is missing and lacking in procedure. • More Victim Support Center should established. Seperate Training Institute

60% respondents (police and non-police) are in the same opinion that there should be separated training institute for each Specialized Police unit.

Field of Reform in investigation • More advanced and user friendly technology is needed. • Man behind technology and Technical knowhow is important. • Foreign training to increase the technology based investigation capacity like Federal Bureau of Investigation in USA, Europe, China or Scotland Yard.

Public Expectation from IO • Should be sincere, unbiased in unearthing the fact. • Maintaining transparency and impartiality to promulgate the fact. • Positive to public service and more cooperative. • To stabilize social unrest.

Reality in Terms of Investigation in Present Days • Lost faith and credibility. • Dearth of evidential proof and violating Rules and Regulations.

126 • People are being harassed and arbitrary arresting of innocent people. • Lack of appropriate technical knowledge of IOs.

Quality Investigation can be Ensured in the Following Process • More realistic and need based training may imparted. • Positive attitude, self-thinking capacity and foresight to be inculcated. • Avoiding subservient attitude and psychological counseling. • Maintaining transparency and accountability of IO. • Stick to Rules and Regulations and upholding professionalism.

Challenges of SI Training Reform

Lack of Knowledge and Skill in Investigating Officer

In reality, there are some deviations from existing rules and regulations due to over exercise and misuse of power by some police personnel. This happened due to lack of knowledge, skill, attitude and tact. It is found that some IOs are not aware of existing laws relating to criminal investigation and the standards of investigation and they lack skills and experiences about investigation techniques, crime scene management, evidence preservation etc. Proper training imparts knowledge, skills and practical experience. The study also disclosed that many investigation officer are not experienced in using the instruments even what they have right now let alone advances technologies. For investigation, specialized training is imperative (Aziz and Shakhawat 2014).

Issues and Challenges for Bangladesh Police Reform

Two former IGP and an expert in this field (Shajahan, 2005, Karzon 2008, and Huda 2009) have correctly pointed out that unless there is significance change in the beliefs, values and attitudes of the members of police service

127 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality there is little prospect that there will be a promising result. MA Kabir committee on Police Training Reform constituted in the year 1977 onward to police reform initiated by UNDP (2005) made a significant number of recommendations in different points of time but most of those are still waiting for implementation. In this connection observation made by Justice Aminur Rahman Khan’s commission (1988-1989) deserve special mention (Khan, et al. 1989) on training such as-

• Defect of police recruitment, training facilities and promotion procedure. • Interference in the discharge of duties by the police. • Lack of strict discipline and effective supervision, inspection and control.

Causes of Ineffectiveness

The principle causes of ineffectiveness of the Bangladesh Police are as follows:

• Inadequacy of SIs and deficiencies in the skill, knowledge and attitude. • Lack of proper in-service training & motivation of SIs. • Shortage of transport and logistics including electronic devices. • Inadequate accommodation in offices and residences. • Inadequate modern technology and ICT based skill. • Presence of discrimination, nepotism and partiality on personnel by the authority. • Dependency of IO on the decision of senior officer or political master. • Inadequate incentive and incoherent professional status. • Absence of carrier planning and faulty evaluation procedure. • Political influence on recruitment, deployment and promotion process.

128 Recommendations

Police in Democratic Society

Policing in a democratic country should be according to its constitution, different criminal acts, rules and regulation and that of the government’s directives to uphold the citizen’s right, maintaining law and order, ensuring human rights and dignity. Police officer in field operation need to keep in mind that each and every action will have to answerable to the nation. So, accountability and transparency should inculcate in each and every personnel mainly SIs as they are in the focus. It is the only department who can directly create the congenial atmosphere for peace and tranquility, maintaining law and order, enhancing the environment for development of the country. Time to time, it needs to scrutinize the activities where to put more emphasis, what are the upcoming challenges and how to redress those.

Findings of the Study

SI of Bangladesh Police is in need of training reform because of its alleged inefficiency, attitude and lack of skill in different areas. They are lacking behind in using modern scientific technology. Training is for need-based, problem oriented and high stress based. SI’s should have positive attitude, creative and innovative thinking, planning and decision making ability, commitment and integrity to society. To tune them in such a way that they should be capable of handling any situations both physically and mentally for why need to go through series of training. In a democratic society, policing should be in accordance with the expectation of the people, community engagement, timeliness and prompt in action, unbiased and neutral in discharging duties to fulfill the government agenda for the betterment of the country.

129 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

Table 4: Strategic Action Plan for Reforming SI Training Sl Goal How change will Responsible Tentative time Scenario after the No take place unit for achieving change goals 1 Effective To be oriented Bangladesh First 9 month One can Basic Training with field Police Academy in BPA, 3 compare training experience (BPA), Sardah month in a experience with and Police Thana and last field experience Head Quarters 3 month in (PHQ) BPA 2 Field training Intensive care Respective unit One year Personnel will be need to be taken, head more efficient trainee should be examined by the unit head monthly 3 Development Through timely All related One year of More of skill and imparting of departmental basic training skilled, more knowledge legal and tactical and extra and yearly knowledgeable knowledge in departmental 60 hours of police officers in both basic and in Training in service functioning service training Institutes training 4 Specialized Special crime There should Two months SI will be investigation like- cybercrime, be special training in efficient in team organized crime, team for every 3 year investigating transnational each types of respective types crime, financial special crime of heinous crime, trafficking by Respective crime in human unit, Police being, arms and Bureau of ammunitions and Investigation narcotics should (PBI) and be investigated Criminal by separate Investgation special team Department (CID)

130 Table 4: Strategic Action Plan for Reforming SI Training 5 Overseas At least 5% of SI PHQ, Continua- tion Police officers training should be trained Ministry of will be in different Home Affairs specialized as developed (MOHA), international countries on Ministry of standard terrorism, Foreign Affairs organized and (MOFA), transnational Ministry of crime Finance Affairs (MOFin) 6 Orientation Should undergo PHQ, AHQ Two weeks It will increase Training orientation and MOHA training mutual training to for every respect and Bangladesh individual understanding Army 7 Community Interaction with Respective unit Throughout Ensuring people engagement community service life friendly policing through community Policing, OHD, Spots and various types of cultural and social events 8 Citizens right Human rights, All training Throughout Attitude, Children’s right, institutes and service life behavior and victim’s right, PHQ responsibilities women’s right, of police arrestee’s right personnel will be etc should be positive towards vigorously trained. citizen 9 Recruitment Graduates in Recruitment As per Personnel will Police Science board, PHQ, recruitment be law abiding, should be given MOHA, rules and patriotic and priority Ministry calendar courageous of Public Administration (MOPA)

131 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

Table 4: Strategic Action Plan for Reforming SI Training 10 Evaluation Training Police As per Annual Personnel will performance, Intelligence Confidenti-al be sincere, well field efficiency, Oversight(PIO) Record rules behaved, ICT behavior, skill in and Intelligence friendly and ICT, reputation report should people’s oriented and community be taken into policing can be orientation consideration ensured. should be by the Report monitor and Initiating reflected in ACR. Officer(RIO) and Counter Signing Officer (CSO) 11 Posting There should be PHQ and Throughout SIs will be a carrier planning respective unit service life efficient in all and posting head types of policing policy. All and will work units should be spontaneously categorized as - and (i) Operational systematically unit, (ii) Training unit and(iii) Desk job unit. 12 Creation Coordination PHQ, MOHA Permanent by Appropriate and of Training and consultation next 2years quality training Management with all police will be ensured. Board (TMB) training institutions, research on training need to be carried out on a regular basis. 13 Creation Reviewing PHQ, MOHA Permanent by A need based of Training existing training next 2years training Development curriculum curriculum will Unit (TDU) and providing be ensured. recommendation for future development

132 Table 4: Strategic Action Plan for Reforming SI Training 14 Public All officers Respective unit Continuous Scenario will pro- expectation should be head and PHQ people oriented and Reality monitored secretly for honesty, neutrality, sincerity, unbiasedness, politeness, efficient and promptness in action etc. Source: PRP

Conclusion

Police station is the most important and the oldest unit of police department. It is the police station from where the activities of police embark in order to ensure service to the grassroots. The SI being the protagonist of the police station create a conduit between people and the police which paves the way for emanation of peace, order and tranquility in the nook and corner of the society.

The study has identified some important and crucial areas like deficiencies in skill, knowledge, attitude, promptness in action, using modern scientific technology, over assignment, lack of proper in-service training & motivation and intelligence management of SI of Bangladesh Police where immediate reforms are needed. It has been found that these areas are most vital for smooth functioning of criminal investigation and to maintain peace and tranquility to the society by Police department. Bangladesh Police, as a service provider will win public soft-corner, if a considerate reformation and massive modification is brought in reforming infra-structure, developing training curriculum and upgrading the standard of instructors with a view to saving life and property, detecting & preventing crime and providing service with diligence and ethics.

133 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

It is very much important to improve service delivery through:

• Awareness raising. • Humanitarian activity. • Crime management and. • Law enforcement.

References

1. Azizur, M Rahman, Associate Professor, Shakhawat, Md. Hossain, Research Assistant, ICA Bangladesh and Graduate Student, both are in Department of Criminology and Police Science, Mawlana Bhasani Science and Technology University, Tangail, Bangladesh, October 2015 ‘An Empirical study on the issues and problems of criminal investigation in Bangladesh’, PSC Journal, Volume 1, Issue 2, Dhaka, pp 81-93.

2. Bayley, D. H. (1978), ‘Forces of Order Police Behavior in Japan and the United States California’, University of California Press.

3. Bayley, D. H. (2001), ‘Democratizing the Police Abroad: What to Do and How to Do it’, Washington, National Institute of Justice.

4. ‘Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary’, 2006, Page 1378.

5. Farooque, Ahmed ppm, AIG (O & M), PHQ, Dhaka, Police Week 2017, ‘Basics of Organizational Capacity and Its Implication in Bangladesh Police’, The Detective, Dhaka, pp 101-107.

6. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh (1861), ‘The Police Act of 1861’, Bangladesh Government Press, Dhaka.

7. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh (Revised in 1997), ‘Police Regulations of Bengal, 1943’, Bangladesh Government Press, Dhaka.

134 8. Iqbal, Dr. AKM Hossain, Addl SP, SB, Bangladesh, October 2015 ‘Policing in Bangladesh Society: Force versus Service Dichotomy’, PSC Journal, Volume 1, Issue 2, Dhaka, p 35.

9. Iqbal, Dr. AKM Hossain, Addl SP, SB, Bangladesh,October 2015 ‘Problems of Thana Police in Bangladesh and Way Out’, PSC Journal, Volume 2, Issue 2, Dhaka, pp 131-134.

10. Iqbal, Dr. AKM Hossain, Addl SP, SB, Bangladesh, February 2015 ‘Challenges in Police Reform of Bangladesh: Promoting Effectiveness and Accountability’, PSC Journal, Volume 2, Issue 1, Dhaka, pp 49-63.

11. IOM 2011, ‘Standard Operating Procedure on Trafficking in Human Being and other organized crimes’ IOM, Dhaka, Bangladesh, p81.

12. Kibria, A.B.M.G, 1976, “Police Administration in Bangladesh.”Khosroz Kitab Mahal 15 Bangla Bazar, Dhaka.

13. Klaus von Lampe, 2016, “Definitions of organized crime”, P 488, www.organized-crime.de/OCDEFI.httm

14. Mahfujul, Syed Haque Marjan, Lecturer, Department of Criminology, University of Dhaka, Police Week 2017, ‘Bangladesh Police in Counter Terrorism’ The Detective, Dhaka, pp 82-86.

15. Mamunul, Dr. Md. Al Ansary, Addl SP, CID, Bangladesh, February 2014 ‘Strategies of Law Enforcing Agencies in Combating Trafficking of Women and Children in Bangladesh’, PSC Journal, Volume 1, Issue 1, Dhaka, p 48.

16. Pinc, T M (2010), ‘Police Reform: A Determinants of Democracy’s Development’ Southern University Carnodale, USA.

17. Police Reform Taskforce (2005), ‘Policing for the People Policy Review: Mid-term Report’retrieved from http:www.reform.co.uk

135 Reforming Sub Inspector Training in Bangladesh Police: Public Expectation and Reality

Author

Md Shamsuddin, Deputy Inspector General, Bangladesh Police was born on 31 December 1961. He joined (Police) in 1989. He served as Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP) at Armed Police Battalion, Belaichari, Hill Tract in1992-93. In 1993- 94 he served protection and protocol duties to Diplomatic Missions in Bangladesh as Assistant Police Commissioner under Dhaka Metropolitan Police. In 1994-95 he served as ASP at Morrelgonj, Bagerhat.

He served in Angola (1997-99) and Sudan (2005-06) as United Nations Peace Keeper in different capacities. He was promoted to the rank of Superintendent of Police in 2003 and served in several districts as SP. He also commanded Armed Police Battalion at Belaichari and Dhaka in 2003- 05 and Range Reserve Force in Khulna in 2007-08. He served as Police Commissioner of Barisal Metropolitan Police (2012-14) and Rajshahi Metropolitan Police (2015-16).

He attended a good number of professional courses at home and abroad. He did Counter Terrorism Course in Thailand and Philippines arranged by INTERPOL. He visited many countries accross the globe. He is a keen lover of cricket, Lawn Tennis, Badminton, Gardening and listening music.

136 DEVELOPING SINEWS OF INDIA’S ACT EAST POLICY ON TRIANGULAR PIVOT OF BANGLADESH, MYANMAR AND INDIA’S NORTH EAST REGION (NER)

Brigadier Dheerendra Singh Kushwah, SM, ndc

Introduction

India made a paradigm shift by adopting its ‘Look East Policy (LEP)’ in 1992 when it’s economy was in midst of a crisis with depleting forex reserves and skewed trade balance. Focused on strengthening ties between India and ASEAN, it registered impressive gains for 20 years after its inception. India - ASEAN trade increased from $2 billion in 1992 to $72 billion in 2012 (Sajjanhar 2016). Today, India is at a critical inflection point in its growth story. Its economy became fastest growing economy by surpassing China in 2014 and is the sixth largest economy in world in nominal GDP and third largest in PPP. Effective regional integration with South East (SE) Asia and East Asia would truly unlock India’s economic potential and would yield substantial peace dividend for entire region.

Indian Government outlined Act East Policy (AEP) in November 2014. It seeks to revive and reinvigorate India’s relations with ASEAN as well as expand engagement to far East. One of the key problems inhibiting growth in trade is absence of physical connectivity with ASEAN as cross-border infrastructure services and trade between India and ASEAN is limited to only ocean and air shipping. Over the years, several flagship physical connectivity projects between India and ASEAN have been conceived (De, Prabir 2014). Apropos; India’s NER, Bangladesh and Myanmar emerge as a critical triangular geographical pivot as it not only acts as the land bridge to ASEAN but also offers multi-dimensional dividends from sub regional cooperation.

137 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

Regional Connectivity Construct and India’s AEP Conceptualizing Regional Connectivity

In his seminal book ‘Connectography: Mapping the Future of Global Civilization’, Parag Khanna argues that era of organizing world according to political space (how we legally divide the globe) is giving way to organizing it according to functional space (how we actually use it). Long-standing mantra of the de jure world is ‘This land is my land.’ The new motto of the de facto, supply chain world is ‘Use it or lose it.’ In a supply chain world, it matters less who owns (or claims) territory than who uses (or administers) it. As per him, “Connectivity is the new meta-pattern of our age” and “There is no better investment than connectivity” (Khanna 2016).

Contrary to common perception regional connectivity is not merely a network of trans-border highways and railways crisscrossing. Conceptual framework of regional connectivity stems from theory of ‘Fragmentation of Industrial Production and Supply Chain’ (Figure 1). With good connectivity architecture regional and even global businesses seek to exploit scales of economy, locational and specialization advantages in the region. Therefore, with efficient and seamless connectivity Regional Value Chains get formed. Regional connectivity actually leads to shared prosperity. To attract fragmented production blocks, three costs should be favourable. These being: network setup costs, service link costs (connectivity costs) and production costs.

Figure 1: Fragmentation Theory

Source: ERIA based on Kimura and Kobayashi (2009)

138 Regional connectivity can be described as level and effectiveness of regional networks to facilitate flows of goods, services, people and knowledge. It is a multifaceted and multidimensional phenomenon and has to be pursued concurrently along the four Core Connectivity Segments – Transportation and Trade, ICT, Energy, People to People. (Transport Divison of ESCAP 2014).

Transiting Look East to Act East ‘AEP’ is being widely lauded as the phase II of LEP; yet there are concerns in some quarters of it being the old wine in new bottle. LEP / AEP are intrinsically symbiotic and effectively seek to synthesize Indian geo- economics and geostrategic cauldron in relevant strategic environment at the time of their conception. LEP came on the horizon in immediate wake of disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union with which India had deep economic and strategic linkages. In backdrop of sluggish and unfavourable India – ASEAN trade and rising Chinese footprint in the region; AEP seeks to add vigour to LEP since 2014. East Asia matter economically and strategically for India. India needs to become, for its own self-interest, more integrated into this Region.

Defining features of LEP were; economy, institutional integration and regional balance of power. Of these, ‘institutional integration’ has been most successful aspect. Today, India is very much a part of the security architecture and the economic ecosystem in Asia. The balance of power matrix got a fillip with LEP’s natural coherence with US Rebalancing Strategy. However, with Trump administration mired in internal conflict and its foreign policy largely unintelligible, India may be faced with its toughest challenge in executing its Asia Pacific outreach. Any dilution of the ‘Rebalancing’ could leave India, to plough a lonely furrow. (Times of India, 2017)

While the countries in SE Asia are aware of AEP but it doesn’t seems to have gained desired traction yet. They remain sceptical about Indian ability to finish projects in time and match Chinese infrastructure development programmes. Besides, they falter India on ease of doing business. Bilaterally, China is single largest trading partner of all ASEAN members. This forces

139 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER) them to adopt adaptive strategies in their individual relations with China. A divided ASEAN provides China with an opportunity to demonstrate its economic and military muscle. Much against the popular perception, ASEAN is politically fragmented. It is largely an effective economic block with flourishing intra-regional trade but not one community like EU. This has an impact on harmonious regional approach on geopolitical issues. Notwithstanding, ASEAN nations do realize the potential of diversifying their economy to reduce their excessive dependence on China. They would want to see India integrated, both in security and economic dimensions. AEP, therefore, is not mutually exclusive. However, backbone of East Asian economics is integrated supply and production chains, to which India is currently largely irrelevant due to lack of physical connectivity. (Jaishankar 2014)

India - ASEAN Trade

India shares about 11% of its global exports and 10.7% of its global imports with ASEAN and India’s export to ASEAN has been growing faster than her imports. (Table 1)

Table 1: Growing India-Asian Trade Year India - ASEAN Trade (Values in US$ Million) Export Value %Share Import Value %Share (Total Export) (Total Export) 1999-2000 2237 06 4629 09 (36822) (49738) 2009-10 18113 10 25797 8.9 (178751) (288972) 2015-16 25124 09 39909 10 (262290) (381006) 2016-17 27116 11 36617 10.7 (244.801) (340902) Source: Directorate of Foreign Trade, .

140 AEP and Regional Connectivity Architecture

Regional physical connectivity architecture between India and ASEAN encompasses (Figure 2) : (Dr. Prabir De 2012)

• India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway (IMTTH or TH). • Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP). • Extending the IMTTH to connect Cambodia and Vietnam. • India-Myanmar-Lao PDR-Cambodia-Vietnam Highway. • Delhi-Hanoi railway link. • Mekong-India Economic Corridor (MIEC), which connects South Asia with Southeast Asia. • Stillwell Road and Tiddim-Rih-Falam Road. • Bangladesh-PRC-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM-EC).

Figure 2: AEP and Regional Connectivity Architecture

Source: RIS

AEP and India’s NER

NER - A Laggard

Ironically, despite the fact that the LEP has been in existence for over two and a half decade and even as it has substantially benefited the states in other

141 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER) parts of India, its benefits to NER have been negligible. Logically, LEP must have begun with NER. However, the policy remained a slogan and did not enable harmonious and productive relationship with neighbouring countries. Despite LEP, NER remains under economic imprisonment within its international frontiers (NEC 2008). A formal North East perspective on LEP emerged at the official level only in October, 2007 when LEP became an integral part of NER Vision 2020 (Doner 2011).

India’s NER and West Bengal links India’s eastern neighbours such as Bangladesh, China, Myanmar, Bhutan and Nepal with India. It shares over 98% of its border with these neighbours and less than 2% with the rest of India. Before partition, NER was linked with rest of India through present day Bangladesh. Now, NER is connected with the rest of India through the narrow Siliguri Corridor which increases distance between the NER and Kolkata (eastern entry port of India). (Table 2) Although, NER is rich in resources like hydrocarbons, forest, hydro-electricity, and other minerals, high transportation cost did not allow her to grow according to her comparative advantages. Connectivity bottlenecks have made the region perpetually underdeveloped and hence politically volatile. (PIB 2008), (De, Chapter 3 : ASEAN-India Connectivity: An Indian Perspective 2011). Region has been a laggard on account of number of intertwined issues. They vary from the colonial past to abrupt physical disconnection in the post-partition period. Protracted insurgency and violence has led to mis-governance and instability. A lack of vision among local leaders and an over-dependence on central government funds have also taken a toll. Rent seeking on resources such as local coal, oil, gas, forests, water, etc has been institutionalised, thus turning resource ‘richness’ into a resource ‘curse’. (Mahendra P Lama 2017)

NER - An Enabler in AEP NER is unique in terms of opportunities. While it is an industrial desert, it is the focal point of trade. Regional and interregional connectivity initiatives have brought spot light on it. (Mahendra P Lama 2017). NER’s locational advantage and rich natural resources provide a backbone to its development and base for cooperation not only with ASEAN, but also with

142 neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal (Doner 2011). NER can be developed into a regional economic hub. (Prabir De and Manab Majumdar 2014).

Connectivity Perspective NER is at the very heart of continental connectivity in sub region and with ASEAN. It also offers immense scope for development of IWT. Undivided Bengal and the NER were an integrated economic market prior to Independence where Brahmaputra and Barak - Surma - Meghna Rivers transport system was extensively used. IWT is a natural fit for non- perishable and high volume NER trade with rest of India. It will also decongest narrow Siliguri Corridor. Challenge here is active participation by Bangladesh and creation of a policy regime that promotes investment in appropriate fleet of vessels.

AEP and Bangladesh

Over the years, Bangladesh has established a credible record of sustained growth within a stable macroeconomic framework. Referred to as an economic miracle by some; it is at the cusp of taking a leap into middle income country by 2021 and has an ambitious target of achieving a developed country status by 2041. To achieve its vision of economic growth and development, Bangladesh is placing considerable emphasis on regional connectivity to exploit its geographical location astride Bay of Bengal and aspires to be a regional connectivity hub. Hence, there is a natural marriage of interests and prospects of win – win situation for India’s AEP.

Bangladesh and its neighbouring countries could benefit considerably, if transport connectivity is conceived in the sub-regional context, to link effectively Nepal, Bhutan and NER (Table 2). Bangladesh is fortunate to have two sea ports and potential for developing another deep-sea port. But the development of such a deep-sea port can be justified only if there is a sub-regional patronage. (M. Rahmatullah 2009). Bangladesh therefore is a natural pillar of AEP.

143 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

Table 2: Connectivity Differential Via Siliguri Distance From To Via Bangladesh Corridor Differential Agartala Kolkata 1680 kms 450 kms 1230 kms Silchar Kolkata 1407 kms 600 kms 807 kms Guwahati Kolkata 1081 kms 830 kms 261 kms Shillong Kolkata 1181 kms 720 kms 461 kms Imphal Kolkata 1742 kms 900 kms 842 kms Aizawl Kolkata 1657 kms 800 kms 857 kms Source: ORF Occasional Paper #51, June 2014

Bilateral Trade Mutual trade between the two countries account for 1/4th of South Asian trade volume. India has been the largest trading partner of Bangladesh for over last two decades. Bangladesh has concerns on high bilateral trade deficit with India, which has increased from US$ 44 million in 1981 to US$ 2.5 billion in 2009 and to US$ 5.4 billion in 2015 -16. (Financial Express 2017).

Connectivity Perspective SAARC Regional Multimodal Transport Study provides priority corridors among SAARC countries. Bangladesh has 6 out of 10 road corridors, 2 out of 5 rail corridors, and 2 principal ports (Chattogram and Mongla) for SAARC trade. These land transport corridors (roads and railways) in Bangladesh covers 8% of the major road network and 12% of the rail network of the country. Three Asian Highways are planned to transit Bangladesh (Figure 3). Development of these corridors would complete the subregional land transport network in the country, which will stimulate subregional trades as well as national economy. (ADB 2016)

Road Connectivity Road transport is the predominant mode of accounting for 80% of total traffic moved. Bangladesh’s road quality

144 does not correspond to the AH standards and is only capable of handling local rather than long distance transport. This gap is acutely felt in accommodating containers on Dhaka–Chattogram roads, thus constraining trading activities. Severe congestion is a prominent and permanent feature of highways. For cross-border road connectivity, harmonizing standards, signaling system and protocols is needed. (M. K. Rahman 2014).

Condition of roads in Bangladesh is not suitable to carry axle loads over 8.2 tons. While this may be adequate to meet the internal requirements of the country, it is grossly inadequate to cater to cross border heavy vehicle traffic. As a result, the highways under SASEC and AHs and catering requirements of NER are being financed by ADB and India under bilateral arrangement. (H. Z. Rahman 2010). Crucial links being; Road Kolkata - Petrapole – - Jashore - Dhaka - Brahmanbaria - Sylhet - Tamabil (From Akhaura a link road to Agartala), Road Kakarvita (Nepal) - Phulbari (India) - (Bangladesh) - Bogura - Jashore - Khulna and Road Thimpu - Phuentsholing-Jaigon - Chengrabandha - Burimari - Rangpur -Bogura - Jashore - Khulna.

Movement of goods between India and Bangladesh by roads is operationalized through 49 notified Land Customs Stations (LCSs) and two Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) along the border. Of the 49 Land Customs Station, 36 are currently functional.

Rail Connectivity

In Bangladesh, unlike roads railways did not flourish. However, the existing tracks with little extension can fulfill the requirement of regional connectivity. Major constraints in rail connectivity are the lack of compatibility due to differing gauges, rolling stock and braking system. At present, there are four operational links between India and Bangladesh. These include; Petrapole – Benapole, Gede – Darshana, Singhabad – Rohanpur and Radhikapur – Birol. Rail links under construction are Karimganj / Mahisasan – Shahbazpur, Haldibari – Chilhati, Akhaura –

145 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

Agartala and Feni – Belonia. In 2011, an MOU to facilitate rail transit to / from Bangladesh and Nepal by using the Rohanpur – Singhabad route was agreed to. It permitted rail transit between Bangladesh and Nepal using the Indian Territory through the Radikapur - Birol line

Figure 3: AH Routes in Bangladesh

Source: CPD 2010

Air Connectivity

There are presently around 100 flights operating weekly between India and Bangladesh connecting various Indian cities like New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai to Dhaka and Chattogram. There is a proposal to start service between Dhaka to Guwahati shortly. (Shishir Kothari 2017)

IWT and Coastal Connectivity

Historically, NER was always land-locked but water-linked, undivided Bengal and the NER were an integrated economic market based on river transportation network. (M. Rahmatullah 2009). Protocol on Inland Water Trade and Transit (PIWTT) has been operational since 1972. It permits movement of goods over barges / vessels through the river systems of Bangladesh on eight specific routes between points in West Bengal

146 and Bangladesh. PIWTT, along with the bilateral trade agreement, was renewed for a period of five years with provision for auto renewal during Indian Prime Minister’s visit to Bangladesh in June, 2015. Coastal Shipping Agreement inked in 2015 would be a game changer as it would lead to commencement of direct sea trade / movement of containerized / bulk / dry cargo between the two countries.

Connectivity through Energy Bangladesh is importing 600 MW of power from two existing interconnections at Bheramara and Cumilla and 500 MW from Indian open market. Agreement on transmission 6000 MW power from NER to the Western Grid using Bangladesh as transit is in the offing. Bangladesh will draw 1000 MW from tapping points at Parbatipur. Transit facility to Bangladesh for importing electricity from Nepal and Bhutan through India has also been agreed. Similar MoU for cooperation with Bhutan is in the offing. (MEA India 2017).

AEP and Myanmar

Myanmar is located at the meeting point of South and Southeast Asia and shares a 1643 km long land border and a long maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal with India. Given its geostrategic location; Myanmar stands out as the only land bridge to Indian aspirations for physical connectivity with ASEAN and the rest of the Asia Pacific.

India’s relationship with Myanmar has seen a number of policy reversals – support to democracy movement of 1988, engaging with the military junta and subsequent sponsorship of Myanmar in the BIMSTEC and ambivalence on the ‘Saffron Revolution’. India seems to be a less significant player in Myanmar than China, USA, Thailand, Japan, South Korea, or Singapore. Even Vietnam has a more visible economic presence in Yangon than India. Trade and development are moving very slowly, as are infrastructure projects. Vast disparity between India’s military engagement and that of China and trust deficit with Suu Kyi and her supporters (who

147 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER) have not forgiven India for what they regard as a deep betrayal) casts doubt on credibility of Indian engagement. To offset this, in November 2014, PM Modi visited Naypidaw to attend the East Asia Summit, his first visit to a Southeast Asian nation as PM and announced launch of AEP.

Trade Perspective

Myanmar, still assessed as LDC, is resource rich and is well poised to become a middle income country by 2030. With liberal FDI and land acquisition laws, foreign investment in Myanmar has picked up. Investments by Indian companies, however, are still low with India at tenth place (accounting for 0.82 % of total investment) among all Myanmar foreign investing countries. China leads the tally with 41.71% share. Bilateral trade between India and Myanmar has seen significant growth growing from US$ 12 million in 1980 to over US$ 2 billion in 2014. India ranks third among Myanmar’s export destinations but in respect of imports into Myanmar, India finds itself only eighth place. (Ambassador V. S. Seshadri 2014).

Trade between India and Myanmar through the border trade points of Moreh and Zokhawthar in 2012-13 was only $ 6.5 million which is only 1 % of Myanmar’s total border trade. KMMTP that connects Kolkata port with Sittwe port presents opportunity of intensifying economic cooperation through sea. Also important would be the Chennai port for sea links with ports of Yangon and Dawei. Maritime trade however bypasses NER. (Mihir Bhonsale 2015)

Trade figures between India and Myanmar at Table 3 suggest rise in bilateral trade between the two countries in India’s favor since 2010. Overall, trade increased from $ 1.3 billion to over $ 2 billion. Two recent (2015) developments in bilateral trade are crucial. These include a shift from barter to normal trade and another shift from border trade to normal trade that can take place through land border. (Dr. Ram Upendra Das 2016)

148 Table 3: India - Myanmar Trade Trade YEAR 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 Imports 1,017.67 1,381.15 1,412.69 1,395.67 1,231.54 984.27 Exports 320.62 545.38 544.66 787.01 773.24 1,068.20 Trade - 697.05 - 835.77 - 868.03 - 608.66 - 458.30 83.93 Deficit Source: Ministry of Commerce, Government of India

Connectivity Perspective : Myanmar

Potentials of connectivity induced production networks between India’s Northeast and Myanmar exist in bamboo and wood products, pharmaceuticals and preparations, rubber products, food products, refined products, other non-metallic mineral products, cement and garments. Networks in services industry between India’s Northeast and Myanmar may also take a formal shape in health, tourism, education, transport and communication. (De, ESCAP-AITD Regional Policy Dialogue on Strengthening Connectivity in Southern Asia 2014)

Land Custom Stations are gateways for transit of goods, services and human beings between neighbouring countries. See Table 4 for status of LCSs. (Prabir De and Manab Majumdar 2014)

Table 4: Details of LCS – Myanmar Border LCS in NER State LCS in India Myanmar Arunachal Pradesh Nampong* (Pangsau Pass) Pangsu Manipur Moreh Tamu Mizoram Zokhawthar (Champai) Rih** Nagaland Avangkhu*** Somara Source: *Notified but non-functional. **Tiddim (75 km from Zokhawthar) is functional. ***Bilaterally agreed but not yet notified

149 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

Myanmar is actively pursuing agenda of regional connectivity to enhance stronger and deeper economic cooperation and regional integration. To maximize the benefits, it would be prudent to integrate Indian connectivity projects with these projects. (Htun, K. W., N. N. Lwin, T. H. Naing and K. Tun 2011). These include:

• Asian Highways (AH) to link with the five neighbouring countries. There are 4 routes of Asian Highways in Myanmar. (Figure 4) • ASEAN Highways Network (AHN) to improve intra ASEAN linkages is a flagship land transport infrastructure project, which forms major road component of the overall trans ASEAN transportation network. Eight AHN projects crisscross Myanmar (AHN 1,2,3,14,111,112,113 and 123). • Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) economic corridor highways which link different parts of Vietnam to Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand. Three routes of GMS Highways cross Myanmar territory (R3, R4, and R5).

Key Connectivity Projects

Indian connectivity projects through Myanmar include:- (Mohapatra 2016)

• Mekong -India Economic Corridor (MIEC). • India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway Project (TH). • Tamu-Kalewa-Kalemyo (TKK) Road / Friendship Highway. • Rhi - Tiddim Road in Myanmar. • KMTTP. • Rail Links. Jiribam – Mandalay Link and New Delhi - Hanoi Rail Link.

150 Figure 4: Asian Highway Network, Myanmar

Source: http://www.unescap.org

Analysis and Recommendations

Review of AEP Implementation

An official pronouncement of AEP is relatively new and it is still early days for the AEP. However, this year marks 25 years of LEP and it remains a mere slogan in India’s NER without any significant dividends. Indian approach appears incoherent, lacks institutional coordination and focused approach besides being marred by time and cost overruns in Projects.

Concerted diplomatic efforts in last three years have enabled a favourable geopolitical environment in the region. India must maintain astute focus on continental connectivity route as part of AEP as against oceanic trade connectivity approach thus far.

Recent AEP driven initiatives can be summarised as under: (Bhatia 2016)

• High Intensity of Engagement with high - level visits by India’s President, Vice President, and PM to nine of the 10 ASEAN.

151 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

PM, in addition, paid visits to China, Japan, Australia, South Korea, Mongolia, Fiji and Myanmar. A large number of high- level in bound visits from the Region to India and likely presence of heads of state of all 10 ASEAN members for Republic Day celebrations in January 2018 (NDTV Malaysia Bureau 2017). • Adopting ‘Neighbourhood first’ policy, signing of BBIN Agreement, rejuvenating BIMSTEC and upswing in bilateral ties with all South Asian countries less Pakistan. • Relations with Bangladesh are upbeat and a large number of connectivity projects have been agreed upon bilaterally. Both PMs have made reciprocal visits. In April 17, India announced a $5 billion loan to Bangladesh and signed 22 pacts and business deals worth investments of $9 billion. The line of credit is the biggest offered to any country at one go by India taking total line of credit to $8 billion in last six years. (Jayanth Jacob 2017) • Engagement with Myanmar have gained momentum with visit of External Affairs Minister to Myanmar and followed by visit of President U Htin Kyaw and Aung San Suu Kyi to India in August and October 2016 respectively. Myanmar’s military commander- in-chief Senior General Min Aung Hlaing concluded an eight- day trip to India in July 17 (Nehginpao Kipgen 2017). Indian ‘Balancing Act’ on the Rohingya issue during recent visit of PM Modi, refusal to back the Bali Declaration (on Rohingya) at the World Parliamentary Forum and overtures to deport illegal Rohingya immigrants from India reinforces Indian outreach. India’s Rohingya policy albeit not ideal, appears to be suited from AEP perspective (Sreemoy Talukdar 2017). • India’s partnership with Japan has witnessed the most dynamic growth. A civilian nuclear deal for commerce in nuclear technology and equipment with India was signed on 14 December 2015, Japan’s commitment to invest $35 billion in India over five years, high-speed bullet train between Mumbai and Ahmadabad, participation in the Malabar naval exercises, invest in the Delhi - Mumbai Industrial Corridor, and enhance defence

152 cooperation. In April 2017, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) signed an agreement allocating 67 billion yen ($ 610 million) for NER Road Network Connectivity Improvement including NH 54 and NH 51 in Mizoram and Meghalaya. Two countries are also contemplating ‘Asia Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC)’ to enhance connectivity between Asia and Africa.

• India has pushed talks on the RCEP Agreement.

• Matured handling of recent Doklam stand off and mutual disengagement augurs well for Indian AEP.

Key Challenges

Indian Government has demonstrated a focussed approach by rejuvenating multilateral and bilateral engagements with countries relevant to AEP. PM Modi has spearheaded the agenda with one of the busiest foreign travel schedule ever by an Indian PM and has been immensely successful in articulating Indian view and creating a favourable environment. Challenges lie in translating political declarations and agreements into concrete action on ground.

In backdrop of AEP’s convergence with US strategy of rebalancing in Asia Pacific, the focus of AEP thus far seems to have been biased towards strategic domain encompassing extended East Asia. Albeit, it has its own nuanced merit, this could be a precarious diversion when seen through prism of NER. In geostrategic sense, to address its competitors in balance of power paradigms, India has traditionally been biased in favour of internal balancing more vis a vis external balancing. This has served India well to emerge as a regional power with strategic autonomy. Therefore, India must guard against seductive drift into external balancing as part of US rebalancing strategy.

Despite rich resource, private investment driven growth has not fructified in NER owing to high transportation costs due to connectivity deficit within NER, with rest of India and neighbourhood. Region lacks favourable enabling environment for fragmentation of production and distribution networks. 153 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

Government has taken a large number of initiatives to boost economic development of NER by making higher / preferential resource allocation. All the states in the NER are special category states whose development plans are centrally financed on the basis of 90% grant and 10% loan. Unfortunately, central government led growth strategy for the Region has created a ‘dependency syndrome’ amongst NER States. Instead of utilizing own resource base, political economy is centred on getting additional central grants instead of wealth creation through economic activity. (Das 2010). (Biswas 2017)

Absence of effective and dedicated institutional support to actualize AEP both at national and regional level appears to be the most significant challenge.

Strategy Recommendations

Sub Regionalism: Indian initiatives thus far have a distinct bilateral flavour in connectivity projects. This approach needs to be shed and sub- regional cooperation on lines of BBIN needs to be embraced. This would not only enable easy access to financing form international FIs but also assist generating harmony, stake holders and easy acceptance of various proposals. As a unique cross regional grouping, BIMSTEC appears tailor made for AEP and its potential must be exploited by strengthening its institutional capacity. ADB as development partner of BIMSTEC has already undertaken a tech study titled BTILS on transport and logistics integration. India’s institutional integration with ASEAN should be leveraged to expedite financing and implementation of projects. MGC conceived in 2000, is yet another cross regional organisation like BIMSTEC. However, this has not seen any significant development. There is a need to push and take the grouping to summit and strategic level of partnerships. Its experiences of GMSECP can a template for AEP initiatives.

Institutional Planning, Coordination and Execution: Government of India needs to pursue continental connectivity adopting a ‘Whole of

154 Government Approach’ and formulate an all-encompassing strategy for implementation of ‘AEP’. A Cross Ministerial Task Force under stewardship of MEA with representatives from ministries like MDONER, MORTH, Railways, Power, Commerce and Industry, Shipping, MHA, Finance, Defence, Electronics and IT under a singular authority in PMO should be formed for time bound implementation, coordination and integrated development of connectivity architecture in NER as also monitoring progress of transnational connectivity projects. Representatives of Niti Ayog and think tanks like RIS should also be included. Indian Missions at Myanmar, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan must be a given a blue print of connectivity projects and a road map to monitor progress and pursue agenda with their host nations. Similarly, a Regional Connectivity Centre under stewardship of NEC / MDONER should be created in NER.

Integrating NER Participation: Although foreign policy is a ‘central subject’ inclusion of regional representation in international delegations involved with Project based deliberations / negotiations on AEP must be considered. Creation of India-Japan Coordination Forum for Development of NE (Utpal Bhaskar 2017), an informal forum is a welcome step.

Bridge NER Infrastructure Deficit: Coordinated and speedy connectivity infrastructure development of NER is most crucial to reap dividends of AEP. This must be accompanied by setting of SEZs and Industrial Zones to promote trade and investment, development of MSME, Skill and entrepreneurship. Apart from development of forward linkages, it is essential to develop backend connectivity in the region, which will facilitate the infrastructure development process. (Ambassador V. S. Seshadri 2014).

Expedite Project Completion: There is a need to ensure timely completion of all connectivity projects being funded by government of India. Cases for additional funding need to be actively pursued diplomatically with global / regional financial institutions (World Bank, AIIB & SASEC).

155 Developing Sinews of India’s Act East Policy on Triangular Pivot of Bangladesh, Myanmar and India’s North East Region (NER)

Reengineering of Border Trade: Border trade needs to be reengineered by making available banking facilities, easy payment modalities, quick food safety checks, efficient customs, single window clearances for transactions and bringing transactional costs to the minimum. (Ambassador V. S. Seshadri 2014)

Regional Connectivity Architecture: Connectivity corridors viz KMTTP & TH should eventually should turn into economic corridors. Concurrent push on soft connectivity architecture to include; ICT, legal, regulations and institutional connectivity to harmonise various procedural aspects amongst all stake holders is imperative. (Htun, K. W., N. N. Lwin, T. H. Naing and K. Tun 2011).

Develop Tourism: Tourism is an area, which has high trade potential between NER and ASEAN. VoA may be extended to ASEAN tourists, when they arrive at NER airports or border and vice versa. This will also facilitate substantial amount of medical tourism.

Bangladesh Partnership: There is a need to sustain the momentum in bilateral thaw by timely completion of projects. Bangladesh is seeking investments for its economic growth as its economy is at a crucial inflection point. There is a need to address the issue of trade balance, concerns for which may grow as it accords transit to NER where it enjoys the trade surplus. Besides, some sections have security concerns. AEP must ameliorate these concerns by highlighting connectivity as regional public good. Economic gains will far outweigh the perceived losses.

Myanmar Partnership: Security and development of NER is closely linked with Myanmar. India needs to bridge trust deficit and ensure timely completion of on-going projects. Close socio cultural linkages astride IB, Buddhism are some crucial connects which need to be reinforced.

156 Conclusion

In backdrop of current Indian geostrategic milieu, AEP announced 2014 is a logical sequel of LEP as it seeks to revive and reinvigorate India’s relations with ASEAN as well as expand engagement to far East Asia. With missing continental connectivity; policy continues to be heavily loaded in favour of other regions and states of India. Research findings reinforce the strategic salience of triangular pivotal space in focus. Despite enormous resource endowments and economic potential and 25 years of LEP; NER remains a laggard. AEP must stay the course in offsetting this dilemma and avoid seductive drift into mere strategic outreach. India must realize, that, Bangladesh is the key to unlock semi landlocked NER and Myanmar is the gateway to SE Asia. Nepal and Bhutan are the rearward linkages of this connectivity construct.

An Institutional mechanism and overarching strategy on lines suggested in the paper is most imperative for India to actualize its AEP through this critical space. Overall security environment and bilateral relations and convergence of interests amongst all stake holders in this pivotal space seem to be at an all-time high; India should not miss the bus.

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Author

Brigadier Dheerendra Singh Kushwah, SM, ndc was commissioned in the Indian Army in June 1989. The Officer has rich experience of serving in most challenging and complex operational environment of J and K and North East States of India where he has served on glaciated heights and has been in active Counter Terrorism and Counter Insurgency operations during multiple tenures. He has commanded an Infantry Battalion and a Mountain Brigade in High Altitude Areas on Indian Borders. During his illustrious service, he has held sensitive and prestigious appointments in various Headquarters of Army. He also has the distinction of being an Instructor at the Indian Military Academy and Infantry Advisor to the Botswana Defence Forces. He has qualified on prestigious Defence Services Staff College Wellington and Higher Defence Management Course at the College of Defence Management, Secunderabad. He has done his graduation from JNU Delhi and Masters from Madras University. He also has a Masters in Management Science from Osmania University. He has the distinction of being conferred with Sena Medal and GoC in C’s Commendations on two occasions.

160 HOLISTIC APPROACH TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND DESTINATION IMAGE OF CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS

Colonel Mohammed Idris Abdulkadir, ndc

Introduction

One of the fundamental objectives of governments is to ensure socio- economic well-being of citizens. To meet this demand, governments harness resources that ensure development. Strategies employed are diversification of economy to include sectors such as tourism and agriculture. Tourism is a global force for economic development (UNDP, 2014). The sector includes aspects such as eco, cultural, business and recreational tourism. Tourism brings benefits that create income and development creating a destination image nationally and internationally. Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is a combination of three hilly district of Rangamati, Khagrachhari and Bandarban. It is approximately one tenth of the total area of Bangladesh with a population of about 1.6 million people. Local tribes are Marma, Tripura, Chakma, Taungchengya, Mru, Chak, Pankho, Bawn, Murung, Khyang, Lushai Mizo, Gurkha, Santal, Assamese and Khumi. CHT is divided into hilly and plain areas. It is endowed with hills, rivers, water falls, lakes and creepy Jungles. Its forest inhabits different species of animals and birds. Despite the diverse natural, cultural, historical and commercial attributes of CHT, it has not developed into a tourist destination despite government initiatives and development effort in infrastructure. Reasons for the slow development were prior to now attributed to the region remaining outside mainstream development because of British colonial policy that treated it as an excluded area, remote terrain, absence of infrastructure and agitations of CHT tribal people who want to retain control of tribal and ancestral lands, nature, culture and ethnic communities.

161 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

Conceptual Discourse

Tourism Development United Nations 70th General assembly assigned 2017 as International year of tourism development. Along with World Tourism Organization (WTO), both organizations envisaged that if tourism is developed, it would create employment, economic growth and eradicate poverty. Tourism provides tourists with multifarious experience that includes factors such as natural environment, people, culture, climate, infrastructure, supporting facilities and geographical location. Tourism succeeds if the destination is able to supply a product that can be preserved and renewed. This strengthens the image of the destination and paves way for sustainable development that is holistic and multi-sectorial.

Categories of Tourism People travel for domestic or foreign tourism. Such travel creates tourism demands that are seasonal necessitating categorization of tourism into recreational, cultural, sports, business, religious, health and educational tourism. Contributions of different forms of tourism and travel in Bangladesh are evident in the economy. According to WTTC Travel and Tourism Economic Impact, (2015) direct contribution of Travel and Tourism to GDP in Bangladesh in 2014 was BDT 296.6 bn (1.9% of GDP). This rose to 5.9% BDT 314.1 bn in 2015. The direct contribution of Travel and Tourism to GDP is expected to grow by 6.1% to BDT 566.3 bn (2.0% of GDP) by 2025.

In the period reviewed, domestic travel spending generated 97.9% of direct Travel and Tourism GDP in 2014 compared with 2.1% for visitor exports (i.e. foreign visitor spending or international tourism receipts). Domestic travel spending is expected to grow by 5.9% in 2015 to BDT 517.7 bn and rise by 5.9% to BDT 917.8 bn in 2025. Visitor exports are expected to grow by 3.7% in 2015 to BDT 10.6 bn and rise by 5.7% to BDT 18.4 bn in 2025. Tourism seems a viable sector for employment and socio-economic benefits for Bangladesh and particularly for CHT.

162 Tourism Potentials of CHT

Community based tourism is regarded as a good form of tourism because it meet demands of local communities. It helps to reduce poverty and engages local people in conservation of resources. Tourists’ attractions in CHT are spread and interconnected within Khagrachhari, Rangamati and Bandaban. Tourism potentials in CHT are:

• Natural and Scenic Beauty: CHT is endowed with natural lakes such as Rainkhianekine and manmade Lake Kaptai that has a hanging bridge of 335 feet. The region has other natural features such as the dark cave in Alutilla, the forest and Hills of Guimara and Shubholong water falls. The region boasts of mountains, water bodies and faunas. Pictures depicting natural and scenic beauty sites in CHT are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Natural and Scenic beauty of CHT

Source: Wikipedia, 2017

• Cultural and Religious Festivals: CHT is the most diversified region in Bangladesh in terms of ethnicity and culture . Local people have diverse cultural heritage and traditions suitable for tourism development (Bhuiyan, et al., 2014). The biggest festival in CHT is called Boisabi. Through this festival, Hill Track people observe and welcome the New Year 1st Boishakh of Bengali year (Anannya, 2015). Unique festivals held are the boat race in Karnaphully and religious occasion of Kotlin

163 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

Chibok (Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, 2013). Amazing locations of religious significance in the region are the Buddha Dhatu Jadi temple and the Patharghata church (Chowdhury, 2013). Pictures showing temples of worship and cultural festivals are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Temples and Cultural Festivals

Source: Wikipedia, 2017

Shopping and Handicraft Production: The major occupation of CHT people is agriculture. The people also produce and sell their own textiles. Jute rugs, handicrafts and hand loom textiles are attractive items to buy. CHT also offers shopping at Kalpataru Shilpaniketan in Rangamati (Bangladesh Prajatan Corporation, 2013). For cheap clothes, one can visit Terry Bazaar and Tamakurdi lane (Chowdhury, 2013).

• Infrastructure: For tourism purposes, CHT is yet to develop infrastructures such as accommodation, restaurants, transportation and medical facilities (Bhuiyan et al. 2014). However the region has an enchanting island resort called Pedatingting that offers Leisure Park, ethnic dishes and sights of the floating fruit market. Motorboats are also available to convey tourists to natural landmarks and monuments across lakes (Anannya, 2015). Also, available are few 3 star hotels, such

164 as the resorts at Foy’s Lake and Nilgiri. (Chowdhury, 2013). Pictures showing available hotels, hanging bridge and water transport in CHT are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Tourism Infrastructures in CHT

Source: Wikipedia, 2017

• Historical Heritage: CHT have significant historical heritage. Rangamati was contested by the kings of Tripura and Arakan before coming under . Bandarban is the home town of the Bohmong Chief, head of Marma population. Places of historical heritage are the court building museum, ethological museum and Zia museum (Shamsuddoha, Alam & Nasir, 2008). Other places of interest are the war of liberation monument and the tribal museums. (Bangladesh Prajatan Corporation, 2013). Pictures showing historical sites in CHT are depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4: CHT Historical Heritage

Source: Wikipedia, 2017

165 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

The Concept of Destination Image

Destination image is important because it influences the decision-making behavior of potential tourists (Crompton, 1979). Destination image is the expression of knowledge, impression, prejudice, imagination and emotional thoughts an individual or group have of a place (Lawson and Baud-Bovy, 1977). The image a destination conveys becomes the elements that influence tourists when choosing a destination (Ferreira-Lopes, 2011). Such images could be based on historical, political, economic and social information (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991).

Destination image is considered the most important element of a tourist destination and become critical factors for the success or failure of tourism management (Ferreira-Lopes, 2011). An attractive destination image may not apply to CHT because infrastructures and transport facilities are not developed. There are also security concerns in addition to unresolved issues of land with tribal people that restrains development. To develop tourism and create a positive image for CHT, there is a need to study countries that had similar development challenges, but were able to develop their tourism.

Case Study of Tourism Development from other Countries

The need to develop tourism and provide economic benefits for local communities brings to fore issues of land ownership by indigenous people. Countries like the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and Indonesia have been able to develop strategies to overcome such challenges. In drawing lessons for CHT, It is imperative to discuss the strategies employed by these countries.

Tourism Development in the Federated States of Micronesia

FSM had a complex system of traditional land ownership that saw lands as an identity rather than economic commodities. Tourism development in FSM requires access to land. Limited land, growing population and

166 economic activities placed pressure on traditional land ownership. The complexity in land ownership makes access and acquisition of land difficult (ADB, 2015) stalling tourism growth in the country.

In 2000, land reform was undertaken under the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The objective was to implement development strategy for private sector-led economic growth to manage land and capital resources. Due to constrained use of private lands, the reforms were partially achieved. However, to promote tourism development, government introduced the following:

• Acknowledging that communities dictate land use, community participation was important in accessing private lands for productive use. The role of local communities in developing tourism was required. Accordingly, capacity building was provided in this regard. • Exploring accessible lands was critical to tourism development. Some land owners were willing for their properties to be developed for tourism purposes provided they have government support and share of the investment return. • Getting the support of traditional leaders was important in community participatory approach to tourism development. • Access to government owned tourist sites required tourists to pass through private owned lands. To ensure harmony, there was a need to pay for right-of-way.

Tourism Development in Bali, Indonesia

Communities that have attractive tourism destinations are under pressure to maintain their serenity and uniqueness because of development consequences (Sutawo, 2012). In Indonesia, programs were designed to develop village tourism to make local communities enjoy benefits of tourism development. Government funds and engages local facilitators who understand tourism to implement the programs. According to World Bank (2002), Tourism development in Indonesia will not be successful

167 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts without the participation of the communities who desire to preserve their natural resources and socio-cultural legacies. Strategies employed in Bali, Indonesia are:

• Ensuring participation of communities; indigenes are given the opportunity to participate in tourism development either in planning or implementation of decisions. So doing, tourism development priorities are aligned with the aspirations of local communities. • Stakeholders and communities are engaged and made accountable to allocate resources and disburse funds for the implementation and development of tourism projects. • Community empowerment through tourism development is encouraged to strengthen local organization and mobilize resources. This builds capacities for the locals and provides communities platforms to advance their needs and aspiration.

Development Lessons for Chittagong Hill Tracts

Lessons learnt for CHT from strategies employed by FSM and Indonesia in their tourism development efforts are as follows:

Need to Involve Indigenous People in Tourism Development

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) acknowledged the difficulties acquiring land for tourism in FSM. A framework was developed to establish relationships between investors and land owners in communities. The policy provided that in liaison with district councils, indigenous people with the aim of preserving their lands and culture have input in determining terms of agreement for tourism development. Government of Bangladesh (GOB) could lend from this by engaging concerned Hill Tracts Councils and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) to work in collaboration with WTO to develop a workable framework that takes cognisance of land ownership policies in designing programs that will attract tourism development and investment in CHT.

168 Marking Private Owned Lands against Government (Khas) Lands for Tourism Development Purposes

Developing tourism and attracting a destination image for CHT may not be achieved if private owned lands are not separated from government lands known as Khas lands. This is attributed to the clause provided on land issues in the 1997 Peace Accord. Marking would delineate land owned by tribal people. Accordingly, CHT tribal families willing to avail their lands for tourism investments are opportune to do so with defined contractual agreement. This applies in FSM. Private land owners are often willing for their properties to be developed for tourism purposes provided they have a fair share of the investment returns.

The Need for Public Private Partnership (PPP) in Tourism Development

Governments of FSM and Indonesia understood that tourism development cannot solely be done by government and local communities. Funds required for tourism development are not readily available. Involvement of PPP can widen contracts, strengthen community components within the tourism value chain and improve marketability of tourism initiatives (UNWTO, 2015). The destination image is also perceived negatively because it lacks promotional activities (Chowdhury, 2013). GoB could adopt the concept of PPP. Local people could be given the opportunity to participate in tourism development with the private sector and supporting world organisations in the implementations of decisions that enhances community aspirations.

Need to Educate and Empower People on Benefits of Tourism Development

Indonesia realised that if local communities were informed, they will be better positioned to use natural resources available in their environment. Knowledge could encourage people to offer lands for development and demand accountability from investors. GoB could adopt this approach in

169 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts its tourism development initiatives for CHT. A developed tourism sector will educate, build capacities, train communities and provide skills that will position local people to take over investments and management of the tourism sector.

Tourism Development in CHT

Overview of Tourism Development in CHT

Tourism in CHT has immense potentials due to its beauty and bio diversity. GoB through tourism development is making efforts to address macro- economic issues. One of such initiatives is using the Bangladesh Army for development projects such as constructing roads to encourage tourism related activities. Major efforts are the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development that took cognizance of the unique socio-cultural issues, geographical problems and opportunities of ethnic communities in CHT. This is in addition to Government 7th five year plan (2016-2020) and the 2010 national industry policy that gave preference to women entrepreneurs in service industries such as tourism.

The projects designed to promote tourism development and economic security facilitates access to local communities, creating job opportunities that enhances national employment status and income (World Tourism Organization 2014). This establishes strong links between tourism and local economics that fosters community participation in promoting tourism development (Inclusive Tourism Programme, 2011) thus interconnecting various productive sectors of the economy (International Labour Office) reflected in Figure 5.

170 Figure 5: Tourism Development Links to Productive Sectors of Economy

Crafts Construction Micro-finance Entertainment Agriculture

Service Beauty, Security Fishing Massage

Infrastructure Tourism Electricity, Waterways Food Telecommunications Processing Roads, Bridges, Ports

Utilities Furniture Internet Manufacturing Electricity Phone Transport Motor, Cabs Bus, Boat Plane

Source: ILO, Geneva, October 2008.

Policies on Tourism Development of CHT

To end insurgency, GoB signed a Peace Accord with Parbattya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti, on behalf of the inhabitants of CHT in 1997. Part of the objective was to expedite socio-economic development, address grievances of ethnic minorities and build institutions that promote a peaceful society. The accord recognized CHT as a tribal populated region allowing it a unique political and administrative unit with special institutional arrangements.

In ensuring good governance, Bangladesh 2010 National Tourism Policy effected changes in the 1992 tourism policy. Prominent on the 2010 policy was socio-economic development of remote communities by developing products such as CHT. Tourism in CHT a Buddhist populated region was

171 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts similarly boosted when Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina urged all Buddhist populated countries to work out a road map to develop tourism (Bangladesh 2015). Other development initiatives are the Bangladesh, China, India and Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM) conceptualized for connectivity to enable investment in infrastructure and facilitating closer people to people contact required for tourism development (Wikipedia 2017). Despite these policies, tourism developments initiatives in CHT could not be wholly implemented due to unresolved clauses in the Peace Accord, security concerns and reluctance of tribal people to relinquish land for tourism development (Tripura, 2016).

Influence of Destination Image on Tourism Development in CHT

Destination image is important for visitors to choose a destination (Bashar, 2014). According to Chen and Hsu (2000), destination image can be classified into three categories. Pre-trip which is driven by experience and motivation, during trip which involves tourists’ perceptions of service quality and the amount of money spent in trip and post-trip that results in satisfaction, intent of return and the impact of tourism on the community. Information sources such as social media and personal interactions have great influence on the formation of either a positive or negative destination image in the minds of people. Tourism development in CHT needs to satisfy tourist requirements of pre-trip, during trip and post trip. This would inspire development and choice of CHT as a tourist destination.

Analysis of Findings

Analysis shows that there is a direct relationship between tourism attributes of CHT and the destination image of the region. The connection between these two variables emphasized the effect tourism attributes has on development and image of CHT. While acknowledging infrastructure and other development challenges as impediments to the image and tourism development of CHT, it is envisaged that if the issues are addressed, it would change visitor’s perception, attract development and bring socioeconomic

172 benefits to the Hill Tracts. Such developments would increase the net worth of the region, having increased employment rate in Bangladesh by 3.8% in 2016 (by about 2,187,000 jobs), and rising by 2.7% in 2017 with a projection of 3.8% jobs in 2027. It also increased national income in 2016 by 4.3% GDP with growth rate of 7.2% in 2017 and a projected growth of 4.7% GDP by 2027 (WTTC Report 2017).

Challenges and Strategies for Tourism Development in CHT

Issues Militating Against Tourism Development in CHT

Several factors have been mentioned in the 6th and 7th five year plan as impediments to tourism development in Bangladesh. These are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Inaccessibility to Land for Tourism Development

Land issues between tribal people and in CHT hinders tourism development. Agitations for control and ownership of land between tribal people and Bengalis are areas of disputes (ICIMOD, 2016). Demands of tribal people to retain control of tribal and ancestral lands (Tripura, 2016) contribute to the slow pace of tourism development. Difficulties associated with acquiring land for infrastructure and tourism activities outside Khas lands frustrate development efforts in CHT.

Inadequate Infrastructure

CHT is yet to develop appropriate facilities and infrastructure for promoting tourism. Infrastructure such as accommodation, communication, roads and river transportation systems are not sufficiently developed to attract tourists. To develop tourism, PPP should focus on infrastructural development that would promote the industry, create a positive image and facilitate economic development in various sectors of the economy.

173 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

Issue of Visa

Issuance of Visa militates against tourism development in CHT. Prior to now, regulations for acquiring Visa for tourist were tough in addition to regulations restricting foreign tourists from visiting CHT. Though there are improvements with the introduction of Visa on arrival for business visitors, the privilege has not been extended to most tourists (Bangladesh Tourism Board, 2014). Restrictions associated with traveling to CHT influences the formation of a negative destination image in the minds of people.

Negative Image of the Country Abroad

International perception conveyed by foreign media is that Bangladesh is a country of natural disasters and extreme poverty. While such information is not entirely correct, they contribute to poor tourism development because it influences tourist choosing Bangladesh as a destination. Also, there are reports of kidnaping and harassment of tourist at tourist sites in CHT. These issues discourages tourist from visiting CHT impacting negatively on tourism development.

Lack of Foreign Direct Investment

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is required for tourism development (ICIMOD, 2016). Information on tourism investments opportunities in CHT are not provided by government agencies. Similar information is also not available on websites of Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) and Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB). Marketing efforts directed to attract stakeholders to invest in tourism is equally absent. As a result, FDI required to develop tourism in CHT is lost due to lack of information on investments opportunities available in the region.

Security Issues

Security is a challenge hindering tourism development in CHT. There are safety concerns of lives and properties of tourists visiting CHT because of

174 activities of dissident groups. To provide security, government deployed Bangladesh Army in aid to civil authority. Despite the deployment, there are reports of kidnaping and harassment of tourists. Such security concerns negatively impact on the minds of domestic and foreign tourists

Lack of Skilled Manpower to Manage Tourism Tourism in CHT lacks institutions and facilities for human resource development. Tourism can only be sustained if it is beneficial to the people (UNWTO, 2015). Local people should be equipped with knowledge that empower them secure employment opportunities in the industry. This is not the case in CHT. Some of the poorest people in Bangladesh are found in this region (Barkar, et al., 2009) due to lack of institutions required to empower local people with appropriate skills. The setback affects development creating a negative destination image.

Economic Issues Tourism is regarded as a labour intensive industry with wide-ranging employment opportunities for skilled and low-skilled workers. The industry inter connects various sectors of the economy with national economic priorities such as rural development and poverty alleviation that promotes growth. In spite of the benefits associated with tourism, local people in CHT do not support the initiatives due to lack of knowledge on the potentials of the sector to economically empower them.

Conservation of Environment and Culture in Development The beauty of CHT place tribal people as custodians of ecological diverse areas in Bangladesh. The remote location of CHT in addition to the inaccessible terrain constitute a challenge for government to develop tourism and preserve the environment in line with government commitment to recognise the culture of indigenous people and take steps to protect and develop their unique culture and traditions. Promoting cultural diversity and protecting ecological diversity (Tripura and Chakma, 2016) are issues in conservation of environment and culture in CHT.

175 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

Strategies for Developing Tourism in CHT

Several strategies have been suggested to develop tourism in CHT. These include addressing some of the already identified problems, while developing new policies to promote tourism in CHT. These are discussed below:

• Accessibility of Lands for Tourism Development

To address the challenge of accessibility of land for tourism development, investors should be aided to liaise with Hill District Council (HDC) (Roy, 2014). The aim is to facilitate participation of the local community in development effort in line with Article 64 in the land use act.. MCHTA in liaison with Bangladesh Ministry of Lands could facilitate investors obtain requirements to acquire land for tourism development.

• Visa Issues

To attract tourist to Bangladesh, regulations for acquiring Visa and policies restricting foreign tourists from visiting CHT should be reviewed. Tourists who acquire Bangladesh visa should be given the privilege of visiting CHT without additional permission from the home ministry. Other measures that could encourage tourist to visit Bangladesh are the introduction of the Australian type low-cost online tourist visa application. Additional options could be the regional tourism visa schemes in connection with the Asian Development Bank (WTO, 2014).

• Address Negative Image of CHT Abroad

Strategy to promote tourism development is to correct the negative image of CHT in the view of tourist. According to Ali and Parvin, (2010), this requires a holistic approach and massive marketing campaign to improve the image of CHT. Bangladesh can develop her tourism by trying different branding strategies with the aim of reaching out to a target foreign tourists group whose opinion could largely influence tourists from a broader group of countries. The uniqueness of the country should be aggressively marketed to convey the image befitting the country.

176 • Provision of Infrastructure

Modern infrastructure is required for sustainable tourism development in CHT. Government could encourage entrepreneurs to invest in infrastructure by formulating policies that attract private and foreign sectors investments in development projects (Bhuiyan, 2014). Government could regulate tourism related industries by engaging services of persons from the private and public sector. This would help in planning infrastructural development and policies by removing barriers currently obstructing tourism development in CHT (Ali and Parvin, 2010).

• Human Resource Development and Involvement of Locals in Tourism

The success of tourism in CHT would largely depend on the involvement of local people going by the success model of FSM and Indonesia. To participate in tourism activities, local people require skills and knowledge. Universities and human resource development institutions in Bangladesh need to develop capacities for the multi-billion tourism industry (Ali and Parvin, 2010). Involvement of local people generates employment and protects the industry while developing infrastructure and creating business (Bhuiyan, 2014).

• Economic Benefits

Tourism interconnects various productive sectors of the economy (International Labour Office, 2008). Despite the benefits, indigenous people are determined on retaining land. Efforts could be made to enlighten them on benefits accruable in tourism development. Jobs generated by tourism spans across the hospitality sector, infrastructure, transportation, construction, agriculture, entertainment and small and medium scale enterprises. These sectors, in attaining Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) targets additional areas for development and employment generation. Tourism in CHT can contribute to the attainment of the SDG that in turn provides social security and improve living standards.

177 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

• Conservation of Environment and Culture in Development

Conservation of environment and culture requires management of natural resources, maintaining culture and areas of nature. (ICIMOD, 2016). Tourism development in CHT should recognize values and culture of tribal people and Bengalis by enacting regulations for tourist and local people aimed at protecting culture and the environment. Tourism development initiatives in CHT should adopt ecotourism friendly regulations that protect the inhabitants and the region. Emphasis should be on conserving the environment and improving the well-being of the people.

• Tourism Development and National Security in CHT

Tourism development interphases policy and national security issues (Tschirgi, N, 2005). Addressing the issues reveals development challenges that obstructs economic growth required to achieve national security (Tschirgi, N, 2005). Issues of extreme poverty, environmental security, women and children empowerment, safety, security of energy and natural resources in parts of CHT are national security concerns. Government could channel tourism development initiatives in sectors such as food, human, economic, political, environmental and community security. Government needs to invest in projects that address land and population pressure, inadequate infrastructure, poor service delivery, remoteness of the region, weak market linkages and natural resource degradation (FAO 2017). Such initiative increases private investments that results in employment opportunities, income of local population, GDP and social security that dovetails to attaining national security.

Recommendations

The recommendations arising are categorized into infrastructural development, community participation and capacity development, investment and branding and provision of security.

178 To facilitate access to land for infrastructural development, GoB should: • Ensure MCHTA develop the capacity of HDCs to implement requirements on tourism development in the 7th five year plan and facilitate investors to have access to land for infrastructural development. • Ensure it provides a favorable environment that facilitates PPPs and attract private investor to invest in tourism opportunities in CHT.

Community participation and capacity development, GoB should: • Ensure that stakeholders involve local people in tourism development in CHT. • Ensure that investors and stakeholders train and develop capacities of local people by employing them in relevant sectors of the tourism industry and developing capacities to manage the industry. • Ensure stakeholders in liaison with Universities in Bangladesh establish tourism training institutes in CHT to train local people and educate them with skills to develop and sustain tourism services.

Investments and branding, GoB should: • Ensure that tourism and hospitality sectors are rated high value sectors with capacities to attract domestic and FDI. • Ensure that tourism attributes of CHT are promoted and branded through a coordinated marketing strategy.

Provision of Security, GoB should: • Ensure that Bangladesh Police is adequately trained and equipped to protect lives and properties in CHT. • Introduce community security and neighborhood watch that will serve as incentives for local people to provide services such as tour operators, guides and community security in liaison with appropriate authorities.

179 Holistic Approach to Tourism Development and Destination Image of Chittagong Hill Tracts

Conclusion

This study set out to assess the holistic approach to tourism development and its impact on the destination image of CHT. The study reveals government efforts to develop tourism in CHT in an attempt to expedite socio-economic development, address grievances of ethnic minorities and build effective institutions. These efforts have not yielded desired results. CHT still lags in development indicators such as employment, poverty, health, education and access to roads and infrastructures. These issues militate against its tourism initiatives creating a negative destination image for the region.

Also established were issues involved in CHT tourism. On the issue of land, agitations for control and ownership of land by tribal people militate against tourism development. On infrastructures, CHT was yet to develop infrastructure for promoting tourism. Infrastructures such as accommodation, communication and transportation systems are not sufficiently developed to attract domestic and international tourists. The negative image of the country and security issues like kidnaping and harassment of tourist were also challenges. This negatively impacts on the destination image discouraging tourists from visiting. To develop tourism, policies that provide security and PPP to invest in infrastructural development should be implemented in addition to employing strategies that brand’s the country. Implementation of the 7th five year plan would facilitate FDI and encourage private investment in tourism development in CHT.

In examining tourism development, the study established that policy issues contribute to slow development of tourism in CHT. The 1997 Peace Accord recognized CHT as a unique political administrative unit with special institutional arrangements. Nevertheless, tourism development initiatives in CHT could not be wholly implemented because of unresolved clauses in the Accord which frustrates attempts to implement the 2010 National Tourism Policy and the 7th five year plan.

180 The study further established a relationship between tourism development and national security. Issues of extreme poverty, environmental security, women and children empowerment, security of natural resources and safety issues in CHT are national security concerns. To address the issues, government could channel tourism development initiatives towards promoting national interest in sectors such as food, human and environment security, while investing in development initiatives that addresses infrastructure, service delivery, remoteness of CHT and natural resource degradation.

To address the issues militating against tourism development, strategies were proffered. Policies should be formulated to allow investors liaise with HDC. The aim is to get the participation of local communities in development efforts. To create a positive destination image, efforts should be channeled towards promoting tourism attributes of CHT. The uniqueness of CHT should be branded and aggressively marketed to convey the image befitting the country.

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Author

Colonel Mohammed Idris Abdulkadir was born on 19 April 1971. He was commissioned into the Nigerian Army on 17 September 1995. Colonel Abdulkadir has attended several military and academic courses some of which are the Junior and Senior Staff Course at the Armed Forces Command and Staff College Jaji, Nigeria. He holds Masters Degrees in Development Studies and in Conflict Security and Development.

Colonel Abdulkadir has participated in various military operations within and outside Nigeria. He has also participated in United Nations Missions in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Sudan in addition to various multinational training exercises.

The senior officer has served in various capacities in staff and command appointments. Prior to joining NDC 2017, Colonel Abdulkadir was the Deputy Chief of Staff Training and Operations at NACMP. Colonel Abdulkadir has been awarded the Forces Service Star and the Meritorious Service Star for his unblemished service to the nation. He enjoys reading and traveling.

184 SOLDIERS’ EXPOSURE TO SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON ORGANIZATIONAL SECURITY OF BANGLADESH ARMY

Lieutenant Colonel Md Khurshid Alam, afwc, psc, G

Introduction

21st Century has observed many revolutionary changes in global texture. People have experienced notable progress in science and technology, particularly in information and communication technology. Internet offered the platform to connect people around the globe. The entire globe becomes a single digital village using different platforms over internet. Platforms providing people to people connection are generally known as Social Media. Social media got a boost after the invention of different smart electronic gadgets. People could remain connected with social media anywhere with mobile connection. Thus, social media has become an important part of our social life. With ‘Digital Bangladesh’ an initiative by Bangladesh Government. Use of internet is increasing day by day. As per Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC), the total number of internet subscribers has reached 66.96 million at the end of October, 2016. A good number of these internet users use social media. Now-a-days, people starting from youngster to mid-ages pass a considerable time in social media.

Being part of the society, members of the Bangladesh Army are also exposed to different types of social media. Army is a secured organization and members are cantonment centric. The installations are also well secured and soldiers lead secured professional as well as personal life. Social media likely to open a different horizon to the secured life of the soldiers. Again, social media provides an easy medium for our adversaries to identify, monitor, target and gain information related to nation’s security (TS Bains: 2015). Social media may pose threat to national interests. In

185 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

November 2015, BTRC had to block few social media on security ground. Social media was used to spread terrorism and anti-government sentiment among the people.

In days to come, soldiers are likely to be more exposed and involved in social media and open to outer world. However, besides positively using social media, soldiers may misuse the platform knowingly or unknowingly. Commenting/sharing sensitive/operational information, sharing photographs of training/commanders/installations, sharing locations/ maps and linking with terrorist/anti-government organization are likely to pose threat to the organizational security. Therefore, it becomes pertinent to analyse the trends of using social media by the members of Bangladesh Army and critically examine if it has got negative impacts on the organizational security with a view to suggesting measures to reduce those impacts.

The study will try to analyse the soldiers’ use of social media in Bangladesh Army and define its impact on organizational security of Bangladesh Army. In doing so, at first the details analysis of the use of social media and related security aspects will be done. Next, the impacts will be found out. Then, case studies will be done which will reflect the stance of other countries. At last related recommendations will be put forwarded.

Analysis of the Use of Social Media by the Soldiers of Bangladesh Army

Defining Social Media and Security

Term ‘Social Media’ is interchangeably used with ‘Social Networking’. It is being defined differently in various studies. The Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defence agency expressed “Social Media” referring to “blogs, social networking sites, and media sharing technology (such as YouTube)”. The US Air Force described Social Media as “tools and platforms people use to publish, converse and

186 share content online. The tools include blogs, wikis, podcasts and sites to share photos and bookmarks”. Whereas, in Military Security means the security of Men, Material and Information.

Social Media Picture - Worldwide and Bangladesh

People around the world use social media to communicate each other. It’s part of the social touch. Besides communicating, social medias are trying to deliver different services which include creating marketplace and advertisements of products/services. People are using social media for communicating, information collection and sharing, or taking available services. Social media has become an ingredient of our daily life.‘We are social’ is an organization which conducts study on different perspectives of social media. As per the study of ‘we are social’ 2.789 Billion (37%) of the people around the world are using social media. In Bangladesh, 26 million (16%) people are using social media. BTRC indicates that,about 80 percent internet users of Bangladesh are on social networking website.

Social Media Users in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a developing country where more than fifty percent of its total population is young (Bangladesh Statistical Bureau, 2013). Social medias are new in Bangladeshi culture, it is indispensable to see the youth interpersonal relationships through social medias as youth are the top most users in Bangladesh (Habib: 2012).In a study among young people of Bangladesh by ‘Org-Quest Research Limited’, 41% opined that they liked to spend leisure time through social media. (Hasan: 2017). Though it is not the first choice, still a good number of young people, particularly in town depend on social media for entertainment and news/information.

Social Media users in Bangladesh Army

Members of the Armed Forces are well within the society. Their working place and nature of job may be different but the social bonding, emotional reflections and socio-cultural behaviour are well reflected by the society.

187 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

Thus, the soldiers of Bangladesh Army are likely to be exposed to social media. Taking 90 soldiers of different ranks it is found that, 74 (82%) soldiers use internet. All the internet users use social media.

However, considering the service length/age the users vary. Young soldiers are more oriented with technology, especially smart mobile phones-which are the main carrier of social media. A detail of the study is given below:

Figure1: Use of Social Media by the Soldiers                     6YF 6YF 6YF 6YF

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Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media

Reasons for Using: Soldiers use social media in different occasions, reasons and places. There are three main broad reasons for using social media; social communications, seeking knowledge/information and entertainment.

• Social Communication: Social communication takes place for communicating with family members, friends and people around. This type of communication takes place in the form of sharing photo, projecting personal view, comments and likes.

188 • Seeking knowledge and Information: Seeking knowledge may take the form of communicating different knowledge sharing groups, information sharing pages, newspapers and news sites.

• Entertainment: Social media may be used for personal entertainment. This may take in the form of enjoying videos of entertainment, movies, sports and pornography. In a study by Org-Quest Research Limited, it is found that 41% young people in Bangladesh spend leisure time in social media.

Table 1: Purpose of using Social Media Total Internet Social Media Use Number Soldiers Users Users 90 74 74 Social 74 (100%) Communication (82%) 100% out of Knowledge and 32 (43%) internet users information Watching Videos 15(20%) (on Facebook / YouTube) Source: Author’s Survey

Soldiers’ Knowledge on Security Features

• Profile and Privacy Settings: Soldiers are not well aware of profile and privacy settings. Profile may be open to all or limited by setting the privacy setting. During study it is found that, many of the soldiers provided information regarding Bangladesh Army as their serving organization/workplace. Facebook has four types of Privacy Setting; only me, Lists, Friends, and Public. Soldiers have very shallow knowledge on privacy setting of their profile. They keep their privacy open to all. Thus, everyone can access their page and can see what is inside. In the study it is found that, all soldiers have open ended privacy setting.

189 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

• Unknown Digital Friends: In social media there are many fake accounts who pretend to be a person and tries to make relationship to make benefit out of it. In real life these people do not exist. As on 17 April 2017, there are 3 crore facebook users in Bangladesh and many of these are fake accounts. These are security threats to the country. Upon the request of Bangladesh government, facebook had to suspend nine lakhs facebook accounts. In Bangladesh Army, soldiers also have such friends which is a security concern.

• Geo-Tagging/Check in-Location Related Information: Geo- tagging/checking in is one of the important features of social media. It tags the location at which someone is operating the social media. At this moment, our soldiers do not have knowledge of this feature, use as well as security concerns.

• Sharing and Liking: Social media provides users option for liking and sharing contents. It may be informative pages or may be someone’s personal comment. Cases found about some soldiers’ liking/sharing anti-government pages, which had to be dealt officially.

• Knowledge on Official Secret Act (1923): During study it was found that out of 90 soldiers, only one soldier had knowledge on Official Secret Act (1923).

Analysis of the Threats to Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

Social Media, National Security and Armed Forces

In recent development in social media and its reach to the mass people found that it can be closely linked with national security. World has observed the rise of people in Arab countries which took place in close link with social media. Social media may arise as a threat during conflict as well as peacetime. Any issue to national security is closely linked with Armed Forces.

190 Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

• Bangladesh Army and Security: Bangladesh Army is the largest uniformed service of the Bangladesh Armed Forces. The primary mission of the Army is to provide necessary forces and capabilities in support of Bangladesh’s security and defence strategies including defence of the nation’s territorial integrity against external attack. To maintain the organizational security, Bangladesh Army mainly maintains the physical security for the installations and the men. At the same time, arrangement on information security is also done by securing the organizational cyber domains.

• Threats to Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army: Social media being the world wide platform allows all including soldiers of Bangladesh Army to share their feeling, thoughts, and information. But, in the process, the shared information/feelings/thoughts may seriously affect the organizational security as well as the values. At the same time, while connecting to the social media, soldiers may fall into the prey of different anti state actors. In both way the organizational security is threatened.

• Privacy Setting: Soldiers are not well aware of regarding security aspects through displaying their information. As security setting is not clear to them, the profile remains open to all. Thereby, everybody can see the photographs, posts, likes of the individual soldier.

• Displaying Information: It is found that, the soldiers generally put information regarding his profession and try to confirm it uploading profile pictures with uniform. In this way a soldier will be identified easily and will be a target for the intelligence collection group of the enemy.Many soldiers provide information in the ‘works at’ part of the profile as ‘Soldiers at Bangladesh Army’.

191 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

• Sharing Confidential Information: Sharing confidential information may take place by the soldiers. Soldiers with special duties, responsibilities may share sensitive information which in turn may be detrimental for the overall security of the organization. Placing such sensitive information into personal social media exposure is likely to bring security threat.

• Sharing Operational Activities (Operational Security): At present operational activities are going on in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). After reaching CHT, soldiers post first photograph with the hills and scenic beauty. In operational area posing operational activities may anytime create serious security threats for the overall security and future operations. Again, in CHT different vested groups are found very active in social media.

• Geo-tagging and Sharing Locations: Sharing location can be of grave security breaches. Public Affairs of United States Army, considers geo-tagging as equivalent of adding a 10-digit grid coordinate. Soldiers have very less knowledge regarding geo-tagging. During study it was found that, no soldier has the knowledge on geo-tagging and sharing location.

• Linking with different Terrorist/Threatening Organizations: Social media is exploited by terrorist organizations as a tool for ideological radicalization, recruitment, communication and training. Facebook and You Tube channels are often used by terrorist for recruiting and increasing the number of sympathizers. It is found that Al Quaeda collects about 90% intelligence from social media. Soldiers with limited knowledge on security aspect is likely to fall into the prey of these organizations.

• Rumours/Manifestation: Social media have revolutionized speed of spreading information. Some vested group may spread wrong information through social media to capitalize the emotion of the

192 troops. This argument is also supported by respondent. Ramu incident in 2012 started from such a rumour.

• Hiding Identity and Making Illicit Relationship: Social Media gives an opportunity to mix up with other people. While connecting with other people, there may be intimate and unhealthy relationship. In few cases, married soldiers were found making extra marital relationship through social media hiding their identity.

• Shallow Knowledge on Official Secret Act -1923: Government office has its own rules and regulations. Armed Forces have different secret documents for the interest of the nation. In today’s information age, every soldier has the capability of breaching the security through social media.

Other Threats from Social Media

• Pages Identify as from Armed Forces: Social media is open to all. People can create page and express themselves. In the facebook, there are pages with identifies linked with Bangladesh Army. These pages pretend to be serving in Bangladesh Army or officially linked with Bangladesh Army. These pages may ruin the reputation of Bangladesh Army just by posting against the country and people. Many of our soldiers unknowingly are following and liking these pages.

• Pages Directly Threatening the Image of Bangladesh Army: There are pages which are posing direct threats to the Army. The pages are related to CHT and operated by various vested groups which are acting against the military deployment in CHT. The individual or groups are mainly looking for a situation that Army leaves CHT and they can use the situation for their personal benefit. These pages always conduct hate campaign against Bangladesh Government and Bangladesh Army in CHT.

193 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

Modalities of Reducing Security Threat and Improving Organizational Security

• Case Studies of Different Countries: Social media effected countries differently in the realm of security. Thus, countries acted differently on the social media issues. Few countries acted proactively whereas others acted in reactive manner.

• Case-1 (US Army): US Army considers the online interactions of the soldiers are the reflection of the U.S. Army as well as their professionalism. Since 2015, US Army started operating against threats emanating from social media while used by the members of the Army. In April 2016, Public Affairs Department of US Army published Social Media Handbook to guide the soldiers and their family members.

• Case-2 (UK): The British Army created a special brigade of facebook warriors, skilled in psychological operations and use of social media to engage in unconventional warfare in the information age. The 77th Brigade was created in 2015 to meet the challenges of modern conflict and warfare. (Macaskill: 2015).

• Case-3 (Indian Army): India started working on social media in 2013. Thus many instructions came at that time. In 2016, Indian Army has promulgated a policy on using social media. After months of discussions and consultations, ‘Policy on usage of social media in Indian Army’ was published. It covers the entire spectrum of usage and lays out many Dos and Don’ts. (Gokhale: 2016). Indian Army has different practices in the service regarding the use of social media by the Soldiers. These are given below:

▪▪ Use of social media is discouraged and is monitored. ▪▪ Adherence to strict policies regarding content sharing. ▪▪ Every Brigade has a Cyber Security Officer who looks after the social media also.

194 ▪▪ Annual information technology audit is conducted up to unit level. ▪▪ Undeclared exerciseis conducted to simulate cyber attack on a Corps / Division to judge the response capability. ▪▪ “Mobile Deposit Box” is practiced at Brigade Headquarters and above. ▪▪ Entrance to AHQ with mobile phones fitted with camera is strictly prohibited. ▪▪ No power point presentation for operational briefing.

Response of Bangladesh

• Government of Bangladesh: With the pursuance of digitization in Bangladesh, government has laid down its policy related to use of social media by government offices across the country.

• Government Office: Government has provided necessary guideline for using social media by government offices. How the account will function and what can be published all are directed by the directive. To make a digital Bangladesh, government has also emphasised on security aspect.

• Legal Aspects: In 2006, government enacted Information and Communication Technology Act (ICT Act-2006) with maximum punishment of 10 years’ jail term and a fine of Taka 1 crore. The government has later promulgated the ICT (amendment) ordinance. At present Government is working on the Act to make it more pragmatic. At the same time, government is working on Digital Security Act, to ensure proper use of digital.

• Bangladesh Army: Bangladesh Army positively considers the right of the members on using internet and social media. At the same time, Army has to keep the men and information secured. Army has formulated policy covering use of internet, mobile and connection

195 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

procedures through social media. On 25 July 2017, Bangladesh Army declared its official facebook page to allow Army personnel to connect and inform officially.

• Approach to Strengthen Organizational Security: An integrated approach is always needed to make it a sustainable one.

• Peoples’ Connectivity and Information Technology: Bangladesh Government maintains the initiative of ‘Digital Bangladesh’. In doing so, people are encouraged to use internet and related connectivity. Thus, there is a need to maintain such approach to support the government programme.

• Legal Framework: The approach should be within the legal binding of Bangladesh. At the same time, the Official Secret Act must be taken into consideration.

• Organizational Control and Accountability: Organizational approach is needed to make the people accountable. There should be organizational control on the people as well as organizational monitoring. Information security procedures should be followed.

• Training and Motivation: Training and motivation should be a regular part of the mitigation of the problem. Practical training need to be imparted basing on the gaps and weaknesses.

• Individual Responsibility: Approach should address all individuals. If the individuals can be made responsible, the overall aim will automatically be achieved.

• Gradual Approach: The approach should be gradual towards the attainment of the objective. It should start with limited practical training and then after continue with the control and monitoring.

196 Protection of Operational Information and Plans

• Maintaining Operational Security: Operational security means protection of classified and sensitive operational information. Operational security is a major concern for the Divisions/Formation Headquarters planning the operations. Restriction on using social media during operational activities need to be integrated within the overall plan. Using map image and Power Point for operational plan may be discontinued. Access to operational headquarters need to be controlled.

• Avoiding Geo-Tagging/Locations: During field exercise operational plans are tested on ground. Thus using location based applications of social media may get connected with actual operational plan. Thus, geo-tagging and related applications must be avoided during any operational training and exercise.

Protecting Image of the Organization

• Pages Directly Threatening the Image: There are pages which directly posting information and image against Army directly. These pages are threatening the image of Bangladesh Army by defaming the operational activities in CHT. These pages need to be stopped.

• Pages Indirectly Posing Threat: The pages which pretend to be from Bangladesh Army posting different images regularly to attract their followers. People including soldiers believe them to be officially linked with Bangladesh Army. There lies the problem. In case of any negative posting may threaten the image of Bangladesh Army. These pages also need to be stopped.

• Stopping Soldiers’ Misconduct through Social Media: Sometimes it is found that, soldiers’ behave very irresponsible while posting in social media. Such activities in social media may turn the image of the organization down. Thus, the activities of the soldiers in social media

197 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

need to be monitored at different levels. Any violation of official instruction in this regards need to be dealt.

Individual Protection

• Protection of Profile and Privacy: Individually the soldiers need to be responsible for securing own profile. Thus, profile and privacy setting need to be understood by the soldiers. For the overall organizational protection can be achieved if all members understand the security threats and can guard against it.

• Protection of Links to Scam/Hack/Cyber Crime and Terrorist Organization: Soldiers may fall into the prey of scammers/hackers/ cyber criminals organizations through social media. At the same time terrorist organizations may target the soldier for the recruitment. Thus, soldiers need to be careful while making friends and linking with groups in Social Media.

Capacity Building

• Training the Soldiers: The overall security knowledge of the soldiers are not good. Soldiers need to be trained on the security/privacy setting of social media platforms. Through a small package soldiers can be trained on this. Once trained, they will be responsible for their own profiles and use of social media. Alongside, soldiers should be made aware of the Official Secret Act.

• Conducting Regular Motivation: Motivation is very much an organizational culture in Bangladesh Army. Thus, soldiers can be motivated through this programme. Soldiers should be motivated regularly to guard themselves against any threat from social media.

• Forming Outfit to Deal with Social Media: Like different countries, Bangladesh Army may also set up an outfit to deal with social media. It is generally done by the operational Armies where image is a concern. This outfit may have separate monitoring tiers at various levels.

198 Organizational Security - Actions at Different Levels • Army Level Actions: To avoid the security threats from social media, there are responsibilities and restrictions at organizational as well as individual level. AHQ has to provide necessary guideline for using social media. It may include: ▪▪ Account Creation Guideline: AHQ may circulate account creation guideline for the members of the Army where rank, official identity and photographs cannot be used.It should also include guideline for privacy setting which should not be visible to everyone. Anyone creating/having social media account, should notify the Headquarters so that future monitoring is possible. ▪▪ Guideline for Making Friends and Joining Groups: In social media platforms, nobody to make friends with unknown people and should not join any group which may pose security threats. All must maintain the Army values while liking, sharing, posting, and commenting in social media. ▪▪ Guideline for Sharing/Liking etc: AHQ need to provide necessary guideline on sharing, liking, commenting, geo-tagging. ▪▪ Understanding Official Secret Act: All members are to read, understand and sign the Official Secret Act every month. Any disregard/ignorance to the act will be taken into charge. No sharing of official information/document/photograph in social media. ▪▪ Controlling Access of Electronic Gadgets: Considering the operational security, use of mobile and other related electronic gadgets at AHQ and Division Headquarters may be restricted. ▪▪ Stopping Malicious Pages: AHQ should take appropriate actions to stop the pages directly threatening the image of Bangladesh Army. At the same time, necessary steps to be taken to stop look-a like /unofficial facebook pages to stop future misuse by those. ▪▪ Creating New Outfit: AHQ may create an outfit to monitor the security aspects emanating through social media. It may be grouped with any signal organization or intelligence organization.

199 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

▪▪ Guideline for Initial Awareness Training: AHQ may guide the formations to conduct training on social media. The training will target the soldiers to educate them on security aspects. Modalities for such training is discussed in subsequent paragraphs.

• Formation and Unit Level Actions: Formation and units are to monitor the implementation aspects of the policies laid down by AHQ. Formations will conduct the initial awareness training for the soldiers as guided by AHQ. Formations and units will monitor those accounts periodically. At the same time, there should be regular training and motivation to aware and guide the soldiers.

• Individual Actions and Responsibilities: Individuals will be responsible for reporting his account and any misuse. Individuals to receive initial awareness training which will guide him for subsequent profile and privacy setting and use of social media. No duplication of account by the soldiers and no hiding of own identity. Soldiers should behave responsibly in the social media.

Training Modalities

The need for training and awareness to lessen the vulnerability of social networking media and social engineering among the soldiers was echoed in both the literature and by all respondents interviewed. The training should inform soldiers on how to limit the attack surface presented on social media. The techniques to limit information should be rooted in policy specific to soldiers’ use of social media. In addition, training should make soldiers aware of social media’s capacity to target him. The training could be scenario-based and personalized to give its impact more weight. The training will reduce the overall vulnerability by creating a barrier to exploitable personal information of the soldiers.

Recommendations

The paper finally recommends the following measures to be adopted at different levels to enhance the organizational security in regards to social media.

200 • AHQ Level ▪▪ AHQ to formulate and promulgate necessary policy for all the member covering account creation, profiling, privacy setting, making friends, posting, sharing and commenting in social media. ▪▪ AHQ to restrict use of mobile phones and other electronic gadgets at AHQ and Division Headquarters. ▪▪ AHQ to take appropriate steps to stop the pages in social media which are directly threatening the image of Bangladesh Army. At the same time, necessary steps to be taken to stop look-a like / unofficial facebook pages to stop future misuse by those. ▪▪ AHQ to create an outfit to look after the security aspects in social media. • Formation and Unit Level: Formation and units will conduct awareness training to the soldiers covering security settings of social media and Official Secret Act. Then after, formations will conduct routine monitoring and motivation for the soldiers. • Individual Level: Individuals will be responsible for his account and related use/misuse. Any breach of security will be dealt severely. Soldiers also need to behave responsibly in the social media.

Conclusion

Social media is becoming very popular social communication tool in our society. The members of the Armed Forces are also part of this social communication system. Members of Bangladesh Army are exposed to social media in daily life. Social media, being an open tool can be used by potential threats for intelligence collection where soldiers are likely to be primary targets. Therefore, the study is very important to identify the exposure and potential threats of the social media to the soldiers.

The social media has a mix range of different platforms. In last few years the platforms became very popular in the society. People are using social media for communicating, information collection and sharing, or taking

201 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army available services. Social media has becomes an ingredient of our daily life. In Bangladesh, about 16% people are using social media, whereas the percentage among soldiers is 82%. Maximum of soldiers use facebook as the platform. Though, the social media penetration is higher in the Army. During the study, it was found that soldiers have very limited knowledge on the profile, privacy and security settings of the platforms. Maximum soldiers do not have knowledge on security setting and privacy setting in facebook. The profile of the soldier remains open to be viewed by all. Few soldiers have unknown virtual friends. At the same time soldiers do not have knowledge on Official Secret Act. Soldiers with limited knowledge on security and legal aspects – may become an easy target to the threats. This is the major concern for the organizational security.

In peacetime, threat intelligence organizations try to collect information through social media where the soldiers with minimum security knowledge can be the vulnerability. It is found that, soldiers’ identities remain open. Soldiers also post different photographs in social media including photographs of training and exercise. Operational security is very important which need to be well secured, which is not well understood by the soldiers. With the easy access to social media soldiers need to bring under Official Secret Act and they should be trained on security awareness and security features of social media. They should also be guided on handling secured documents. Soldiers also need to be careful while posting disgraceful photos/comments etc. Individual’s unbecoming behaviour in social media may defame the image of Bangladesh Army. Besides, the use of social media by the soldiers, there is a concern about the pages which pretend to be officially linked with Bangladesh Army. These pages are followed by many people including members of Bangladesh Army. These pages may defame the organization by putting something detrimental to the image of the organization. There are few pages directly trying to defame Bangladesh Army. These pages mainly operate to uphold the Jumma land in CHT. These pages must be stopped.

202 Different countries adopted different social media policies for their Armed Forces. There had been proactive and reactive actions by the countries. Bangladesh Army has also circulated its media policy. All the policies have considered the technological development and peoples’ right to information. While maintaining the government’s policy, Bangladesh Army has to maintain its organizational security.

AHQ need to promulgate appropriate guideline to the use of social media and enhance overall security system. There has to be routine monitoring system for all members of Bangladesh Army including civilians working within. AHQ should have regular monitoring over social media regarding any outsider defaming the organization. With effective training, soldiers can be educated on social media who will guard himself against individual security threats. Side by side, organizational monitoring and control will ensure the overall security.

During the study, it was found that, there are civilians who work besides military personnel in different outfits of Bangladesh Army. They also contain information related to security. Many of them work in the area of IT, logistics and office assistant. In the process of the study it is found that the civilian employees of Bangladesh Army also need to be brought under proper supervision.

References

Books

1. Gupta, R and H Brooks 2013, Using Social Media for Global Security, Wiley, London.

Articles

2. TS Bains 2015, ‘New Age Soldier and Social Media: Consequences and recommendations’, Scholar Warrior, spring 2015, pp 78-84.

203 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

Research Papers/Study Papers

3. MOE, Major Todd A. United States Army 2011, Social Media and the U.S. Army: Maintaining a Balance, United States Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.

4. Shafqat, Major Mohammad Islam 2012, Time Spent on the Internet by Junior Officers and its Effects on Their Performance in the Units – Bangladesh Army Perspective, Mirpur: Defence Services Command and Staff College, Individual Research Paper.

5. Tamjidul, Lieutenant Colonel 2013, Social networking and its impact on national security with special implications to Bangladesh Armed Forces, NDC: Armed Forces War Course, Individual Research Paper.

6. Islam, Md Nahidul 2014, Effect of Web Based Social Network Sites on the Members of Bangladesh Army, Mirpur: Defence Services Command and Staff College, Individual Research Paper.

7. 55 Infantry Division Independent Signal Brigade 2016, Impact of Social Media on military professionalism, , Project Study Paper.

8. 86 Independent Signal Brigade 2016, Changes to the traditional military lifestyle due to the advancement of information technology and the change management, Dhaka, Project Study Paper. Unpublished Internal Document.

9. Habib, Ehsanul. (2012), Facebook uses by students, Master’s thesis, Department of Mass Communication and Journalism, [Unpublished] University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh.

10. Lenkart, John J. (2011), the vulnerability of social networking media and the insider threat: new eyes for bad guy. Thesis paper of US Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Available from - http:// www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a552412.pdf. [Accessed on 10 July 2017].

204 Directives and Policies

11. Army Headquarters (2015), ‘Policy of using Social media’, AHQ, GS Br, MI Directorate, Policy letter.

12. Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission -BTRC (2016). [Online] Available from - http://www.btrc.gov.bd/content/internet- subscribers-bangladesh-october-2016. [Accessed: 24th March 2017].

13. KASPERSKY (2017). What is Pornware. [Online] Available from - https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/threats/pornware. [Accessed: 24th May 2017].

14. JSSDM (2003), Joint Services Staff Duties Manual. Army Printing Press.

Website/Online Articles

15. KEMP, Simon. (2017). Digital in 2017: Global Overview [Online] Available from –https://wearesocial.com/special-reports/digital-in- 2017-global-overview. [Accessed: 5th April 2017].

16. Neelamalar M & Chitra, P (2009), New media and society: A Study on the impact of social networking sites on Indian youth, [Online] Available from - http://www.ec.ubi.pt/ec/06/pdf/neelamalar-new- media.pdf. [Accessed on 5 July 2017]

17. US Army Public Affairs (2016), United States Army Social Media Hand Book, [Online] Available from - http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/site/ assets/doc/support/army_social_media_ handbook.pdf. [Accessed on 10 August 2017]

18. US Army, Online and Social Media Division (2010). Social Media and Operations Security. [Online] Available from - http://www.dtic.mil/ dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a549492.pdf. [Accessed on 12 August 2017]

205 Soldiers’ Exposure to Social Media and Its Impact on Organizational Security of Bangladesh Army

19. Bangladesh Army, (2017). Role and Mission of Bangladesh Army. [Online] Available at - https://www.army.mil.bd/About-Bangladesh- Army. [Accessed on 23 April 2017].

20. GCF Learn Free (2017), Understanding Facebook privacy, [Online] Available from-https://www.gcflearnfree.org/facebook101/ understanding-facebook-privacy/1/. [Accessed on 21 August 2017]

21. Mariella Moon (2017), Pakistan investigates army critics on social media, Available at https://www.engadget.com [Accessed on 9 September 2017].

Newspaper Articles

22. SHAMS, Syed Rabius, (2017), Social media trends usages in Bangladesh, [Online] Daily Asian Age. Available from - http://dailyasianage.com [Accessed on 17 July 2017]

23. HASAN, Rajib (2017). Pach joner char jon TV dekhe. Daily Prothom Alo, 19 July 2017.

24. Financial Express, (2017), Facebook closes 0.9m fake accounts in Bangladesh, 17 April 2017.

25. BAAR Jonathor, (2017), Wannacry rasomware attack losses could reach $ 4 Billion. CBS News. Available from- http://www.cbsnews. com [Accessed on 25 July 2017]

26. GOKHALE, Nitin (2016). Army liberalises social media policy. ABP Live. [Online] Available at, http://www.abplive.in/blog/army- liberalises-social-media-policy-382831 [Accessed on 25 May 2017]

27. Outlook India (2017). Army has formulated policy on social media use: Govt. [Online] Available from- https://www.outlookindia.com [Accessed on 12 August 2017]

206 Lectures

28. Commander Signal Brigade, (2017), Lecture on Bullets and bites. 86 Signal Brigade, 27 August 2017.

29. General RAWAT BIPIN (2017), Lecture on India-Bangladesh Relationship, National Defence College, 2 April 2017.

30. KEVIN, LTC V. Arata (2007), Director, Online and Social Media Division, US Army. Social Media and Operations Security, presentation to conduct awareness. Available at: http://sill-www.army.mil/428thfa/ Social_Media/socialmediaopsec810-.pdf. [Accessed on 9 September 2017]

Author

Lieutenant Colonel Mohammed Khurshid Alam, psc, G, Arty was born in Mymensingh in 1976. He was commissioned in the Regiment of Artillery on 12th June 1997 with 36th Bangladesh Military Academy Long Course. He has served in four different Artillery units in various capacities. He has served in Artillery Brigade Headquarters as Staff Captain. He has served twice in United Nations Mission in Ivory Coast (ONUCI) as contingent member. He is a graduate from Defense Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur. He earned Master of Science (MSc) Degree from National University and Masters in Defence Studies (MDS) from Bangladesh University of Professionals. Presently, Lieutenant Colonel Khurshid Alam underwent Armed Forces War Course-2017 at National Defence College, Mirpur.

207 REVAMPING BANGLADESH – MYANMAR RELATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN ECONOMIC AND MILITARY DOMAIN

Lieutenant Colonel Md. Monowarul Islam Sarder, SPP, afwc, psc

Introduction Myanmar is the next door neighbour of Bangladesh with whom Bangladesh shares border beside India. The other two neighbours of Myanmar are Laos and Thailand on the Southeast. It has a total coastline of 2832 km with Bay of Bengal. Myanmar covers an area of 678000 square km (Najeeb, 2003).

As a result of the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826), Arakan became the first territory of the old Burmese Kingdom which came under British rule. Bangladesh-Myanmar official relation began on 13 January 1972 (Shah Alam, 1999). Myanmar is the only potential gateway for Bangladesh, an alternative land route opening towards China and South-East Asia other than the Sea. Such road link has the potentiality for a greater communication network between Bangladesh and South-East Asian countries including China, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore.

After five decades of isolation, in April 2011, Myanmar has opened the door to work with all investors and development partner. Moreover, 2015 election has made a dramatic change in the political and economic system of Myanmar (Moeen, 2016). According to different sources, there are more than 500,000 unregistered Rohingyas living among the local population, in slums and villages mostly inCox’sBazar and a smaller numbers in Bandarban hill district. Myanmar is reluctant to accept these Rohingyas as their citizens and it is a major concern for Bangladesh (Saber, 2017). The smuggling of narcotics in the Bangladesh-Myanmar border is another critical issue between the two countries. Given the existing bilateral problems between the two countries, it would be a challenge

208 for Bangladesh to revamp it’s relationship with Myanmar. However, Bangladesh should earn the trust of the present government of Myanmar that unresolved longstanding issues would no longer create hindrances in promoting economic prosperity between the two countries. The policy makers in Bangladesh should address common areas of concern where both the countries can strengthen their cooperation.

Geo-Political Realities and An Overiew of Bangladesh- Myanmar Relation

Geo-Political Realities

Myanmar is a country of 135 ethnic groups, located in the South-East of Bangladesh sharing 271 km border.Both the countries almost stand on same geo-political state, but surprisingly the trade and other bilateral issues have never been addressed seriously. Myanmar maintains a moderate Military like Bangladesh with more of a defensive posture. But in the recent past Myanmar has advanced very fast in procuring modern weaponry from different countries specially from China to make a strong military. In the past few years, the Rohingya crisis in the Rakhaine state of Myanmar has deteriorated the relation of these two countries to a certain extent.

Historically Myanmar has more differences than common interest with India since the colonial period when British used the Indians to run Myanmar as a colony. ‘Myanmar had to cede Manipur to British after the first Anglo-Burma war in 1824. The British continuously fought the Myanmar nationals from 1852 and finally declared Myanmar as a part of the British Empire on 01 January 1886. From 1905 Myanmar nationals resisted the colonialists. Indian congress disapproved separation of Myanmar from India in 1927. However, Indians ran the administration of the capital Yangon, dominated trade and commerce and owned 25% of agricultural land since 1939. Myanmar got independence in 1948. Although the present relationship is appeared to be warm but Myanmar looks east to ASEAN.

209 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Overview of Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation The Present Context Trade Flow

Bangladesh-Myanmar bilateral trade is not increasing significantly despite the 7th Joint Trade Commission meeting at Nay pyidaw in January 2014. Bilateral trade figures and major items of imports and exports with latest available data are given in the table below. Exports to Myanmar recorded USD 38.23 million, which is less than 1% of Bangladesh’s total exports to the world. In January 2012, opening of letters of credit (LCs) was initiated between Bangladesh and Myanmar.

Table 1: Trade Statistics between Bangladesh and Myanmar since 2006 (Million US$) Bangladesh Bangladesh Balance of Total FY Imports from Exports to trade Trade Myanmar Myanmar 2006-2007 20.55 6.31 -14.24 26.86 2007-2008 114.59 9.58 -105.01 124.17 2008-2009 66.60 9.17 -57.43 75.77 2009-2010 69.61 10.04 -59.57 79.65 2010-2011 179.00 9.65 -169.35 188.65 2011-2012 64.99 13.45 -51.54 78.44 2012-2013 84.06 13.67 -70.39 97.73 2013-2014 92.17 16.10 -76.07 108.27 2014-2015 31.49 25.80 -5.69 57.29 2015-2016 32.89 38.23 +5.34 71.12 (jul to May) Source: Ministry of Commerce 2017

Bangladesh-Myanmar Two-way Investment The Rakhine and Chin states bordering Bangladesh possess abundant natural resources which include limestone, timber, bamboo, marine products

210 and variety of valuable minerals. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed on the establishment of a joint business council involving the Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI) and the Union of Myanmar Chambers of Commerce and Industry (UMCCI).

Agricultural Cooperation In 2007, Myanmar showed interest to lease land for agricultural cultivation to Bangladesh. Consent was given by both counterparties to the proposal that Bangladesh would be taking lease of 50,000 acres of land in the state of Rakhine for contract farming. In JTC- 2016 Bangladesh reiterated its proposal to form a Joint working Group on this issue (Minutes of JTC- 2016).

Energy Cooperation In 2005, Myanmar has already come to an agreement with China regarding export of gas from the existing gas fields. The then Myanmar President U Thien Sein assured Bangladesh that Myanmar would export gas latter given that new gas fields in the territory are discovered. In 8th JTC-2016, Bangladesh side reiterated its earlier proposal of joint collaboration for gas and other minerals exploration in the Myanmar maritime territory of the Bay of Bengal.

Transport Connectivity At present, there is no road, rail or sea link connecting Bangladesh and Myanmar. Presently, Bangladesh Biman and Novo air are operating six flights every week between Dhaka and Yangon. The Asian Land Transport Infrastructure Development (ALTID) project comprises of the Trans- Asian Railway (TAR) network, the Asian Highway Network (AHN), and the facilitation of land transport where Bangladesh, India and Myanmar are member states. Construction of 2.5 km 4-lane Bangladesh-Myanmar Friendship Road (Balukhali-Gundum Border Road) is going on in the mentioned route of the Agreement.

211 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

The Challenges between Bangladesh - Myanmar Relation

Cross Border Terrorism and Trafficking in Arms and Narcotics Illegal small arms trade is a flourishing business along Bangladesh- Myanmar border despite all the efforts by Border Guard Bangladesh to curb such activities. It is alleged that Myanmar security forces are involved in this illegal Arms and Drug trafficking (Saber 2017)

Rohingya Issue The major irritant in relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar is Rohingya issue. Local authority says more than 5,00,000 lac Rohingyas are living in different parts of Cox’s Bazar. However, in 2016 about 70,000 Rohingyas entered in Bngladesh because of the atrocities by Myanmar security forces (Nurul 2017). Again in 2017, another 5,50,000 Rohingyas entered into Bangladesh because of the ethnic cleansing by Myanmar security forces (BD News 24.com)

The Opportunities and Challenges in Economic and Military Domain

Economic Prospect and Opportunities for Bangladesh

Myanmar, already started opening its doors and coming out from its conservative behaviors. Every year FDI is increasing in Myanmar. Bangladesh being a close neighbor has huge potential to exploit any of the sectors shown in the table.

212 Table 2: FDI in Myanmar by Sector Sr. Sector No. of Amount % of No Projects (USD Mil) Total 1 Oil and Gas 93 18,718.361 40.40 2 Power 8 13,341.542 27.30 3 Manufacturing 493 5,012.276 10.26 4 Transport & Communication 20 4,576.992 9.37 5 10 2,341.218 4.79 6 Hotel and Tourism 42 2,010.464 4.11 7 Real Estate 20 1,735.958 3.55 8 Agriculture 14 214.005 0.44 9 Livestock & Fisheries 16 193.423 0.40 10 Industrial Estate 3 189.113 0.39 11 Other Services 40 529.291 1.08 Total 759 48,862.643 100.00 Source: Bangladesh –Myanmar Chamber of Commerce office, Dhaka on 28 August 2017.

The Bridge between South and South-East Asia

Bangladesh and Myanmar should step forward in regional arrangements to capitalize their geographic setting. With ASEAN and SAARC playing more active roles to engage countries in regional cooperation, it is expected that the BCIM framework will complement the process.

Opportunity to Explore Myanmar’s Economic Interests and Potentials

Bangladesh has huge potential of exporting of building materials including GI sheet (TIN), cement, rod, aluminum sections, plastic windows/ doors, plastic pipes and fittings etc, especially for the eastern region of Myanmar. Bangladesh has potential of exporting Pharmaceutical products, Electrical and Electronic items, ceramic wares, export of services, consultancy and infrastructure setup like in telecom, ICT, promotional/marketing

213 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain activities, Financial institutes etc. Agro-fishery production in Myanmar and import to Bangladesh would provide advantage to Bangladesh. Furniture manufacturers can have the advantage of low cost of material beside mentioned market penetration advantage (Mosleh-uzzaman-2017).

Scope of Agricultural Cooperation

Myanmar’s liberal policy on leasing out land for agro-based industries is attractive to foreign investors. Contract farming can be initiated in the Myanmar states bordering Bangladesh (Rezwan 2017). However, present relation between the two countries because of Rohingya crisis may not allow to exploit this opportunity but in future this opportunity can be exploited once the relation becomes friendly between the two nations.

Enhancing Connectivity with Myanmar

Bangladesh perceives itself as a prospective Singapore provided that it can enjoy market access and physical linkages with Nepal, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Thailand and China. The ongoing discussion on Tri-Nation Road Link connecting Bangladesh, Myanmar and China should be given due consideration, in particular by Bangladesh (Siddique 2017).

Establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

For attracting FDI, Myanmar is working very hard to develop SEZs. Alongside the SEZs, Bangladesh can explore cooperation in the bio-gas and solar energy projects (Mosleh- Uzzaman).

Energy Sharing

The cross-border power trading will greatly assist in solving the electricity shortage of the nation. A private Myanmar company has already leased land for setup of power plant and another firm already expressed interest in setting up hydro-electric power plant in Rakhaine state. Bangladesh can offer the same to Myanmar, thereby, both the countries would be benefitted (Mosleh-Uzzaman).

214 Cooperation in the Field of Trade and Commerce

Today our bilateral trade is only USD 71 million with Bangladesh exporting only USD 38 million. Bangladesh has huge potential to capture Myanmar market.

Bangladesh may import food grains, agro products, timber, gas etc. Bangladesh has lot of scope to do more business with Myanmar; thereby both the countries would be economically benefitted.

The Areas of Confidence Building in Military Domain

Military Delegation Exchange between Bangladesh and Myanmar

Though the military relations between BD and Myanmar are not very significant but cordial in general except the incident of Rejupara camp in 1991 and the oil rigging in the disputed territory in the Bay of Bengal in 2008. A comparative figure of high level military delegation exchange is shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Indian, China and Myanmar Army Delegation Visit to BD No of Delegation Rmks ser year India China Myanmar 1. 2013 49 0 0 Army Medical, Football, 2. 2014 48 21 57 Volleyball team visited 3. 2015 97 6 0 4. 2016 65 39 0 5. 2017 6 Source: SD Dte, GS Br, Army HQ

215 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Table 4: Bangladesh Army Delegation Visit to India, China and Myanmar No of Delegation Rmks ser year India China Myanmar 1. 2013 29 0 0 Beside these delegations a good no 2. 2014 27 1 8 also visited India for staff talk and exchange of special children visit Beside these delegations a good 3. 2015 16 1 0 no also visited India for attending Vijaw Diwas prog Beside these delegations a good 4. 2016 18 4 0 no also visited India for staff talk, and DRDO visit CGS of BD Army along with six 5. 2017 16 7 0 other offrs visited China from 10 to 19 August 2017 Source: SD Dte, GS Br, Army HQ

Table 5: State of Navy Ship Visit to MN BD Navy Ship Visit to MN Since 2010 Ser Name of the Ship Duration Remarks 1. Bns Umar Farooq 25/12/10 to 28/12/10 Good will visit 2. Bns Dhaleswari 16/3/13 to 8/4/13 Ex 3. Bns Sangu 1/2/14 to 16/2/14 Good will visit 4. Bns Abu Bakar 12/3/2015 to 31/3/2015 Do 5. Do 15/10/2015 to 3/11/2015 Do 6. Bns Prottoy 15/3/2017 to 18/3/2017 Do MN Navy Ship Visit To BD Since 2010 UMS MAHA 1. 7/6/2013 to 10/6/2013 Good will visit THATHURA Source: BD Navy HQ

216 Myanmar Air Force (MAF) has been found friendly in providing support to BD Air Force (BAF) while ferrying her fighter aircraft to BD from China.

Table 6: State of Air Force Delegation Visit of BD and MN MN TO BD Ser Delegation Duration Rmk 1. Lt Gen Myat Hein and Spouse 23 to 28 Apr 2011 2 Gen Khin Aung Myint 06 to 10 Nov 2016 BD TO MN 1. A M Emamul Bari with Spouse 27 Jan to 31 Jan 2014 Source: BD Air Force HQ

Military Training Exchange between the Two Armed Forces

Myanmar Armed Forces officers sometimes participate in different training institutes of BD Armed Forces especially in National Defence College (NDC) and Defence Services Command & Staff College (DSCSC). Following tables show the state of military training or course exchange between the two countries.

Table 7: State of Completed Course of Myanmar Armed Forces personnel in Bangladesh Ser Yr Name of Courses Participants Inst/Org 1 x UCSC 2 x OWC SI&T 1 x IOBC CMPC&S 1. 2010 09 2 x OMPC ASEA 1 x JOAC BIPSOT 2 x UNMOC 2. 2013 English Language Course 20 BIPSOT Intermediate Level English 3. 2014 20 BIPSOT Course

217 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Table 7: State of Completed Course of Myanmar Armed Forces personnel in Bangladesh Ser Yr Name of Courses Participants Inst/Org Joint Training Institution DSCSC NDC Ser Yr Atnd Ser Yr Atnd 1. 1998 01 1. 2006 01 2. 2005 01 2. 2007 01 3. 2008 01 3. 2008 01 4. 2013 02 4. 2012 01 5. 2014 03 5. 2013 01 6. 2015 03 6. 2015 01 7. 2016 03 7. 2016 01 Total: 14 Total: 07 Source: SD Dte, GS Br, Army HQ, Navy HQ, Air HQ

Table 8: State of Military Training of BD Armed Forces Members in MN Air Ser Course Year Army Navy Remarks Force MN Language 1. 2006-2007 02 - - Diploma Course 2012-2013 - 02 - 2013-2014 - 06 - MN Language 2. 2014-2015 01 02 - Course 2015-2016 01 01 - 2016-2017 02 - - Source: SD Dte, GS Br, Army HQ, Navy HQ, Air Force HQ

218 The figure mentioned in above tables clearly shows the minimum engagement of both Armed Forces in military training exchang program. Therefore, Bangladesh Armed forces should proactively offer more no of training courses for Myanmar Armed Forces personnel in Bangladesh.

Areas of Engagement in Military Domain

Combined Military Exercise, UN Peace Keeping Operation (UNPKO) Training and Disaster Management Cooperation BD Armed Forces may propose to conduct joint Exercise focusing on Counter Terrorism (CT) and Peace Keeping Operation (PKO). Joint Exercise may be held in Bangladesh and Myanmar in each alternative years. In first AAST (12-16 June 2017 Dhaka) and NNST ( 27-29 July 2017 MN ) both side agreed to conduct Joint Exercise, seminars and workshop related to UNPKO training; Bangladesh may render material support and sending quick response team in case of cyclone, flood or any other disaster to Myanmar.

Exchange Program, Senior Level Visits and Medical Cooperation Instructor and cadet from various institutions of both the Armed Forces may visit to observe the training. Both the Armed Forces may conduct visit by two/three star rank officers on reciprocal basis in every year. BD Armed Forces may propose to exchange Medical courses, seminars, workshop and medical treatment of patients.

Sports Event and Adventure Activities

Both the Armed Forces may conduct sports competition between teams of Golf, Tennis, Shooting, Football, Volleyball and Swimming.Moreover, both the Armed Forces may conduct adventure activities in MN and BD on Trekking, Cycling, Mountain expedition and Para gliding.

219 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Military Tourism, Joint Cycling Expedition and Adventure Training

Both the Armed Forces may propose to visit various tourist interest places of MN and BD on reciprocal basis, may conduct jt Cycling Expedition and Adventure training between MN and BD.

Challenges in Tapping Economic and Military Opportunities

There are many challenges in respect to Bangladesh-Myanmar relation. Some of these challenges are domestic in nature which exist in Myanmar, some are bilateral challenges which act as a barrier for improving the relation of both the countries.

Domestic Challenges of Myanmar

Hatred Towards Muslim

The majority of Myanmar population are Buddhist. Therefore, Myanmar Buddhist believes that someday Muslim would become majority in Myanmar and would capture Whole Myanmar (Helal 2017). Therefore, they are in a skeptic mind set up in regards to Bangladesh as Bangladesh is a Muslim majority country (Mosleh-Uzzaman 2017).

Mistrust

Mass people and Armed Forces Personnel of Myanmar strongly believe that insurgent group like: Arakan Army and Rohingya Solidarity organization are supported by Bangladesh in terms of Arms, ammunition, and training. Bangladesh has to make Myanmar believe that our land is not used by any separatist group of Myanmar.

220 Bilateral Challenges

Illegal Trade

Bangladesh is an attractive transit point for narcotics in international markets. Drug trafficking like: heroin, hashish, opium, phensidyl, pathedine or other psychotropic substances poses a real challenge to the nation. Currently ‘Yaba’ enters Bangladesh mainly through Myanmar.

The Rohingya Issue Because of Rohingya refugee, Bangladesh faces security threat (economical security, food security, health security etc.) on its national life, culture and image building. Siddiq (2017) opined that without solving Rohingya issue, it will not be possible to establish better relation with Myanmar.

Infrastructure and Energy The infrastructure set up and energy supply assurance in Myanmar is very poor. Therefore, the industries like: garment sector cannot be established overnight in Myanmar, and many of the challenges that plague Bangladeshi manufacturers, similarly plague Myanmar (Rezwan 2017).

Cultural Barrier Myanmar is a Buddhist majority country, hence their culture is dominated by Buddhism (Helal 2017). On the other hand, Bangladesh is a Muslim majority country where minority people of other religion co-exist peacefully. Therefore, this cultural barrier sometimes act as a barrier to establish a better relation between the two countries.

Language Barrier Language is a major barrier for communicating with the Myanmar citizens. Moreover, Myanmar’s mass population are not well conversant with English as well (Mahbub 2017). As such it affects the trade and commerce in root level.

221 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Factors Affecting Trade Bangladesh-Myanmar bi-lateral trade is very important for the improvement of relations of both the countries. The following issues are in focus in bilateral trade relations:

BCIM Economic Corridor As BCIM corridor connects Bangladesh, China, India and Myanmar, therefore BCIM corridor would play a vital role for both the countries to enhance the bilateral trades in manifold.

Infrastructure Development One of the important drawbacks for Bangladesh-Myanmar trade relation is the poor infrastructure system of both countries. There can be better road connection from Myanmar side up to the border with Bangladesh.

Visa process for Businessmen Myanmar should take initiative to simplify and ease the visa processing for Bangladesh businessman under Border Trade Agreement.

Connectivity Hardly there is any connectivity with Myanmar. For trade and commerce better connectivity is a must. Air connectivity has already been established between Bangladesh and Myanmar. The Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) and Agreement on Coastal and Maritime Shipping have been finalized and waiting to be signed (Mosleh-Uzzaman 2017).

Border Trade A joint working group of Border Trade Officials (JWG-BTO) was formed and seven meetings of the group were held in border town/cities (Rezwan 2017). Border trade would increase the trade between the countries to a greater extent (Rezwan 2017).

222 Challenges because of Regional and Extra Regional Countries Interest in Myanmar As Myanmar is coming out from decade of isolation, therefore many regional and extra regional countries are showing interest in Myanmar. Therefore, this is also creating lot of challenges for Bangladesh.

India’s Interest in Myanmar

Myanmar is important for both India and China. Myanmar is India’s land connection to the ASEAN region. India’s Look East Policy” and its success largely depends on closer relations between the two countries. Table below shows that how fast bilateral trade between India and Myanmar is increasing.

Table 9: Bilateral Trade between India and Myanmar 2014-15 Year 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 Apr- Nov India 207.97 320.62 545.38 544.66 787.10 483.81 Exports (6.17%) (54.17%) (70.1%) (-0.13%) (44.5%)

India 1289.80 1017.67 1381.15 1412.69 1395.67 951.78 Imports (38.84%) (-21.1%) (35.72%) (2.28%) (-1.20%)

Total 1497.77 1338.29 1870.20 1957.35 2182.68 1135.59 trade (30.17%) (-10.65%) (39.75%) (1.6%) (11.5%) Figures in brackets indicate variation from previous year(s) Source: DGFT, Dept of Commerce, India) 2015

Map 1 shows how India is connecting with Sitwee port of Myanmar and from there road connecting Mizoram of India. Indian goods will have an easy access to its North-Eastern part and also to Myanmar and this will pose a serious challenge to Bangladesh’s market in Northern part of India and also in Myanmar.

223 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Map 1: India- Myanmar Kaladan Multi –Modal Transit Transport Connectivity

Source: www.isparliament.com/current-affairs/india-myanmar-joint- trade-committee-meeting

China’s Interest in Myanmar

China has enormous interest in Myanmar. There are over five million Chinese people lives in Myanmar, i.e. almost 10% of its population. China built the state of the art airport in Naypitaw. China views Myanmar as a huge market for Chinese goods. Yunnan province of China is the nearest region to Myanmar. The Myanmar-Yunnan border trade accounted for about 55 per cent of Myanmar’s total trade value; and Myanmar is the largest trading partner of Yunnan.

Table 10: China’s Goods Trade with Myanmar (In US$ million) 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Export 908 939 935 1207 1692 1979 2279 3481 4825 5675 7349 Import 170 207 274 253 371 645 646 963 1677 1299 2810 Balance 738 732 660 955 1321 1335 1634 2518 3184 4376 4540 Source:www.or/online.org/wp-content/uploads/2015

Myanmar’s location between India and China give Myanmar a unique bridging role. Myanmar’s long coast line provides control over Bay of

224 Bengal and Andaman Sea. China is heavily dependent on the Malacca Strait for her 60-70 percent oil shipment, a strategic waterway that connects the Persian Gulf with the South China Sea. Since Japan’s defeat in the Second world War, coastal East and Southeast Asia including the Malacca Strait are controlled by the U.S Pacific Fleet. If Washington, in case of conflict with Beijing block the Malacca Strait, China would be cut off from its energy import. In this context China’s strategic interest in Myanmar is clear. Therefore,China was eager to find a trading outlet to the Indian Ocean for its landlocked inland provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan, via Myanmar. Map below shows the gas and oil pipeline connectivity with China.

Map 2: Gas and Oil Pipe line Connecting China through Myanmar

Source: www. Google.sino-myanmar pipeline.com

USA’s Interest in Myanmar

At the US-Burma economic relation seminar in Rangoon on 10 June 2016, John Goyer said, “Burma has an ambitious and daunting economic agenda”. “The US business community fully supports [Burma’s] efforts to modernize and open [its] economy and wants to be a partner in these efforts.” In 2015, US exports to Burma were at US$ 227 million while imports were at $144 million, according to figures from Burma’s Directorate of Investment and Companies Administration. The total approved US investment in Burma stands at US$ 248 million. (The Irrawaddy, 10 June 2016, “ US Investment in Burma”).

225 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

Implications for Bangladesh

Regional and extra regional countries interest in Myanmar and implications for Bangladesh is summarized in following figure.

Figure 1: Regional and Extra regional countries Interests in Myanmar and Implications

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Source: Conceptualized by Author

Ways Ahead to Revamp Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation

Measures to Build Mutual Confidence and Trust Enhancing Diplomacy with Myanmar

Track I diplomacy in the form of exchange of visits between high level civil and military official, political leaders should be arranged to initiate talks, signing mutually beneficial MOUs etc. Track II diplomacy involving influential academic, religious, and NGO leaders and other civil society actors should also be organized to enhance trust between the states. Track III diplomacy increased in the form of tourism, medical treatment and pursuing higher education. Cultural, educational and business exchange programme need to be undertaken more frequently. Media can also play a very important role in establishing mutual confidence and trust between the two countries (Mosleh-Uzzaman 2017).

226 Establishment of First Hand Information Exchange Mechanism Myanmar and Bangladesh may establish ‘Point of Contact’ at different levels. The ‘point of contact’ should interact with each other and share required information allowing for greater “openness” with regard to each other activities.

Establishment of Hot Lines and Crisis Control Mechanism Early notification of upcoming military/paramilitary activities or training exercises, might build confidence through the use of direct telephone lines between military/paramilitary commanders

Exchange of State Level Delegations Visits At present, Bangladesh has less number of visits with Myanmar. Bilateral state level visits conducted between Bangladesh and Myanmar is appended below. Exchange of visits from state, diplomatic, military, business and civil society should be organized at regular interval to know each other and explore the opportunities for mutual benefits.

Exchange of Other Delegations Visits When religion barrier, historical settlement issue has a negative impact, the changed scenario of open business mental acceptance has to be created towards the gate of East Asian doorway and huge market. Exchange of tourists, journalists and visits of business delegates are very important to implement.

Exploring the Cooperation through Regional and Sub-Regional Forum There are multiple sub-regional forums in the region such as the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), South Asia Sub-regional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) and India Bangladesh Myanmar Sub-Regional Cooperation (IBM-SRC). Being the fulcrum of the sub-region and its window to Southeast Asia,

227 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

IBM countries, i.e. India, Bangladesh and Myanmar occupy primary importance in the efforts to integrate the region.

Exploring Myanmar’s Economic Interests and Potentials

The policy makers in Bangladesh need to address some common areas where both the countries can strengthen their cooperation. Relevant ministries in Bangladesh need to play focused role to give a planned boost to economic cooperation with Myanmar in the wider fields. Both countries need to ease visa formalities and deregulate currency restrictions.

Cooperation in the Field of Trade and Investment

Establishment of a smooth channel of financial transactions and diversification of the export items of Bangladesh targeting the domestic market of Myanmar should be thought of. Following steps may be taken to improve the bilateral trade and investment:

• BCIM Economic Corridor. Arrangements of BCIM (Bangladesh, China, India & Myanmar) Economic Corridor may be expedited as early as possible to increase bi-lateral trade.

• Visa Process for Businessmen. Myanmar should take initiative to simplify and ease the visa processing for Bangladesh Businessman under Border Trade Agreement.

• Connectivity. As one of the major successes of JTC meeting, air connectivity has already been established between the two countries. The Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) and Agreement on Coastal and Maritime Shipping have been finalized and waiting to be signed (Rezwan 2017).

• Border Trade. A joint working group of Border Trade Officials (JWG-BTO) was formed and 7 meetings of the group were held in border town/cities. Steps may be taken to hold the meeting at the earliest to facilitate border trade mechanism.

228 • Energy Cooperation. Bangladesh may import gas from Myanmar. The import of gas in bulk can be cost-effective as well as strategically sound for Bangladesh. Energy cooperation in terms of establishing hydro-power plant can also be prepared to import electricity from Myanmar.

• Military Cooperation. Bangladesh and Myanmar Armed Forces should have frequent exchange of visits, training and joint exercises. These will reduce mistrust and enhance the confidence and understanding.

• Building Mutual Confidence and Trust. Significant political developments in Myanmar moved the country from the ‘policy of isolation’ towards a ‘policy of engagement’ (Banik 2015). Bangladesh has to make the Myanmar government believe that unresolved issues between the countries would not create hindrances for economic prosperity.

Recommendations

• Bangladesh –Myanmar relations are yet to blossom in full shape. However, following recommendations are made to revamp bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the light of thread bare discussion in this paper: • People to people contact should be increased for building mutual confidence and trust. Frequent visits by business delegates, civil society, military and civil administration delegates may be organized to and from both the country. • Myanmar and Bangladesh may develop shipping, air and improved road connectivity immediately to boost trade and economic co-operation. Coastal shipping specially cargo vessels should be operational between Chittagong and Sittwe to support trade and tourism. • Bangladesh should negotiate with Myanmar to buy energy particularly gas and electricity from Myanmar. Bangladesh may also permit the construction of Myanmar-Bangladesh-India gas line project with the assurance of safety and supply of gas to Bangladesh.

229 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

• Bangladesh should coordinate with Myanmar authority for having contract farming in Myanmar. Bangladesh should explore the opportunities of exporting garments, pharmaceuticals and leather goods to Myanmar. Bangladesh should import timber, gas and agricultural products from Myanmar. • Bangladesh Armed Forces should offer more number of military training courses for Myanmar Armed Forces personnel for enhancing the trust and mutual confidence. Bangladesh Armed Forces should continue to have regular staff talk with Myanmar Armed Forces. • Being one of the closest neighbours of Myanmar, both the countries should maintain a friendly relation with each other. Bangladesh Armed Forces must take effective steps to improve the relation with Myanmar Armed Forces assuring the zero tolerance stand of our government in respect of not allowing any insurgent group using the land of Bangladesh. • Both the countries border management and coastal headquarter should have frequent liaison with each other and a liaison headquarter may be established.

Conclusion

Myanmar is the only neighbor beside India with whom Bangladesh shares border. Bangladesh -Myanmar relations are mainly dominated by the influx of Rohingya refugees, illegal drug trafficking and alleged cross border movement of insurgents etc. Official bilateral relations between these two countries began in 1972, when Myanmar recognized Bangladesh as a sovereign state; but they have failed to establish a friendly bilateral relationship in the last four decades. Perhaps the issues that have hindered the process of building effective bilateral relations include the influx of Rohingya refugees, demarcation of land and maritime boundaries, illegal trafficking, and alleged cross-border movement of insurgents.

The major influxes of Rohingya people took place in Bangladesh in 1978, 1991 to 1992, 2012 and 2017. Many of the Rohingyas are responsible for

230 insurgency and militancy, drugs, arms and human trafficking, smuggling and illegal trades in the borders areas. After half a century of military rule and self-imposed isolation, the road to reform in Myanmar is never going to be smooth. Finally,after the general election in 2015, power was handed over to a democratic government. Economic reforms in the form of anti-corruption laws, currency exchange rates, foreign investment laws and taxation was also introduced.

Bangladesh should note that the reclusive and autocratic country has become a liberal and democratic one, with immense possibilities for growth and trade partnerships. Establishment of Special Exclusive Economic Zone, enhancing connectivity and cooperation in the field of trade and commerce will also remain as a matter of concern for Bangladesh to explore.

Bangladesh should build mutual confidence and trust through public and military diplomacy, establishment of information exchange mechanism, hot lines and crisis control mechanism, visit exchanges by different level dignitaries including the Armed forces personnel. BIMSTEC, ASEAN, BCIM, etc should be utilized for mutual benefit.

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231 Revamping Bangladesh-Myanmar Relation: Challenges and Opportunities in Economic and Military Domain

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10. Karmakar, Pankaj 2014, ‘Food cards for 32,000 Rohingya refugees’, The Daily Star, September 13, Dhaka, available at http://www. thedailystar.net/food-cards-for-32-000-rohingya-refugees-41471, accessed on 3 June 2017.

11. Lintner, Bertil 1990, Outrage: Burma’s Struggle for Democracy, Bangkok: White Lotus.

12. Moeen, Brigadier General 2016, the Rohingya Issue and Bangladesh- Myanmar Relation: A Way Forward, National Defence College, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

13. Najeeb, Mohammad, Brigadier General 2003, Bangladesh – Myanmar Strategic Relation in the New Millennium, A critical Analysis, National Defence College, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

14. Patwary, Obayedul Hoque 2009, Bangladesh - Myanmar Relations: The Security Dimension, Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies, Dhaka, Bangldesh.

232 15. Shahalam, Chowdhury, Major 1999, The Future of Bangladesh- Myanmar Relation and Its Effect on the Region, Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

16. Smith, Martin 2002, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, London: Minority Right Group International.

17. Zaman, Brigadier General S M Shamim-Uz 2011, Bangladesh – Myanmar Relationship : Way Ahead, National Defence College, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Lectures

18. Mr. A. H Mahmood Ali, MP. Honourable Foreign Minister of Bangladesh, 18 June, 2017, NDC, Mirpur Cantonment.

19. Mr. Khurshid Alam, Secretary (Maritime Affairs) Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 01 April, 2017), NDC, Mirpur Cantonment.

Author

Lieutenant Colonel Md. Monowarul Islam Sarder, SPP, psc was commissioned in the Corps of Engineers of Bangladesh Army on 12 June 1997. He is a graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur. He completed his B.Sc. in Civil Engineering from Bangladesh University of Professionals. He accomplished his M.Sc. in Military Studies from the same university. During his service career, he served in a good number of units and institutions of Bangladesh Army in different capacities. He commanded an Engineer Construction Battalion for two years four months. Lieutenant Colonel Monowar likes to take challenge and loves to create new things. He has successfully introduced Tetrapod as a permanent shore protection system in Bangladesh.

233 NEED FOR DOCTRINE DEVELOPMENT CENTER IN BANGLADESH AIR FORCE

Group Captain Md Abdullah Al-Mamun, afwc, psc, GD(P)

Introduction

Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) has come across the experience of more than four decades since her inception. Role and task of BAF have become diversified with new challenges and with a wide range of operating area beyond the boundary of Bangladesh. In this process ‘BAF is undergoing modernization plan that includes organizational expansion and induction of many new systems and equipment to have a compatible tooth to tail ratio by 2030’ (Esrar 2017, 11 April). This effort demands innovative strategies to develop compatible concept of operation to deal with the fast changing operational requirement.

Any professional air force should regularly re-evaluate its doctrine, strategies and operational concept through a formal process under an organizational set up or institute. Moreover the fast changing technology is directly contributing to the threat perspective. Therefore, appropriate doctrine should be developed to ensure that BAF can meet the challenges of any future conflict or war. This would help BAF to develop operational concepts, design a balanced force structure, standardize its training system and make optimum use of its resources. It needs to be determined that how best BAF could adopt a systematic approach towards development process.Without a systematic approach the whole development process of BAF is likely to be counter productive for effective employment of air power.

Standardization and Evaluation of Operational Concept and Improving Professional Skill

Requirement of Standardization and Evaluation in BAF: The future operational requirements are likely to become increasingly more

234 complex and dynamic. Continuous evaluation would enable our Air Force to become more adaptable and flexible in its planning, preparation and execution of operations. BAF should continue to strive for excellence in operations based on a distinct knowledge edge. The knowledge edge can be maintained through demanding and realistic training guided by relevant operational concept. This needs to be done through a continuous process of standardization and evaluation. (Hasan 2017, 20 August)

Present Method of Standardization and Evaluation in BAF: At present the Directorate of Chief Inspector is conducting the performance evaluation of units and bases which is mostly done with the help of some preselected indicators. That does not really serve the purpose of standardization and evaluation for identification of capability gap and provide solutions. Ideally this is supposed to be done by a formal institute that is capable of developing doctrine and operational concepts, which is not there in BAF at present.’ (Al- Amin 2017, 20 September)

Standardization of BAF Operational Concept: The uncertainty and complexity of future operational environment will require BAF to respond to a broad range of threats and challenges. The increasing speed at which the effect of conflict appear in the operational environment will continue to challenge the commanders and operators to deal with a greater number of events and activities over a shorter period of time. Therefore, simply knowing where an adversary is maneuvering will no longer be sufficient, leaders must understand the intent of an adversary in the real time. (US Army TRADOC 2012, p.16) This would require BAF to analyze the future operational environment and develop contemporary operational concept to adopt with the fast changing operational environment.

Developing Contemporary Operational Concept: BAF must be prepared to defeat the future threats who would try to evade our strength and try to attack what they perceive as weakness. As part of the preparation BAF need to peruse for the emerging technologies to maintain its strength, address the weaknesses and exploit opportunities. In this process BAF

235 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force can develop contemporary operational concept and counter measures to defeat future threats and remain as a credible force. ‘At present because of not having a formal institute the existing operating procedure and concepts are not developed through a systematic way. Because the compatibility of operational concept would depend how methodically it is designed and planned.’ (Syed 2017, 03 August). A survey over 60 senior officers from all three services are asked,“How BAF can develop compatible operational concept” and the response is shown below.

Figure 1: How BAF can develop sound operational concept

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Source: Field Survey by the Researcher

Deduction: BAF can develop sound operational concept through standerdizing and evaluating the existing concept and by developing individual knowledge level.

Force Structuring: BAF needs to develop a credible force which would be flexible, technologically advanced and capable of protecting the airspace of Bangladesh from any threat. ‘In the present context to develop an Air Force with state of art equipment and systems need a huge amount of budget that our economy would not be able to afford fully. Thus, resource constrain is one of the most prominent challenges for us. Yet BAF need to make a balance between the affordability and capability building.Determining the requirement through proper research and analysis, selection of correct equipment and setting the correct concept of operation would be the appropriate way.’ (Hasan 2017, 20 August)

236 Standardization of BAF Training System: ‘The standardization for the academic training at different stages would be done through a continuous assessment program of monitoring the outcome and analysis for improvement. There needs to be a Standardization and Evaluation section will be the responsible work center to perform this task. They will also draft the policy guideline related to all types of training in BAF.’ (Tanveer 2017, 30 June).

Modification and Synchronization of Training According to the New Equipment and System: Whenever there will be any induction plan for new equipment and systems the Standardization and Evaluation section will be tasked to analyze and suggest necessary modification of the existing training program to interface the man and machine. ‘Merely having a small group of people trained on the new equipment would not help the total system to match with the new induction. For effective utilization of the equipment this systematic modification and implementation is necessary.’ (Syed 2017, 03 August) After the modification of training system for a particular equipment that needs to be synchronized with rest of the system to function effectively. This synchronization is not possible only by the user unit alone. This must be done through a systematic way.

Enhancing Professional Skill of BAF Personnel: Professional knowledge of BAF personnel is closely related to the overall efficiency of BAF as a whole. ‘BAF personnel maintain and operate very modern fast evolving technology driven equipment. It is the skilled man behind the machine who ensure smooth functioning of an organization like BAF. Through evaluation we can reveal the weak areas/drawbacks and work on to enhance professional skill. Through standardization we set a benchmark and endeavor to maintain that by dint of professional skill.’ (Sayed 2017, 03 August) In this regard 60 surveyed are asked about their opinion whether standardization and evaluation of operational concept and training system would help to enhance the professional skill of BAF personnel and the majority respondent opined that standardization and evaluation of operational concept and training system would help to enhance the professional skill of BAF personnel.

237 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force

Requirement for Research and Analysis in BAF: Research and analysis is generally meant as a systematic, objective assessment of the appropriateness, effectiveness or efficiency of an initiative, policy, project, service, function or operation. The application of research and analysis processes to doctrine and training would allow BAF to maintain the knowledge and capability edge over any potential adversary by providing contemporary and flexible solutions to doctrine and training requirements. From the above mentioned discussion it is clearly evident that none of the qualifications or capabilities can be achieved without the research and analysis. Moreover, this has to be done in the form of standardization and evaluation under an organized intellectual institute. The requirement for research and analysis in BAF has been tested through a survey over 60 mid-level senior officers from all three services and the response is shown below.

Figure 2: What is your opinion about the requirement to institutionalize research and analysis in BAF ,WZRXOGSURYLGHREMHFWLYH DVVHVVPHQWRIWKH DSSURSULDWHQHVV  HIIHFWLYHQHVVRUHIILFLHQF\RI  %$))XQFWLRQDQGRSHUDWLRQ  ,WZRXOGDOORZ%$)WR PDLQWDLQWKHNQRZOHGJHDQG FDSDELOLW\HGJHRYHUDQ\ SRWHQWLDODGYHUVDU\ 

,WZRXOGSURYLGHDJLOH DGDSWDEOHDQGIOH[LEOH VROXWLRQVWRGRFWULQHDQG WUDLQLQJUHTXLUHPHQWV Source: Field Survey by the Researcher

Deduction: It is required to institutionalize research and analysis in BAF for multiple benefits that includes efficiency of BAF fucntion and operation, maintain knowledge edge and solutions to doctrine and training requirements.

238 Preparing an Academic Discipline for War Fighting Role

Why Doctrine is Needed for Air Force: The guidance for proper use of airpower in military operations can be determined from an Air Force doctrine. Thus the Air Force doctrine becomes the foundation and reference for employing Air Power in the best possible way. In other way doctrine comprises of the essential modalities by which the Air Force can design and formulate its actions in support of national objectives; it is the cornerstone of successful any military operations. (USAF Doctrine 2011, p.2) Therefore, BAF needs to develop its own doctrine which would suit its own force and help develop the force structuring, operational concept, employment etc.’ (Sayed 2017, 03 August)

How BAF Can Have its Own Doctrine: Doctrine would represent a statement of the BAF approach to operations and it also provides the knowledge base for others who have a need to understand how BAF would operate. This includes the Government, civilians within Defence and other departments and agencies involved in activities and operations alongside the BAF. (Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 2006, pp.2-6) ‘In some instances where experience is lacking or difficult to acquire, doctrine may be developed through analysis of theory and assumed actions. Doctrine is constantly changing as new experiences and advances in technology point the way to the force of the future.’ (USAF basic Doctrine 1997, pp.1-2) In this regard a formal intellectual institute would help BAF to develop its own doctrine.

A Possible Model for Doctrinal Process: Doctrine is integral to the capability development process. ‘To ensure the optimum utilization of resources and capability integration, the doctrine should be developed first then to identify and determine the capability requirement. It should follow a loop of a formal doctrinal process that would probably help the capability integration’ (Zaman 2017, 31 August). The model is depicted in the following figure and is described in the following paragraphs (Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 7.0, pp2-6).

239 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force

Figure 3: A Prescribed Doctrine Model

Source: Developed by the researcher taking reference from the Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 7.0, p.6

• Analyse: The ‘Analyse’ phase of the model examines the inputs to determine their impact on current doctrine or the requirement to develop new doctrine as a result of these inputs.

• Develop: The ‘Develop’ phase of this doctrine model involves examination of the concepts and plans produced in the ‘Analyse’ phase to determine the best doctrinal solution.

• Produce: The ‘Produce’ phase implements the doctrine project plan scoped in the ‘Develop’ phase. This covers all aspects required to draft, approve, publish and disseminate doctrine.

• Evaluate: Doctrine is dynamic and should evolve over time to meet the changing circumstances that is expected to be faced. The ‘Evaluate’ phase determines whether, and to what extent, the doctrine has met force’s requirements. Evaluation may be undertaken formally or informally.

• Review: The ‘Review’ phase can be conducted at any time in the execution of the model. The review process is particularly important at the end of each of the other phases. The review of each phase allows scrutiny of the processes used and outcomes achieved. It is a quality assurance mechanism that has an internal focus.

240 Implication of Doctrine: Doctrine provides a framework for organizing, planning and employment of air power. It is rather essential to establish such Doctrine Development Center which would provide these very fundamental elements which would intern help develop academic discipline for rational growth and war fighting role of BAF. (Sayed 2017, 03 August) ‘BAF doctrine would primarily be targeted at its members of all levels’ (Zaman 2017, 31 August). Therefore to prepare an academic discipline for warfigting role it is necessary that the implication of doctrine is understood by BAF personnel at different levels.

Levels of Doctrine: In a classical way of implementing the Air Force doctrine it normally affects operations at three different levels i.e. basic, operational, and tactical. These levels are more concerned about the intellectual content of the doctrinal concepts, but not for the architectural structure of doctrine publications. (UASF Doctrine 2011, p.8)

• Basic Doctrine: The basic doctrine describes the “essential properties” of airpower and provides the perspective of Air force professionals. Based on its fundamental and enduring character, basic doctrine provides broad and progressive guidance on how an Air Force should be organized, employed, equipped, and sustained.

• Operational Doctrine: The operational doctrine explains about the details for a force how it should be organized vis a vis the application of principles of basic doctrine to military operations. The main focus of operational doctrine is towards developing the missions and tasks that need to be executed through tactical doctrine.

• Tactical Doctrine: The tactical doctrine mainly describes the appropriate employment of specific Air Force assets, individually or jointly with other elements, to accomplish detailed objectives. Tactical doctrine is focused on particular objectives (carrying out dive bombing) and conditions (threats, weather, and terrain). Air Force tactical doctrine is codified as tactics, techniques, and procedures which is termed as TTP.

241 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force

War Fighting Role of BAF: BAF is responsible to safeguard/defend the air space of Bangladesh.To attack on enemy’s offensive power and on centers of his power of resistance in times of war. To create favourable air situation for assisting the Army and Navy in times of war.To provide long range air transport support for strategic movement of land and other forces. To provide tactical transport support for carriage and supply of airborne or air transported troops. To assist the civil administration in maintaining internal security and peace, and to support general population in the event of natural calamities whenever called for such duties. (BAF Draft Operational Doctrine 2014, p.2B-1)

Application of Doctrine for Warfighting Role: The focus of Air Force doctrine remains on the best possible way to obtain warfighting effects irrespective of the medium in which an air platform would operate. For example, an Air Force professional is generally concerned with the best means of employing intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities, rather than a particular ISR platform is airborne or in orbit. (USAF Doctrine 2011, pp.5-6)

• Effects: Doctrine should talk about effects, not platforms. The focus of doctrine remains on the desired outcome of a particular action, not just on the system or weapon itself that provides the whole effect. • Using Mediums: Similar way the doctrine normally talks about using mediums, not owning mediums. This explains the importance of a medium how properly it should be used to obtain the best possible warfighting effects. • Right Force: Doctrine provides direction for the right amount of force, not just equal shares of the force. This amplifies the appropriate mix of Service components in a joint environment. • Having Own Doctrine in BAF to Perform War Fighting Role: ‘A Doctrine Development Center should be able to provide the doctrine and policy guideline for BAF. This would ultimately contribute for the effective employment of air power thus helping

242 to perform the war fighting role.’ (Zaman 2017, 31 August) A group of 60 surveyed are asked “Whether BAF needs to have own doctrine or not” and “Should having own doctrine help BAF to perform its war fighting role more effectively”. Majority of the respondent opined that BAF should have own doctrine and it would help BAF to perform its war fighting role more effectively.

Developing the Mindset for War Fighting Role: The 60 surveyed are again asked to set the priority for BAF to develop its mindset for war fighting role. The result came out as ‘preparing an academic discipline’ would be the first priority. Rest of the conditions ‘Develop indigenous engineering capability’, ‘Procure state of art platform for war fighting’ and ‘Develop hybrid concept’ were placed as the second third and fourth priority respectively.

An Approach Towards Systematic Development Process

Development Planning: The Development Planning Guide of USAF Material Command defines Development Planning as a collective process of connecting the needs for air force’s identified capability to the planning for acquisition of correct equipment and systems. In pursuit of new capabilities the Development Planning needs to include few basic requirements like analysis, quality assessments, thorough studies, strategies, and options. Two important key elements of Development Planning are analytic support for identification of needs and development of requirements for potential equipment and systems. (USAF Development Planning Guide 2010, p.2)

Objective of Development Planning: The objective of Development Planning is to ensure the launching of major programs that would deliver warfighting systems with appropriate capabilities at the right time with correct cost. Development Planning is not a separate phase of acquisition, rather it is a best practices process to ensure successful acquisition planning. (USAF Development Planning Guide 2010, p.2) A dedicated team need

243 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force to be assigned for doing the Capability Based Planning under a formal institutional process.

Capabilities-Based Planning (CBP): The Capability Based Planning in Air Force is the systematic planning process to provide capabilities suitable for a wide range of challenges and circumstances which is aimed for achieving the desired effect in a specific battle space. Therefore the Capability Based Planning is inherently an analytically sound, repeatable, and traceable process to identify, assess, and prioritize Air Force capability needs. (USAF Development Planning Guide 2010, p.3)

Examining BAF Development Plan for Modernization

• Organizational Expansion: As part of the modernization plan BAF has planned for organizational expansion to meet the growing need. Most of the proposals for new establishments have come through experience and existing shortfalls. This plan could be made more effective if it would be guided by any concept of operation or through any kind of research and analysis through a formal institute like Doctrine Development Center.

• Induction of New System and Equipment: In similar way the modernization plan of BAF includes induction of different equipment and system. Plan for any type of equipment or system does not follow the Capability Based Planning process in true sense rather this is mostly guided by the availability in the market and budget constrain. (BAF procurement Procedure 2010) This is not guided by the operational concept derived from own doctrine. Therefore, the effectiveness of those equipment and system would be in question in time of employment in real war scenario. ‘It is of great concern that we are not adopting to the current operational environment which cause for reassessing the geo-political scenario and long term threat assessment. Only then we will be able to understand what should be our future force structure and that would be highlighted in the next Forces Goal i.e. FG 2050.’ (Hasan 2017, 02 August)

244 • Shortcomings of Present Acquisition Process: Acquisition of equipment and system in BAF is mostly guided by the present procurement procedure as prepared by Armed Forces Division (AFD Procurement Procedure 2010). The major problem here is the absence of systematic process to identify the capability gap and determine the capability needs. Because there is a distinct difference between identification of requirement and procurement procedure.

Ways for Integration of Capability Building Efforts: There needs to be integration of capability building within the service. There are different units and squadrons in BAF operating different equipment performing different role and task. Integration is not merely the synchronization, rather integration is aimed at improving the overall efficiency and better output. Capability building efforts of all three services needs to be guided by the joint doctrine. Individual services doctrinal process should also be integrated to achieve synergy in case of joint operation. In this process the development plan formulated by a formal institute like Doctrine Development Center can improve true efficiency of BAF.

Systematic Development Process: ‘For achieving the desired outcome and objectives one should follow an appropriate organizational philosophy which helps in translating strategy into actions. It also helps in understanding the force requirements and weaknesses of her own force. For a systematic development process, BAF needs a road map, irrespective of individual/ government, the road map should foresee next few decades; what should be the capability of BAF. Based on the plan, short-term and mid-term plan should be laid out. (Belal 2017, 06 August) ‘A Doctrine Development Center in BAF will be the right /appropriate institute having dedicated, skilled and experienced manpower who can formulate doctrine, policies and operational concept which will ultimately lead towards a systematic development for having a balanced force structure.’ (Hasan 2017, 02 August)

Balanced Force Structuring: If a systematic development process is followed through research and analysis, then it would be possible to correctly

245 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force identify the capability needs helping to design and plan for a balanced force structure. ‘Without a doctrinal process systematic development is difficult. A Doctrine Development Center would help BAF to outline a systematic, logical and consistent approach for her growth.’ (Belal 2017, 06 August). In this regard survey respondent opined that a balanced force structure would help BAF for effective employment of air power.

Doctrine Development Center: A Think Tank Institute for BAF

What is a Think Tank Institute: Think tank Institute is a leading strategic tool for the management of knowledge. As a hybrid organisation, it is founded on the management of information and knowledge, drawing on the processes of knowledge management and on expert researchers. (Urrutia Olivier 2013, p.7) An Institute that is capable of providing a Defence Force that needed a clear long-term vision of the way in which that force is expected to operate. It should be able to help provide Defence strategy, capability development and provide the foundation for military education by formulating doctrine and operational concept.

Criteria for Think Tank Institute: Following are some of the criteria identified for the definition of a think tank institute to suit the requirement of BAF:

• A formal intellectual institute for knowledge enriching. • The research area of the institute is to fulfill the general interest of BAF. • A permanent work team focusing on research and analysis. • The production of innovative proposals and prospective Air Force policies. • An independent organization. The level of independence in BAF could be determined by its statutes and financing sources (separate budget with independent administration).

246 • An organizationequipped with the communication resources (website, blogs, publications, conferences etc.) in order to disseminate information to as broad an audience as possible.

Purpose of Having a Think Tank Institute in BAF: Having a think tank institute of its own, BAF would be benefited with supplies of information, knowledge and innovation. It would also provide proactive intelligence to avoid perceived risks and threats. (Urrutia Olivier 2013, p.7)

Expected Output: While carrying out the survey on the output that BAF would expect to achieve from having its own Think Tank Institute the response was quite exhaustive.

Figure 4: What BAF would get from having a ‘Think Tank Institute’ of its own

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Source: Field Survey by the Researcher

Deduction: Having a Think Tank Institute for its own BAF would get a knowledge enriching institute which would provide an organized intellectual process of producing strategic and policy guidance for capability building, formulate doctrine & operational concept.

Role and Task of Doctrine Development Center as a Think Tank Institute in BAF: ‘The BAF Doctrine Development Center should develop the doctrine and guidance addressing people of all spheres

247 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force in BAF. It should also conduct seminars and workshops involving all concerns, which contribute in enhancing the overall efficiency of BAF’ (Zaman 2017, 31 August). ‘If structure our Doctrine Development Center encompass with different cells like; Operational Art, Doctrine Review & Writing cell, Force Modernization cell, Center for Air Power Studies etc. then it would be able to perform the role of a think tank body in BAF.’ (Sayed 2017, 03 August) From the above discussion it perceived that the Doctrine Development Center would be capable of accomplishing diverse tasks to perform the role of a think tank institute in BAF. The identified tasks are discussed below: • Research and Analysis. • Standardization and Evaluation. • Preparing Doctrine. • Preparing policy guideline including legal issues. • Developing Concepts. • Providing strategic guideline for Development Process. • Capability Integration and Force Modernization. • Integration with Other Services. • Wargaming and Simulation.

Proposed Organizational Structure of Doctrine Development Center: Considering the role and task of Doctrine Development Center a workable organizational structure is proposed here which is expected to meet the requirement of BAF and expected to perform the role of a Think Tank Institute in BAF. This will be an independent organization with own administrative facilities and having separate budget only dedicated to meet its total requirement. The Institute will have different Directorates with distinct responsibilities. The proposed directorates of the institute are mentioned below: • Directorate of Research and Analysis • Directorate of Standardization and Evaluation

248 • Directorate of Doctrine • Directorate of Strategy • Directorate of Policy and Legal • Directorate of Concept and Development • Directorate of Capability and Force Modernization • Directorate of Wargaming and Simulation • Admin and Services Support Unit

Recommendations

Upon the findings of this research following recommendations are placed in regards of development process of Bangladesh Air Force:

• BAF may take necessary steps to establish a Doctrine Development Center with immediate effect. • The proposed organizational set up may be considered while establishing the Doctrine Development Center in BAF. • The institute may be allowed to coordinate independently with similar institutes of other organization (government and non-government) for knowledge sharing and take technical and expert support for the interest of BAF.

Conclusion

It is obvious that any professional air force should regularly re-evaluate its doctrine, strategies and operational concept through a organized process under a formal institute. The same is very much applicable for BAF while trying to match with the contemporary air forces. Therefore, appropriate doctrine should be developed to ensure that BAF can meet the challenges of performing its war fighting role. Determining the requirement through proper research and analysis, selection of correct equipment, setting the correct concept of operation, train and organize according to the changing

249 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force operational environment would be the ways to meet the challenges. It is quite evident that achieving these qualifications or capabilities is not possible without the research and analysis in the form of standardization and evaluation under an organized intellectual institute. But with the present organizational set up of BAF it would not be possible to perform this particular task in a professional manner.

The very inter-relation between the doctrine and warfighting role is closely tied up which affects operations at three different levels i.e. basic, operational, and tactical. However, to develop the mindset for war fighting role BAF needs to prepare an academic discipline as the first priority. It is necessary for the Air Force to adopt a systematic planning process to provide capabilities suitable for a wide range of challenges and aimed for achieving the desired effect in a specific battle space. Therefore a balanced force structuring is necessary for effective employment of air power by BAF. To achieve this BAF needs to have its operational concept in place to identify the capability gaps and design a balanced force structure. Therefore, a Doctrine Development Center will be the right and appropriate institute to formulate doctrine, policies and operational concept which will ultimately lead towards a systematic development for having a balanced force structure.

Bibliography

Books

1. CLIFF, R. (2012) The Development of PLAAF’s Doctrine. In: HALLION, R. CLIFF, R. SOUNDERS, P. (eds.) The Chinese Air Force Evolving Concepts, Roles and Capabilities. Washington D.C: NDU Press.

2. LEWIS, L. KHALILZAD, Z. M. and ROLL, C.R. (eds.) (1997) New- Concept Development a Planning Approach for the 21st Century Air Force. Washington D.C: Rand.

250 Manuals/Doctrines/Thesis Papers

3. Air Force Basic Doctrine, US Air Force Doctrine Document-1, published in September 1997.

4. Air Force Doctrine Document-1, USAF, published on 14 October 2011.

5. Air Force Instruction 10-601, Operational Capability Requirements Development, USAF, 06 November 2013.

6. Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 7.0, published by Australian Defence Headquarters in January 2006.

7. Development Concepts and Doctrine Center (DCDC), MOD’s Independent Think Tank, UK Ministry of Defence, Published by Secretary of State for Defence, September 2014

8. Development Planning Guide, Material Command of USAF, published on 17 June 2010.

9. Draft Operational Doctrine of Bangladesh Air Force, Annex-B to Chapter-2, Role of BAF.

10. Moshe Schwartz, Defence Acquisitions: How DOD Acquires Weapon Systems and Recent Efforts to Reform the Process, a report prepared for the members and committee of congress, published by Congressional Report Service, 23 May 2014

11. TRADOC Regulation 71-20, Concept Development, Capabilities Determination and Capabilities Integration, Headquarters US Army, Fort Eustis, Virginia 23604-5700, 28 June 2013.

12. United States of America, Air Force Material Command Directorate of Intelligence and Requirement, (2010) Development Planning Guide. HQ AFMC. (AFMC/A2/5)

251 Need for Doctrine Development Center in Bangladesh Air Force

Article/News Paper/Letter

13. Edson and Frittman, Illustrating the Concept of Operations (CONOPs) Continuum and its Relationship to the Acquisition Lifecycle, an article published by Analytic Services Inc, (ANSER.org) & The Applied Systems Thinking Institute (ASysTi.org) 2900 South Quincy St. Suite 800 Arlington VA, 22206

14. IMANOTAI, N. (1997) Creating the Royal Thai Air Force Doctrine Process. A research report submitted to the faculty in partial fulfillment of the curriculum requirement. Air War College, Alabama, USA. pp. 12-2

15. Schmitt John F, A Systematic Concept for Operational Design, an Article available at this site: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/ usmc/mcwl_schmitt_op_design.pdf

16. STAIN, D.J. NOLAN, K. and PERRY, R. (eds.) (1988) Process and Problems in Developing NATO Tactical Air Doctrine. A research note. N-2416-AF. Santa Monica, CA. Rand.

17. The Role of Think Tanks in the Definition and Application of Defence Policies and Strategies, an article by Olivier Urrutia published in Revista del InstitutoEspañol de EstudiosEstratégicosNúm. 2 / 2013.

Internet 18. Accessed on 28 February 2017.

19. Accessed on 01 March 1, 2017.

252 Author

Group Captain Muhammad Abdullah Al-Mamun, psc, GD(P) joined Bangladesh Air Force on 19 January 1990 and was commissioned on 26 December 1992 in the GD(P) Branch. He has done number of professional courses at home and abroad. He has obtained Bachelor of Science in Aeronautics from Rajshahi University. He is a graduate of Defense Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur, Dhaka. He has also obtained Masters in Defense Studies (MDS) from the National University Dhaka. He obtained Diploma on Military Arts from Air Force Command College of China. He is an alumnus of the Cranfield University, UK.

Group Captain Al-Mamun had a good mix of command, instructional and staff appointments. He served in different capacities in various Operational squadrons and training institutes of Bangladesh Air Force. He served as ADC to the Hon’ble . He has commanded an operational fighter squadron and the Flying Instructor’s School of BAF. He has also served in the UN Mission for two times as staff officer and contingent member. Group Captain Al-Mamun is a widely traveled person and visited various countries around the globe that includes Europe, USA, Africa, few other countries in Asia and Middle East. His hobbies include travelling and reading books.

253 ROLE OF BANGLADESH ARMY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 4

Brigadier General Muhammad Ali Talukder, afwc, psc

Introduction

In the year 2000, leaders from 189 countries of the world agreed on a vision for the new millennium. They wanted to end extreme poverty in all its forms. So, they made a list of eight goals called the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and they wanted to achieve these goals in fifteen years. As a result, the number of primary school age kids who don’t go to schools was down to half by 2015. But every sixth adult in the world still remained illiterate, two third of them being women (The Guardian, 2015). Accordingly, after the expiration of the MDGs, in September 2015, the 193 Member States of the UN met and agreed on the proposed agenda, titled Transforming Our World:2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (SD), consisting of a Declaration, 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets and a section on means of implementation. This officially flagged off the quest for sustainable development with a target aimed at the year 2030 (UN, 2015).

The SDGs, also known as Global Goals, build on the success of the MDGs, aimed to go further to end all forms of poverty. The new goals are unique. They call for action by all countries, poor, rich and middle-income to promote prosperity while protecting the planet. They recognize that ending poverty must go hand-in-hand with strategies that build economic growth and addresses a range of social needs including education, health, social protection, and job opportunities while tackling and environmental protection (UN, 2015).

254 Bangladesh is a development surprise. It is a model MDG nation through monumental progress in poverty reduction and social development and is hopeful to fulfill the SDGs. Government’s 7th five year plan (2016- 2020) has aptly incorporated most of the proposed 17 goals of the SDGs. As a pioneer, the country has also launched an SDG tracker to monitor implementation progress as part of an all-inclusive effort to achieve SDGs by the target year 2030. Bangladesh Army, though not directly responsible to attain the SDGs, yet being an important state organ, may effectively contribute to the national endeavour.

Bangladesh Army has a well reputed organizational culture, capability and acceptability in the national development effort. Its personnel are well trained and highly motivated to accomplish excellence. Out of the 17 SDG goals, Bangladesh Army is already poised to contribute to the achievement of health, education, infrastructure, habitation, gender equality and climate action related goals. With disciplined and efficient workforce, Bangladesh Army is well-poised to contribute towards the achievement of the SDGs by the nation.

UN 2030 Development Agenda

Education is a basic human right and sustainable development starts with education. The SDGs are not legally binding, but governments are expected to take ownership and establish national frameworks for the achievement of the 17 Goals. The primary responsibility for follow-up and review of the progress made in implementing the goals rests with the countries (UN, 2015). MDGs, in theory, was applied to all countries, but in reality, they were considered targets for poor countries to achieve, with finance from wealthy states. Conversely, every country will be expected to work towards achieving the SDGs (The Guardian, 2015).

255 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Targets: Statement of the SDG 4 is ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’. Specific targets of the SDG 4 are to achieve quality early childhood development, ensure complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education for all girls and boys, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, increase relevant skills for employment, eliminate gender disparities in education, ensure equal access to all levels of education for the vulnerable (including persons with disabilities, indigenous people and children in vulnerable situations) and ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2017).

The Progress of Goal 4: Report of the UN Secretary-General, titled Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals, (E/2017/66) delineates progress of Goal 4. In 2014, about 66% of children worldwide participated in pre-primary or primary education in the year prior to official entry age for primary school. However, in the least developed countries, the ratio was only 40%. The adjusted net enrolment rates in 2014 were 91% for primary education, 84% for lower secondary education and 63% for upper secondary education. Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia account for over 70% of the global out of school population in primary and secondary education. However, many children didn’t acquire basic skills in reading and mathematics. Equity issues constitute a major challenge in education where urban children scored higher in reading than rural children (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2017).

Challenges to Attain the SDG 4: The seven precise SDG 4 targets include completion of primary and secondary education for all children as well as access to early childhood development and pre-primary school education; similar access to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education; and ensuring literacy and numeracy for all youths and adults (UN, 2015). The first two targets of the goal will be difficult to

256 implement in Bangladesh, as the literacy rate still drifts around 60% and no significant progress has been made in the areas of pre-primary education and early childhood development (Ahmed, 2016).

Deductions: An assessment of MDG shows that globally 263 million children remained out of school in 2015 and children who enrolled in school don’t necessarily have access to quality education. The SDG 4 with focus on ‘quality’ and ‘lifelong’ education seem to be part of an extensive list of ambitious wishes that are sought by the global community in the light of prevailing realities, future potentials as well as resource constraints. MDG experience demonstrated that achievement of SDG targets and goals are likely to be restricted by country’s level of development, budget, time and resources. If the egalitarian ideals on which these are founded are not accepted globally, specially by developing and underdeveloped countries and a holistic approach by all stakeholders including military outfits of the country is not taken, the SDG 4 will remain unfulfilled. To transform the SDG targets into reality all organs of the government including the Army has to play an efficient role. Scopes exist for the Army to contribute in all sphere of education including regular, technical and vocational education. The army can also work for the education of the vulnerable groups and persons with disabilities.

National Sustainable Development Strategy

The World Bank’s recent estimates of Gross National Income per capita (GNI) show that Bangladesh has ascended to a lower-middle income country status (The World Bank, 2015). Currently, the nation is in the quest for attaining higher middle-income status by the year 2021. The SDG corroborates this pursuit as the stated targets are in consonance with the Vision 2021, which aspires the framework of a future Bangladesh that reflects the hopes and aspirations of the citizens of the country for an economically inclusive and politically accountable society.

257 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

The Response of the Bangladesh Government to SDG-4: Ministry of Planning published the National Sustainable Development Strategy in 2013. The report endorsed challenges in achieving the desired goals, set sector wise priorities, outlined details of specific strategy and elaborated on the institutional framework necessary for a successful outcome. The government strives to ensure quality education and training by sustaining gender parity in primary and secondary enrolment, achieving gender parity at tertiary level and improving quality of education in all types of education systems. The strategy also endeavours to ensure equity and equality in all levels of education, history, heritage, promote the spirit of liberation war, and national culture in education. It also encompasses teaching environmental issues in primary and secondary curriculum, emphasizes science and technology education and promotes research and development. The quality of technical and vocational education and training is planned to be enhanced through improving efficiency and quality of programmes, establish a link between training and job markets, and teacher training. The government has taken four major steps to improve the quality of education. First, digitalization in education; second, to update curriculum at the primary and secondary level, third, to improve the classroom environment; and, fourth, to strengthen education management (Planning Commission, 2013).

Key Challenges: Globally, the key challenges of SDG are understanding the goals, appropriate financing and monitoring the progress in attainment (Sustainable Development Solution Network, 2015). National Sustainable Development Strategy of Bangladesh highlights population, poverty and inequality, unplanned urbanization, energy security, inefficient water resource management, natural disasters and climate change are the challenges in reaching SDGs (Halim, 2015). Professor Selim Raihan in his article ‘Are South Asian countries ready to meet the targets of SDGs by 2030?’ opined that in the case of SDG 4, most South Asian countries spend much lower proportion to the GDP in education sector than their East and Southeast Asian counterparts (Raihan, 2017). He also mentioned

258 that the South Asian countries are yet to be on the right track to attain most of the goals under the SDGs. Specific challenges in relation to general and technical/vocational education are as follows:

• General Education: Challenges are to ensure universal education at primary and secondary levels, increasing the quality of education to reduce differential between urban and rural areas and providing adequate and appropriate education to cope with the demand of manpower market. Establishing centre of excellence in higher education, providing quality science and technology education and imparting social and human values are also duly considered.

• Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Shortage of skilled manpower in technical and vocational sector, mismatch of jobs and skills and training content/quality and a shortage of well-equipped training institutes are principal ones.

Deductions: Capitalising on the success of MDGs, the government has taken a detailed strategy to achieve the SDGs. For SDG 4, future challenges remain in relation to increasing the quality of education; proper training of teachers at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels; making school environment attractive; and raising completion rates. The number of schools, colleges and universities are also inadequate to meet the demand of the growing number of students. However, the increasing rural demand for educational facilities calls for serious attention to be given to expanding educational opportunities in rural areas. Besides, management issues of education system remain highly debatable including examination system, syllabi, leakage of questions etc. The government action plan seems ambitious and needs a concerted effort by all stakeholders and organs of the state including the Army.

Prospects and Challenges of Bangladesh Army

Relevance of Bangladesh Army’s Contribution: Bangladesh Army is an important state organ and part of the greater society. Though the Planning

259 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Commission has not included the Army or for that matter the Ministry of Defence (MOD) or Armed Forces Division in its job allocation list, the Army is already involved in education sector of the country and has capabilities to take part in the achievement of the Government’s 7th five years plan and beyond.

• To the general mass of Bangladesh, Army has acceptance for its organizational culture and efficiency. Since independence, Army has earned repute and stature through discipline and best practices. Bangladesh Army’s capacity and capability are derived from its training, discipline, human resource management, teamwork, experiences in nation-building activities, involvement in disaster management, and exposure to UN peace support operations. Experiences gained in those aspects can be capitalized in chosen SDG’s requirements (Imani, 2017). • As the world experiences a lesser number of war and conflicts in the 21st century, Bangladesh Army, in the coming days, is likely to participate more in nation-building activities. As such, the Army’s participation may be considered and taken into account in SDG 4 implementation plan. Bangladesh Army may be taken on board from the planning stage. This will ease the enactment and likely to make the execution faster and more effective (Imani, 2017).

Potentials of Army at Various Levels of Education: Since its birth, Bangladesh Army inherited the involvement in academic education to meet the internal requirement of education for military wards. Over the period it grew good facilities and expertise which started contributing beyond its own community. The educational facilities of the Army were not aimed to provide mass education and it was not possible also. As such it always focused on quality and thrived to set example. Besides public schools and colleges, Army expanded scope and capacity by establishing English Schools, Schools for Special Children etc. Subsequently, tires of public education were raised by establishing institutes of technology, medicine, business administration and off late by establishing few universities focusing on quality and not the quantity. Nationally, good public and

260 private educational institutions are mostly Dhaka based. Army has good schools, colleges, universities and institutes all over the country including the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Army is not addressing mass education, yet the Army operated educational institutions presently have about 200,000 students including foreign citizens. Army’s educational institutions have earned credentials at national and international levels which validates their credibility and contribution to the nation. All these make a platform for Army to effectively contribute to country’s achievement of the SDG-4 (Imani, 2017).

Army in Public Education - Present State: The educational institutions directly or indirectly operated by Bangladesh Army are of various types and stature. These cover various levels of education and are located all over the country. A summary is given in Table-1 and Table-2 below. Besides Army provides administrators to many model colleges, public colleges, government medical colleges etc.

Table 1: Army Operated Schools and Colleges School/ College Number Remarks Cadet College 12 Boys-9, Girls-3 Cantonment Public School and College 19 Cantonment Public College 5 Cantonment College 4 English Medium School and College 6 Cantonment Public School 1 College-46, Cantonment Board School 35 School-63 English Medium School 16 School for Differently Able Children 11 (Proyash) Total 109 Source: Education Directorate, Army Headquarters

261 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Table 2: Army Operated Institutions for Higher Education Educational Institution Number Location Bangladesh University of 1 Mirpur Professionals (BUP) Military Institute of Science and 1 Mirpur Technology (MIST) Armed Forces Medical College 1 Dhaka (AFMC) Bangladesh Army University of 1 Natore Engineering and Technology Bangladesh Army International University of Science and 1 Cumilla Technology Bangladesh Army University of 2 Cumilla and Saidpur Science and Technology (BAUST) Army Institute of Business 2 and Sylhet Administration Bogura, Chattogram, Army Medical College 5 Cumilla, Jashore and Rangpur Dhaka, Cumilla and Army Nursing College 3 Rangpur Total 17 Source: Education Directorate, Army Headquarters

Compatibility to Targets of SDG-4: SDG-4 focuses not only on education but education with a set of standards to be fulfilled by 2030. The existing public education facilities of Bangladesh Army can match the criteria of the goal in the following aspects:

262 • Quality Education Leading to Relevant and Effective Learning Outcomes: Army operated secondary and higher secondary educational institutions are considered amongst the best in the country. Cadet Colleges and Public School and Colleges operated by Army are consistently among the first few in terms of the result in public examinations. Besides, though at nascent stage, MIST, AFMC and BUP are well reputed at home and abroad for academic excellence. Besides, Army-run schools and colleges focus on the high standard of discipline and moral education leading to developing each student as an enlightened citizen.

• Pre-primary Education: Almost all Cantonment Public Schools and English Schools has pre-primary level education facility. These schools are located in around half of the districts of the country allowing distributed reach to the mass population as students other than military wards are the majority.

• Relevant Skills for Employment and Entrepreneurship: The army maintains a very high standard of technical training for officers and men and after retirement, many of them enter into the job market endowed with unparalleled skill sets. Army established first vocational training institute in 2009 namely Trust Technical Training Institute. Few more technical and vocational institutions at various places of the country started their academic sessions from 2018. Diploma Courses (shown in Table-3) will be conducted in those institutions under the technical assistance of Bangladesh Industrial and Technical Assistance Centre and academic curriculum of Bangladesh Technical Education Board. Additional to creating a skilled workforce for the local economy, these institutes also prepare efficient labours for overseas employment.

263 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Table 3: Technical/Vocational Education Institutes Operated by Army Discipline Operating Institution Location ECSME (Engineer Diploma in Construction Centre and School of Quadirabad Engineering Military Engineering) Diploma in Survey ECSME Quadirabad Engineering Diploma in Communication Signals Training Centre Jashore Technology and School Electrical and Mechanical Diploma in Mechanical Engineering Centre and Saidpur Engineering School Source: Engineers Directorate, Army Headquarters

Education for Persons with Disabilities and Children in Vulnerable Situations: ‘Proyash’ school for children with special needs was established in 2006 for Army wards. Today Proyash is the largest non-profitable education institute for children with special needs in the country of its kind with eleven schools all over the country with total 2000 students where 75% of students are from non-military society. Currently, Proyash Dhaka also conducts training for teachers and therapists.

Gender Equality: All Army operated educational institutions provide safe, non-violent, gender sensitive, inclusive and effective learning environment. Currently, there are eighty-six co-education schools and colleges and three girl’s cadet colleges in different cantonments and district towns which are run to maintain apposite gender equality.

Challenges Faced by Army in Relation to SDG 4

Harmonization with Role and Task: The primary role of the Army is to safeguard sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. Contribution in the education sector is part of the nation-building role and not a

264 direct task assigned to the Army. Therefore, the scale and magnitude of resource and manpower allocation in attaining SDG 4 are likely to remain constrained by higher priority tasks.

Balancing Quality vs Quantity: Ever increasing public interest to enroll their children in Army run schools and colleges are occasionally causing impediments in maintaining quality education. As the number of Army run schools and colleges are directly proportional to the number of existing cantonments and a total number of military wards, the public entry becomes proportionally limited. Again, recruiting quality teachers and getting adequate number of students for english medium schools in rural garrisons is relatively difficult.

Education for Remote Areas: Most of the Army operated educational institutions are located in the district towns with some exceptional ones in including those in CHT. Besides, except few, Army operated schools and colleges are non-residential. As such a limited number of students from rural areas can take the benefit of quality education. Asrayon projects which are implemented by Army in the rural areas for marginalised population include only housing. Thus, pre-primary and primary education may remain elusive to the children of these communities.

Limited Budget: Sparing hefty sum from Army budget for public education is extremely difficult amidst other operational and organizational priorities. Newly established tertiary education institutions are yet to be fully financed by the government for appropriate infrastructure and facilities. Last but not least, tuition for children with special needs in Proyash incurs additional expenditure which is currently financed by parents.

Manpower Shortage: The army does not have dedicated manpower for employment in the educational institutes. All currently employed serving officers and soldiers at schools, colleges, and universities are usually deficient at the formations and units. Any additional withdrawal of manpower for employment in an educational institution will result training difficulties and administrative complications.

265 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Inadequacy of Space and Infrastructure: The newly established Bangladesh Army University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh Army International University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology (BAUST), Army Institutes of Business Administration and Army Medical Colleges are housed in unit/soldier’s barracks. These buildings are spacious enough and are not conducive for appropriate educational facilities. Technical and vocational institutes which are accommodated within the cantonment barracks need own permanent infrastructure.

Suggested Modality for Bangladesh Army

Bringing Uniformity with Role and Task: The Army cannot get directly involved in the education sector. Rather, as the current practice, Army should continue to contribute in this sector as part of its nation-building role. Employment of serving members of Army in educational institutions as administrator should be minimum in number and time-bound. Serving officers and soldiers may not be employed in public schools and colleges except in selected special cases. The allocation of education-related responsibilities should be corroborated by allotting sufficient budget allocation from the Ministry of Finance. Army run schools, colleges, universities and Proyash should form part of the government’s planning and execution of SDG 4.

Ensure Quality against Quantity: Quality of education should remain as cornerstone in Army run public education institutes. Number of students for each school/college/university should be kept restricted within a specified limit to ensure quality education. If the available infrastructure permits, number of student admission may be increased by opening new sections but not increasing the number of students per section. It is imperative to recruit and train competent teachers for maintaining the education standard. Monitoring and supervision of the Army-run schools and colleges should follow the current practice where local Area Commander ensures maintenance of the desired standard of education

266 under the overall supervision of Army Headquarters. Though a difficult proposition, the best practices of the Army-run schools and colleges may be considered by Ministry of Education for adoption in the public schools and colleges.

Education for Remote Areas: Primary school going aged children who are not yet enrolled in schools are essentially from the remotest part of the country or are from the extreme poor band of the population. Army may take the initiative to convince the government to include and construct a primary school within each Asrayon project or within close proximity to allow the children of homeless parents to enroll in school. In the existing realities, it will not be possible to establish any Army run schools or colleges away from the cantonment. New and upcoming cantonments should calculate the student numbers of their schools and colleges to allow more non-military background students admission.

Limited Budget: In Bangladesh, the annual budget for education sector hovers around 2% of the GDP which must be increased to a minimum 6%-8% of GDP to achieve the SGD 4. It is understandable that in the current realities government is not in a position to raise the education budget significantly. However, part of the unspent portion of the development budget may be allotted for education. Army may get some share of this residual allotment for tertiary level education and for Proyash through Ministry of Education. These allotments should be special grants and not form part of defence budget. For infrastructure development of Cantonment Public Schools and Colleges of new garrisons at Ramu, and government should allot funds under Annual Development Projects (ADP) of the Ministry of Education. Revision of current project profile of Asrayon Project may be undertaken to allocate additional budget for construction of one primary school for each community. Land for these primary schools may be taken from the Asrayon locality or from the vicinity under the arrangement of local administration. Army may be tasked to supervise the implementation of primary school establishment as quick impact project.

267 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Manpower Shortage: Authorized manpower of Army is calculated on the basis of war-fighting and not bearing in mind nation-building responsibilities. At present Army is not in a position to depute additional serving officers or soldiers in the education sector either inside or outside the cantonments. Such a provision will strain the manning level of the formations and units and may affect the routine operational and military training activities. However, qualified personnel with required educational qualification may be identified prior to retirement and may be allowed to make the transition to the education sector. After retirement, these officers and men may be absorbed in the Army-run or public colleges and universities as teachers and administrators.

Inadequacy of Space and Infrastructure: To derive appropriate benefits from the recently established Army Medical Colleges, Engineering Colleges and Business Administration Colleges, it is imperative to shift them from cantonment barracks and outside but in adjacent areas of the cantonments. Adequate land should be purchased and fitting infrastructure and facilities should be developed immediately out of the Annual Development Projects. The effort may be also taken to acquire separate land adjacent to existing cantonments for establishing future Proyash and vocational training institutes.

Recommendations Apropos the discussion and findings following are recommended for achieving the SDG 4 by Bangladesh Army:

• The Army should continue to contribute in the education sector as part of its nation-building role. Army run schools, colleges, universities and Proyash should form part of the government planning and execution of SDG 4. • To ensure quality education number of students for each school/college/ university should be kept restricted within a specified limit. However, a number of student admission may be increased by opening new sections but not increasing the number of students per section/classroom.

268 • To facilitate 100% primary school going aged children get enrolled in schools, revision of current project profile of Asrayon Project may be undertaken to allocate additional budget for construction of one primary school for each Asrayon project. • Infrastructure development of Cantonment Public Schools and Colleges of new garrisons at Ramu, Padma Bridge and Patuakhali may be implemented under Annual Development Projects (ADP) of the Ministry of Education. • Personnel with required educational qualification may be identified from Bangladesh Army prior to retirement and absorbed in the Army- run or public colleges and universities as teachers and administrators. • Army Medical Colleges, Engineering Colleges and Business Administration Colleges, may be shifted to permanent campus.

Conclusion

UN 2030 development agenda is launched only before three years where GDP growth is seen as a means to the desired end of human development. Today the world is experiencing an education revolution where the literacy rate is rising rapidly and education is becoming cheaper and more accessible. Education is now the major social vaccine against diseases, harmful effects of smoking, child marriage, racism and infant mortality. As a direct benefit of better education, people have a greater job opportunity, better living condition and enhanced social security. The goals and targets of SDGs are definitely ambitious but attainable. Amartya Sen opines that human insecurity is intolerable and SDGs should be approached not in terms of numbers but the conditions. SDG focuses on the three-dimensional approach on economic, social and ecological aspects those are viewed as the development trinity.

Bangladesh can be proud of the achievements of MDGs but should not be complacent. Timely achievement of SDGs by Bangladesh is a huge task where the Government needs support from all state organs and Bangladesh Army being a major organ may contribute to the process of

269 Role of Bangladesh Army in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 achieving SDGs. Among the goals of UN Development Agenda 2030, SDG 4 have a significant relation to the socio-economic development and Bangladesh Army by default has the potentials to contribute towards the achievement of the targets. For over four decades, the Army is providing quality education through its educational institutions at various levels and setting the standard for others to emulate.

As a nation-building responsibility, the scale and magnitude of resource and manpower allocation in attaining SDG 4 will be constrained by higher priority tasks. All Army run education institutions are enduring the challenged with the tough task of balancing quality against quantity. Ever increasing public interest and aspiration to enroll a greater number of students in Army run schools and colleges are posing additional challenges in maintaining the quality of education. Newly established universities are yet to be fully financed by the government for appropriate infrastructure and facilities.

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Author

Brigadier General Muhammad Ali Talukder, afwc, psc was commissioned in the Armoured Corps in 1993. He Commanded 12 Lancers and served as Staff officer in Armed Forces Division and Army Headquarters. He served as Platoon Commander in Bangladesh Military Academy and as instructor in Armoured Corps Centre and School. He is a graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur and Command and Staff College, Quetta, Pakistan. He qualified in Armed Forces War Course form National Defence College, Dhaka. He served as Directing Staff of Armed Forces War Course in National Defence College. Currently he is undergoing National Defence Course in National Defence College.

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