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1203059918 Baranski,Marci Rose The Wide Adaptation of Green Revolution Wheat by Marci Baranski A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved January 2015 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Ann Kinzig, Chair Prem Narain Mathur Hallie Eakin Daniel Sarewitz Jameson Wetmore ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2015 ABSTRACT "Wide adaptation" is an agricultural concept often employed and seldom closely examined. Norman E. Borlaug, while working for the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) on an agricultural project in Mexico in the 1950s, discovered that some tropical wheat varieties could be grown over broad geographic regions, not just in Central and South America but also in the Middle East and South Asia. He called this wide, or broad, adaptation, which scientists generally define as a plant type that has high yields throughout diverse environments. Borlaug soon made wide adaptation as a core pillar of his international wheat program. Borlaug's wheat program rapidly expanded in the 1960s, and he and his colleagues from the RF heavily promoted wide adaptation and the increased use of fertilizers in the Middle East and India. These events led to the green revolution, when several countries rapidly increased their wheat production. Indian wheat cultivation changed radically in the 1960s due to new technologies and policy reforms introduced during the green revolution, and farmers' adoption of 'technology packages' of modern seeds, fertilizer, and irrigation. Just prior to the green revolution, Indian wheat scientists adopted Borlaug’s new plant breeding philosophy—that varieties should have as wide an adaptation as possible. But Borlaug and Indian wheat scientists also argued that wide adaptation could be achieved by selecting only plants that did well in high fertility and irrigated environments. Scientists claimed, in many cases erroneously, that widely adapted varieties still produced high yields in marginal, or resource poor, areas. Many people have criticized the green revolution for its unequal spread of benefits, but none of these i critiques address wide adaptation—the core tenant held by Indian wheat scientists to justify their focus on highly productive land while ignoring marginal and rainfed agriculture. My dissertation describes Borlaug and the RF's research program in wide adaptation, Borlaug's involvement in the Indian wheat program, and internal debates about wide adaptation and selection under favorable environments among Indian scientists. It argues that scientists leveraged the concept of wide adaptation to justify a particular regime of research focused on high production agriculture, and that the footprints of this regime are still present in Indian agriculture. ii DEDICATION To my parents. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to a number of people who helped me with my dissertation research and my own intellectual growth. First, I must acknowledge my friends and colleagues at Arizona State University who helped me feel at home among the historians, philosophers, ethicists, and even futurists. Professor Ann Kinzig has my utmost respect and gratitude for her role as my advisor and committee chair. Professors Jameson Wetmore, Hallie Eakin, and Dan Sarewitz are inspirational and brimming with good, yet challenging, ideas. Dr. Prem Mathur was a supportive mentor and networker in helping my navigate New Delhi and Indian agricultural research. I thank Dr. Jane Maienschein and Dr. Clark Miller for leading their respective graduate programs and helping create a very unique community of scholars. Professors Netra Chhetri, Ben Hurlbut, Ben Minteer, and Charles Perrings added significantly to this community and helped me explore new fields of inquiry. My fellow graduate students Monamie Bhadra Haines, Michael Burnam-Fink, Jen Fuller, Dr. Arijit Guha, Kate MacCord, Chad Monfreda, and Dr. Erick Peirson all played invaluable roles as part of this special graduate student community at ASU, as did members of the Ecoservices lab. I am indebted to the members of the Bioversity International New Delhi office, including Dr. Bhuwon Sthapit, Sarika Mittra, and Madan Kanthaganj, and to the other researchers and staff from Rome and the international offices. From IARI Pusa, I thank Drs. Solanki and Rao for their hospitality and assistance. From DWR, Dr. Satyavir Singh and Dr. Dinesh Kumar for temporarily adopting me. I thank Dr. Achla Sharma and Dr. N. S. Bains at PAU for their kindness and insights. At IARI New Delhi, Dr. Malvika Dadlani, Dr. Anju Mahindru, and Dr. Rajbir iv Yadav all helped me navigate the historic IARI campus. Thank you to the many scientists who spent time with me and helped me understand the complexities of the Indian wheat research system. I could not have completed my research without the librarians and archivists at the IARI Library, Iowa State University Library, and the Rockefeller Archive Center, especially Dr. Lee Hiltzik, and funding from the NSEP Boren Fellowship, Rockefeller Archive Center, and Center for Biology and Society. Finally, special thanks to my parents and siblings for their support, to Dr. Mark Largent for introducing me to the history of science, to Dr. Jessica Odgen for sharing her home in Iowa, and to Tim Swanger for his endless encouragement. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... xii INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................1 A Brief History of Adaptation Studies in Agriculture .....................................................5 Wide Adaptation in India .................................................................................................8 Theory: Initial Conditions of Research Trajectories .....................................................19 Methods .........................................................................................................................26 THE ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATIONS INTERNATIONAL EXPANSION OF STAPLE FOOD CROP IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS, 1940–1970 ........................... 33 Green Revolution Theory and Terminology in Agriculture ..........................................35 Setting the Political Backdrop to International Agricultural Assistance .......................36 Neo-Malthusianism ........................................................................................................41 The Rockefeller Foundation and Agricultural Development ........................................44 Starting the Mexican Agricultural Program ..................................................................46 Wheat and Maize Research Programs in Mexico: Goals vs. Impacts ...........................50 New Country-Specific and Cooperative Agricultural Programs ...................................57 RF’s International Agricultural Programs .....................................................................61 vi Page Rice Research in Asia ....................................................................................................65 IRRI Rice in India and South Asia ................................................................................73 Conclusion .....................................................................................................................75 NARRATIVES AROUND WIDE ADAPTATION IN INTERNATIONAL WHEAT PROGRAMS, 1960–1970: NORMAN E. BORLAUG, CHARLES F. KRULL, AND KEITH W. FINLAY ......................................................................................................... 77 Background ....................................................................................................................78 Part 1: Norman E. Borlaug’s International Wheat Program ..........................................80 Part 2: Charles F. Krull and the RF’s Cooperative Program in the Near East, 1965–68 ....................................................................................................................................... 93 Part 3: Keith Finlay’s Correspondence on Adaptation, 1963–1968 ............................107 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................118 INTERNATIONAL ROOTS AND THE INDIAN CONTEXT OF A NEW PLANT BREEDING IDEAL, 1960–1970 ................................................................................... 120 A Brief History of Indian Agricultural Research ........................................................125 Post-Independence Indian Agricultural Policies and Modernism ...............................129 US Foundation Involvement in Indian Agricultural Development .............................131 Norman Borlaug’s Focus on Fertilizers in India .........................................................136 Changes in the Indian Wheat Research Agenda: Bias Towards Favorable Environments .............................................................................................................. 140 vii Page Crisis in 1965 and Changes in India’s Fourth Plan: From Social Equity to Concentrated Capitalism ....................................................................................................................142
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