Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies
Volume 30 Yoga and God: Hindu and Christian Perspectives Article 4
2017
Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya
Stephanie Corigliano Humboldt State University
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Recommended Citation Corigliano, Stephanie (2017) "Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya," Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 30, Article 4. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1656
The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Corigliano: Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishn
Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya
Stephanie Corigliano Humboldt State University
SA tu dīrgha-kāla-nairantarya-satkārāsevito dṛḍha- philosophical work and prose of bhūṃiḥ, Yogasūtra 1.14 states, “Practice becomes Krishnamacharya, yet it is set forth as part of a firmly established when it has been cultivated non-sectarian perspective. For example, one uninterruptedly and with devotion over a verse of his Yogāñjalisāram reads: prolonged period of time.”1 Your Lord or mine, it does not matter, As a student of the late Pattabhi Jois, I heard with a quiet mind, meditate with humility, this sūtra countless times during Jois’s afternoon the Lord, pleased, gives what you seek, conferences with his students. In the context of and happily will offer more. (śloka 13)2 practice in Mysore with Jois, I understood the The importance of devotion is also concept of discipline. However, the concept of demonstrated in the lives and in the written devotion, satkārā, was more ambiguous. works of his foremost students, yet it became Questions about God and devotion were usually less of a central point in their own teaching, met with a simple, “God is one.” which primarily focused on āsana or physical Jois was one of a few proponents of Yoga in practice. the modern era to have learned from Tirumalai In reference to Krishnamacharya’s work, his Krishnamacharya. As guru, or teacher, to BKS son Desikachar explains that devotion to God is Iyengar, Pattabhi Jois, and TKV Desikachar, the ideal way to focus the mind. He adds, Krishnamacharya is recognized as the founder But this devotion to God must not of many of the forms of Yoga that are popular remain just a desire. It must become a today. For example, American “Power Yoga,” regular practice, as this alone, when many forms of “Yoga therapy,” and all types of regularly done, can prevail upon the “Vinyasa/Flow Yoga” are derived from the past tendencies of the mind. The methods originally taught by Krishnamacharya. practice involves remembering God in Interestingly, the importance of a some form, in words, images, rituals, theistic/devotional stance is prominent in the offering flowers or visiting temples,
Stephanie Corigliano is a lecturer at Humboldt State University. She specializes in Comparative Theology and Yoga studies. She has an essay in the (2017) book How to Do Comparative Theology (edited by Klaus von Stoch and Francis X. Clooney), "Theologizing for the Yoga Community? Commitment and Hybridity in Comparative Theology." She is currently working on a monograph that examines the teaching tradition of T. Krishnamacharya and Patañjali's Yogasūtras.
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taking great care that it does not communities. Still, as evidenced in the study of become mechanical…3 Krishnamacharya’s work, Yoga without a This highlights the functional role of specific religious commitment is appropriate devotion as a means for focusing the mind. The primarily for those in the beginning stages of habit of concentrating on an ideal image can practice. Advanced practice means making counteract other, less ideal habits. Yet, specific, devotional commitments. On the other Desikachar (drawing upon Krishnamacharya) hand, I contend that Christian Yoga may find a grounds this in a concrete practice that also common ground with contemporary Yoga points to a lived, religious commitment. movements, and a wider acceptance within Taking seriously both the importance of particular Church settings, by emphasizing the devotion and the refrain, “Your Lord or mine, it dialectical relationship between technique and does not matter,” this essay turns to look at the religious commitment that is prevalent in many phenomena of Christian Yoga as a transnational, Hindu approaches to Yoga. devotional approach to Yoga practice. Initially I This article is a work of comparative look at the question, ‘What is Yoga?’ for theology. Thus, I provide some history and proponents of Christian Yoga? How is it detail for both traditions and consider the ways practiced and what are its goals? And, what is in which attention to similarities and changed or lost with the use of a more differences can help practitioners, both specifically religious approach to Yoga practice? Christian and non-Christian, to deepen their Subsequently, I compare this specifically experience of Yoga, faith commitment, and religious approach to Yoga practice with the community. non-sectarian approach of Krishnamacharya. In Christian Yoga: A Brief Overview closing, I argue that Christian Yoga, though Christians have a long history of representative of an entirely distinct movement appreciating and appropriating Hindu practices. in its own right, might be viewed as a natural The earliest examples of this were attempts to result of the philosophical precepts set forth by evangelize the Hindu by learning Indian 20th century proponents of Yoga like languages and texts, even taking on Hindu garb Krishnamacharya. 4 and emulating aspects of Indian culture. The continuity between the Yoga tradition However, particularly since the early 1900’s, of Krishnamacharya and Christian Yoga may there has been a more active and reflective appear untenable to proponents of either form engagement of Christians with Hindu spiritual of Yoga practice, yet despite their more obvious 5 practices. The result, evidenced in the differences, they both share an emphasis on Christian ashram movement in India and in physical Yoga practice that is combined with select communities outside of India, is often devotion to God. In particular, practitioners of termed “Christian Yoga.” This spirituality Yoga in the tradition of Krishnamacharya may blends aspects of Yoga philosophy and practice resist the recommendation that Yoga is (ideally) with the ideals of Christianity, most distinctly, a devotional practice. The turn to Yoga is, for the belief in Christ and the hope for salvation. many contemporary practitioners, an explicit turn away from traditional religious
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Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya 23
There are at least three categories that trained in the Saiva Siddhanta school of Tamil differentiate the broad spectrum of what might Nadu. This involved a prolonged training in be termed “Christian Yoga.” The first are those meditation techniques that resulted in several who have combined aspects of Yoga philosophy vision experiences. He later studied with a and practice with Christianity with minimal teacher of Advaita Vedanta. concern for Christian orthodoxy or tradition Appasamy argues not only that Christians and who have instead promoted a new religious can and should do Yoga, but that the techniques community. This includes thinkers like A.K. of Yoga have been integral to Christian Mozumdar, an early proponent of New Thought contemplative practice all along. In particular, and author of The Life and the Way: Christian Yoga he points to various mystics and parts of the Metaphysics (1911). Bible where visions of God are central.7 He also The second category emerges from a Hindu goes on to identify prāṇa (or breath/life-force) religious worldview and includes works like with the Holy Spirit such that awareness of the Jesus Christ and Yoga, by Shyam Sundar Goswami, breath in prāṇāyāma (breath control) or and The Yoga of Jesus, based on talks given by meditation is a practice of bringing awareness to Paramahansa Yoganananda (2007). These texts the Holy Spirit. 8 However, in his experience, examine the life and teachings of Christ through practices aimed at a direct realization of God the lens of Yoga (and according to the Yogasūtras and/or vision of God have been neglected so of Patañjali). Thus, neither author is Christian, that Christians now have much that they can but rather they each sought to convey the learn from Yogic technique.9 richness of their own traditions and practices of Departing somewhat from this is the study Yoga in Christian terms. by B.C.M. Mascarenhas, Yoga and Christian The third category includes Christians who Thought (1973). Mascarenhas’ text is presented turn to Yoga in order to enrich and expand their as a response to what the author identifies as a own practice of Christian faith. In this latter “nuclear age,” or a period in world history that category, a significant early work is The Use of values science over spirituality and is Yoga in Prayer, by Dewan Bhahdur A.S. Appasamy experiencing a decline in world peace as a result. (1926). His focus, as indicated by the title of his Mascarenhas suggests that one remedy to this work, is upon the usefulness of Yoga for predicament is the study of other religions. deepening the experience of prayer. Appasamy Mascarenhas makes a point to disavow defines prayer as “the attempt to realize steadily popular notions of Yoga (which were common and continuously the presence of God.” 6 As both at the time of his writing and now). In such, he turns to Yoga as a technique to cultivate particular, he suggests that Yoga is not “mere” concentration or steadiness of mind, ultimately physical effort, ascetic practice, or (necessarily) aimed at communion with God. culturally bound to Hindu practices (i.e. he Appasamy explains that he personally took makes reference to “chanting manthras to weird up Yoga practice because he found it was not tunes…”) 10 Rather, he asserts that Yoga is possible to find Christian mystics who were primarily a philosophical system and that it is actively practicing “communion with God” in supplemental other spiritual practices. India. As a young convert to Christianity he also
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The bulk of Mascarenhas’ text presents a virtue.” 13 Thus, the reason Dechanet teaches study of Hindu texts and practices, saving the Yoga as a Christian is to overcome the unnatural final few pages for a comparative discussion. fear of the physical body, which he perceives as Here he notes that Hindus and Christians share a perennial Christian issue. the idea that renunciation and/or restraint is Unlike the other authors presented here, necessary in order to cultivate a deeper level of Dechanet emphasizes an explicitly physical spirituality or prayer. Ironically, it is here that practice of Yoga that includes āsana for the Mascarenhas makes his primary purpose of strengthening and healing the recommendation to Christians: āsana (physical physical body. He acknowledges meditation as posture) and prāṇāyāma (breathing exercises) the central aspect of Yoga practice, yet suggests offer a means to cultivating mindfulness and that several āsanas and some prānāyāma should concentration in ways that are not delineated in be conducted prior to meditation. He then Christian texts, although they may be discusses the use of mantras (and suggests that compatible. He insists that āsana and prāṇāyāma this can be a verse taken intuitively from the can be practiced apart from Hindu devotional Bible) and visualization as practices that will perspectives and that these physical dimensions help the individual to learn to sit in silence. can be incorporated into Catholic practice.11 Later teachers within this movement like A contemporary of Mascarenhas, Jean Thomas Ryan, CSP, explicitly combine Christian Michelle Dechanet (1906-1992) takes a distinctly prayer with specific routines of Yoga āsana and different approach towards Yoga in his books, breathing.14 In the introduction to his Prayer of Christian Yoga (1956, 1973) and in Yoga and God: Heart & Body: Meditation and Yoga as Christian An Invitation to Christian Yoga (1975). Considered Spiritual Practice, Ryan reflects on the irony of by many to be the “Father of Christian Yoga,” the current setting of the bustling Kripalu Dechanet was the first proponent in what has institute in Western Massachusetts that was become a larger movement of western sold by the Jesuits in 1985 due to a decrease in Christians who have learned and taught Yoga in novitiates. Ryan notes that Kripalu, like the west. Dechanet was a French Catholic priest Christian monastics, emphasize celibacy and who suffered from epilepsy as a young man. His service, yet it is distinct in its emphasis on the personal focus on physical exercise and his physical body. He states, “Christianity, by initial introduction to Hatha Yoga began as a contrast, is in the awkward position of trying to means to maintain health. affirm the goodness of creation without ever Dechanet’s turn to Yoga comes from what having delighted in human bodiliness.”15 he sees as “man’s rejection, or rather non- For Dechanet, Yoga is “a technique for acceptance, of his bodily condition.”12 Dechanet individual perfection, an instrument which will argues that Christian doctrine has perceived the help him to become what he is.”16 Elsewhere he body as an obstacle to “higher” or more spiritual notes, “yoga is a system of practices for the pursuits. This he describes (more than once) as development of human potential.”17 Like several a process where “people begin by neglecting the of the previous authors, he recognizes a body, come to despise it and finish by fleeing it difference between spiritual and non-spiritual as something dangerous – all in the name of reasons for doing Yoga. However, he avoids
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Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya 25
framing this in terms of physical vs. meditative study and experience and, as such, it is practices. Rather, he makes a distinction representative of the larger Christian ashram between Yoga as “an ensemble of techniques,” movement. aimed at balance, relaxation, and health and V.F. Vineeth is a long-standing proponent of “that whole which is Yoga, which seeks to make Christian inculturation, a practice that looks for the body the instrument of the interior man, local, contextual, and indigenous means of and the interior man an enlightened guide for practicing Christian devotion. According to the body.”18 Vineeth, the aim of inculturation is to expose Thomas Ryan, by turn, frames the “hitherto unknown or forgotten dimensions of discussion of Christian meditation and Yoga as Christ.”20 part of a “spiritual” and “perennial philosophy,” In my own (very brief) visit in 2012 to Fr. that would be in line with the non-sectarian Vineeth’s ashram, Vidya-Vanam, just outside of approaches found in many contemporary Bangalore, India, I was able to see the circular schools of Yoga. However, Ryan also notes that outdoor space that they use for sun-salutations the possibility of experiencing God within is and meditation each morning. Thus, I was fully supported by the Church. He quotes then informed that physical postures are an Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger as stating, “The important part of the daily routine at Vidya- Fathers are perfectly correct in speaking of the Vanam. However, Vineeth’s text, Yoga of divinization of man who, having been Spirituality, focuses almost entirely on incorporated into Christ, the Son of God by promoting seated meditation and nature, may by his grace share in the divine contemplation. He understands Yoga as the nature and become a ‘son in the Son.’”19 Thus, transformation of consciousness. At the heart of Ryan draws on Yoga technique and philosophy his text he follows the eight limbs of Patañjali’s in order to strengthen his Christian community aṣṭāṅga yoga to trace the cultivation of spiritual and his writings are explicitly directed to a growth and, in his words, “to expose [this as] a Christian audience. genuine Christian experience.”21 Parallel in many ways to the work of Each of the Christian authors discussed here Dechanet is the use of Yoga in the Christian turns to Yoga for slightly different reasons; ashram movement. Based largely on the works however, they generally share a common search of Western monks and priests, Henri Le Saux, for deepening prayer and spirituality. Dechanet Jules Monchanin, and Bede Griffiths, the ashram stands out from the others with an explicitly movement began in India in the mid-twentieth āsana-based approach to Yoga and his stated century as an effort to combine Benedictine desire to heal what he perceives as the Christian monasticism with Hindu ashram spirituality. fear of the body. Vineeth and the larger One example of the use of Yoga in the ashram Christian ashram movement are also movement is the 1995 book by V.F Vineeth particularly concerned with expressing a (CMI), Yoga of Spirituality: Christian Initiation into Christian faith through Indian cultural modes. Indian Spiritual Traditions. While this text is fairly While both Mascarenhas and Appasamy point recent compared to the other works discussed out metaphysical distinctions between Yoga in here, it is the aggregate of years of Dr. Vineeth’s the Hindu context and Christianity, all of the
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authors generally agree that Yoga techniques āsana (or postures) and became renowned as one can be employed across religious boundaries. of the great Yoga masters of his time. They define Yoga as union with God. The tradition of Krishnamacharaya presents Mascarenhas discusses Yoga as both a spiritual Yoga (at least in the beginning stages) as a realization and as a body of techniques used to posture-based practice that need not be cultivate spiritual awakening. Dechanet states associated with philosophical or religious that Yoga “will help [the individual] to become history. In this view, the postures themselves what he is.” And, Vineeth, as just stated, constitute a healing practice (following the understands Yoga as the transformation of medical model of Yoga pioneered by consciousness. Kuvalayananda and discussed in the work of 22 th Joseph S. Alter ) and are promoted as beneficial 20 Century Gurus in India: Krishnamacharya in and of themselves. This perspective, and Āsana-Based Yoga combined with a lack of the formal aśrama Parallel to (and, indeed, perhaps the catalyst (monastery/retreat) setting, has lead to a more of) the rise of various Christian Yoga movements secular appropriation of Yoga practice than in the twentieth century is the rise of Neo- many other forms of Yoga that similarly became Vedanta and various prominent scholar-Guru popular within the twentieth century. figures like Vivekananda, Kuvalayananda, The lack of the aśram setting is likely based Sivananda, Sri Aurobindo, Yoganananda, on the perspective that Yoga should be a Ramakrishna, and several others. These practice for householders, people with families teachers shared a universalist Hindu worldview and jobs, and does not require a retreat from the that valued and accepted the spiritual paths of world. In this way, the central ritual for the others, while promoting Hinduism as the Yoga practitioners in the various traditions is sanātana dharma, or the superior most inclusive the practice itself. path of eternal truths. Proponents of this Krishnamacharya published his first treatise philosophy maintained a general acceptance of on Yoga, Yoga Makaranda, in 1934 shortly after truth in other religious traditions (and accepted he established his school at the Jaganmohan students from different religious backgrounds) Palace. 23 This text begins with the question, and at the same time they maintained a firm “Why should I practice yoga?” In response (to religious commitment to their own Hindu his own question), Krishnamacharya enters into tradition. a critique of the then current (1934) rise of the A prime example of this balancing act “commercial mentality.” He writes, between openness to other traditions and We should never insist on, nor even hope commitment to Hindu practices is Tirumalai for, immediate results in return for an hour Krishnamacharya (1888-1989). or two repeating mantras or engaging in Krishnamacharya taught Yoga for the Maharaja worship (puja), yoga practice, or dawn and of Mysore at the Yoga śhala on the palace evening prayers, etc. If we do, we are like grounds from 1933-1955. It was there that he the coolie who considers that it is not worth fully developed his unique approach to Yoga doing a couple of hours work if he does not receive his wages. Ever since monetary
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Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya 27
considerations of this kind have caught hold summarizes Krishnamacharya’s work in the of our minds, we have become victims of the Yoga Makaranda as stating: venal mindset and are growing meaner by Students of yoga should pay particular the day.24 attention to the body and mind in the Krishnamacharya equates the hope for an early stages of practice. Problems will not immediate result from practice with the arise if attention is not paid to the atma (self) exchange of money for service and suggests that in the initial stages. As the practitioner this fundamentally denigrates the process of progresses, equal emphasis must be laid worship/Yoga and subjects it to corruption and on the body, mind, and self.26 mal-intent. Importantly, it is not the exchange Accordingly, Yoga practice may begin as a of money for service that is subject of critique, purely physiological and psychological training but rather the expectation that worship/Yoga (body and mind). The spiritual or religious will produce immediate results, or that these component of Yoga (related to the concept of immediate results would be the reason for self and salvation or self-realization) becomes practice. In this way, worship/yoga are set apart relevant at later stages of practice. from other life endeavors. Mohan’s text further explains, “By health Despite this plea for patience and the notion and calmness in the body, there is steadiness of “higher aspirations” the next section of the and calmness in the mind. By steadiness and text goes on to promise that through the calmness of the mind, the blissful experience of practice of Yoga, “the desired benefits of health, the self is revealed.” 27 Thus, according to strength, happiness, and stability of the mind Mohan’s reading of the Yoga Makaranda, in the will be gained…”25 In the text this list of benefits initial stages of practice, attention to the is correlated to the increase of sattvaguṇa, or the concept of self is not necessary. Since the guṇa of sweetness and discernment (as opposed physical body is regarded as the catalyst for to rajas/fire and tamas/lethargy). In this way, a transformation, this is the focus of practice in dialectic between “higher aspirations” and the initial stages. immediate rewards is set forth at the beginning The final sections of the Yoga Makaranka of Krishnamacharya’s text. In the work of make a special plea to Indian youth that they Krishnamacharya (and in the Yogasūtras) health, learn the depth of their own heritage. Even strength, happiness, and stability of mind can be stating, “If we remain quiet, the foreigners will seen as foundational accomplishments which become our yoga gurus!” 28 In this we see a are necessary to be able to progress to more strong support for the trajectory outlined by sustained levels of concentration (dhāraṇa, Mark Singleton that the development of modern dhyāna, samādhi or concentration, meditation, āsana practice was influenced by the rising absorption). They also provide a measurable popularity of physical culture and was set forth motivation for practice and, for some, may as a “native” practice that could support the appear as sufficient end goals. cause of Indian nationalism. 29 Like Gandhi’s On this point, the long time student and rejection of European-made fabric in favor of biographer of Krishnamacharya, A. G. Mohan Indian homespun khadi, the suggestion here is that in Yoga, India could find an indigenous
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means of cultivating strength and health. This such, this particular treatise on Yoga is distinct point is especially interesting for the current from the majority of Krishnamacharya’s work in study, since despite an emphasis on the general, that it unapologetically advocates for a non-religious benefits of Yoga, it is clear that particular theological perspective and Krishnamacharya also intended his approach to establishes a clear ontology for further claims Yoga to appeal to young Indians and to support made in relation to the practice of Yoga. God is indigenous, Hindu pride. 30 Thus, he used a Vishnu-Narayana; devotion is described as the broad, widely accepting, approach to Yoga on action of remembering Harī. 35 The text the world stage, in part, as a means to acknowledges that Yoga can be done for strengthen particular religious devotion at material benefits, but reminds the reader that home. (especially for Hindu devotees) it is better to Another text by Krishnamacharya, The Yoga aspire for liberation. Rahasya,31 was originally attributed to the sage The importance of a theistic/devotional Nāthamuni and said to have been transmitted stance is also prominent in the later through Krishnamacharya. In this text philosophical work and prose of Krishnamacharya frames the interpretation of Krishnamacharya (discussed in the the Yogasūtra as a text of bhakti Yoga, that of introduction), yet here it is more clearly set devotion (this is also the primary means and forth as part of a non-sectarian approach to focus for Yoga in the context of the Bhagavad practice. He announces, “Your Lord or mine, it Gītā).32 Śloka 1.5 of Yoga Rahasya then reads, does not matter.” Yet, this is combined with the bhukti mukti phale tatra yoganuṣṭānato / charge that “devotion to God must not remain bhavato bhagavadbhakto muktyarthaṁ bhajate just a desire. It must become a regular harim // practice…” that involves ritual and the naming anyastu bhuktimātre tu na tat śāstreṣu of a particular form of God. sammatam// Christian Yoga and Modern Yoga in Dialogue The fruits of yoga practice (whether Bhakti Taking seriously both the importance of or Prapatti yoga) can be material (bhukti) or devotion in the teaching tradition of freedom from suffering (mukti). Those who are Krishnamacharya and the refrain, “Your Lord or devotees of the Lord, praise Hari for the purpose mine, it does not matter,” practitioners of this of mukti. Others seek material benefit, which is Yoga are faced with a unique challenge that not approved of by the Śāstra-s.33 values equally religious tradition and religious Yoga Rahasya 1.10 then explains devotional pluralism. In many ways, the Christian use of Yoga practice, “Bound by actions and their Yoga in prayer and as a means for centering consequences, men do not realize the Lord. devotion (especially in the work of Dechanet) is Thus, resolving to please Him, one must in line with Krishnamacharya’s insistence on continuously practice yoga…” This is followed the importance of devotion for success in Yoga. up with YR 1.13, “During the practice of the In this way, both proponents of Christian Yoga ạṅgā-s of yoga, one must constantly remember and modern practitioners who seek to align Harī, have discipline in speech and control over their understanding of Yoga with the lineage of the senses and must follow his dharma.” 34 As
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Krishnamacharya ultimately require some kind in Yoga by Christians. Of all the Christian Yoga of explicit sectarian commitment to God. proponents, Dechanet comes closest to teaching However, for Krishnamacharya the specific Yoga in ways similar to the written tradition of nature of this commitment is balanced with a Krishnamacharya. However, those that look to radical openness to other religious traditions in Dechanet as the “Father of Christian Yoga,” which he neither promotes his own sectarian make explicit effort to combine Christian prayer beliefs nor attempts to learn from the other. In and imagery at each stage of Yoga practice. this way he protects the specific nature of his Thus, while these proponents of Christian Yoga own religious commitments while maintain that Yoga technique is different from simultaneously promoting a universal approach Christian faith, the specificity of the particular to spirituality and Yoga. Yoga in the tradition of practice they promote is open primarily to Krishnamacharya is learned initially through Christians. From a practical standpoint, this may āsana and prānāyāma and, for some, it also limit the size (and therefore the accessibility) of includes philosophical discussion and the study a given community and, in turn, this can lead to of texts. However, the heart of Yoga practice in lack of depth and training for teachers of that this context is a religiously neutral space, open community (mainly because there would be to believers from different traditions. The fewer teachers). It also entails a very specific obvious benefit of this approach is accessibility form of Yoga practice that is based more in and the possibility of creating vibrant Christian spirituality than in Yoga technique. Of communities of spiritual practice that cross course, Ryan is explicitly concerned with linking religious traditions. Christian doctrine and prayer to Yoga for the On the other hand, the lack of engagement benefit of his Christian community. However, I with religious particulars makes the question of wonder if an approach that initially emphasized how to practice devotion with (or along side) the more physical, universal, and spiritual Yoga ambiguous, especially for a non-Hindu, benefits of practice would have a greater appeal transnational audience. For the most part, for a younger audience? students share in a communal experience of Interestingly, proponents of the Hindu Yoga, but are left to express devotion on their sanātana dharma, or the path of eternal truths, own or in a separate community of religious like Krishnamacharya, promoted the most affiliation. In the end, by not engaging the universal aspects of their religious and spiritual specificity of religious praxis in relation to Yoga, tradition. Through the separation made this potentially important component of between practical technique and religious practice is bypassed by many contemporary particularities, they appealed to large numbers practitioners. Thus, Yoga becomes increasingly of non-Hindus. However, their goal was not to secular and, if we take seriously the emphasis evangelize the other (indeed, many Hindus given to devotion in the written work of contend that conversion is impossible or Krishnamacharya, perhaps, the full potential of irrelevant); rather, they sought to reignite pride practice is not realized. and enthusiasm for Hindu devotional life for The overview of Christian Yoga those who were already Hindu by birth, but who demonstrated the varied and persistent interest may have fallen away from an active religious
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life. Thus, inclusion of “the other” in this of the other is not dialogue and does little to context strengthened Hindu religious deepen a communal understanding of devotion. communities by demonstrating the value and In the end, Krishnamacharya’s charge that appeal of Yoga techniques on a world stage and, “devotion to God must not remain just a desire” perhaps, simply by encouraging larger and that it must also become a regular practice communities of practice. The teaching tradition (with name and ritual) raises an important issue of Krishnamacharya generally emphasizes the for contemporary practitioners. It also points to “transformation of the physical body” as a non- something like Christian Yoga (at least for non- sectarian, spiritual awakening. As such, the Hindu and/or Christian practitioners), with its “secular” practice of Yoga could equally benefit philosophical and doctrinal commitments. Christians, especially if there is a community Christian Yoga is devotional Yoga, yet it and/or teachers available who are grounded in combines the techniques of Yoga with Christian both the Christian tradition and Yoga philosophy even in the initial stages of practice. techniques. In addition, sustained interreligious Krishnamacharya suggested beginning with a dialogue in the context of particular Yoga physical practice and emphasized the practice of communities may benefit both proponents of devotion with Yoga as an advanced, and even Christian Yoga and those in the tradition of optional, technique. Krishnamacharya’s Krishnamacharya. approach has also succeeded in fostering The distinction between sectarian international and interreligious communities of commitments and technique, evidenced in the Yoga practitioners. In and of itself, this is a work of Krishnamacharya, emphasizes the powerful fact. However, in order to practice benefits of practice for a variety of reasons and, devotion in an interreligious community, that in this way, it potentially opens the door to community must also be willing to engage with dialogue, interreligious practice, and religious diversity and the particulars of transnational community. Yet, mere tolerance religious belief and ritual.
Notes
1 Edwin Bryant, The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A Saux (1910-1973), Jules Monchanin (1895-1957), and New Edition, Translation, and Commentary. New others. York: North Point Press (2009: 49). 6 Dewan Bhahdur A.S. Appasamy: The Use of Yoga 2 T Krishnamacharya, Yogāñjalisāram. TKV in Prayer. Madras, India: The Christian Literature Desikachar (trans). Chennai: Krishnamacharya Yoga Society for India (1926: 1). Mandiram (1995, 2001: 27). 7 Appasamy (1926: 11; 24). 3 TKV Desikachar, The Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya. 8 Appasamy (1926: 19). Madras, India: Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram 9 The suspicion of Pelagianism, or salvation (1982: 47). through works may arise here for some readers. 4 For example, see the history and work of Appasamy defends his own work from this charge by Roberto de Nobili (1577-1656). explaining that not all Christians will see visions and 5 See the work of Brahmabandhab Upadhyay that, “The gifts of the Spirit are diverse and men are (1861-1907), Pierre Johanns, S.J. (1882-1955), Henri Le summoned by God to minister in His Kingdom in diverse ways.” He goes on to argue that the ability to
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Devotion and Discipline: Christian Yoga and the Yoga of T. Krishnamacharya 31
21 “see God” is the “heritage of all Christians.” (1926: Vineeth, (1995: 1). 22 28). In Yoga in Modern India: The Body Between Science 10 B.C.M. Mascarenhas, Yoga and Christian and Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press Thought. Bombay, India: Saint Paul Publications (2004), Joseph S. Alter explains how the early efforts (1973:2). of Hindu nationalism, aimed at recovering strength 11 B.C.M. Mascarenhas, (1973:88). and dignity for Hindu-Indians as well as directed 12 J.-M. Dechanet, Yoga and God: An Invitation to towards Indian independence from Britain, also Christian Yoga. Indiana: Abbey Press (1975: preface). reclaimed particular aspects of Hindu culture, like 13 Dechanet, (1975: 19). Yoga, that had previously been disparaged in the 14 See, for example, Thomas Ryan’s Prayer of Heart European imagination. Alter focuses specifically on & Body: Meditation and Yoga as Christian Spiritual the work of Swami Kuvalayananda (1883-1966) and Practice (1995); Reclaiming the Body in Christian his effort to bridge esoteric Yogic practices with Spirituality (2005); and the DVD, Yoga Prayer: An scientific analysis (82-83). 23 Embodied Christian Spiritual Practice (2004; 2005). “Yoga Makaranda of T. Krishnamacharya,” 15 He goes on to state, “One would think that Mark Singleton, M. Narasimhan and M.A. Jayashree between our two central doctrines of the Incarnation (trans. and eds.) in Yoga in Practice, David White (ed.) and the Resurrection – the one, in which God chose Princeton: Princeton University Press (2012). to call human bodiliness “home,” and the other, in Additional English translations of this text (from a which that broken, weary body is not discarded but previously translated Tamil edition) are available re-embraced and taken into the very life of the from TKV and Kaustub Desikachar, Yoga Makaranda: Trinity for all eternity – we could do better at helping The Nectar of Yoga, T. Krishnamacharya, edited and people to embrace and relate positively to their translated by TKV Desikachar. Chennai, India: Media enspirited flesh as a joyful mode of existence!” Ryan, Garuda (2011). A synopsis of the text is also found in (1995: 7). A.G. Mohan biography of Krishnamacharya (2010). 16 Dechanet, (1975: 17), original emphasis. Mohan was a long-term student of 17 See: http://www.christianspracticing Krishnamacharya’s towards the later part of his life. yoga.com/is-yoga-a-religion/ (accessed on Thus he brings a particularly personal, practice- 11/8/2016). based insight to his biographical accounts and to his 18 Dechanet (1975: 17-18). reading of Krishnamcharya’s texts. 24 19 Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, “Letter to the Singleton (2012: 344). 25 bishops of the Catholic Chruch on some aspects of Singleton (2012: 344). 26 Christian Meditation,” in L’Osservatore Famano, 2 Mohan (2010: 143) (my emphasis). 27 January 1990, p. 9 in Ryan, (1995: 27). It is also Mohan (2010: 144). 28 interesting that Thomas Ryan specifically references Mohan (2010: 144). 29 and quotes from this document, since it otherwise Singleton (2008). Chapter 4, especially (91-94) explicitly warns against the use of eastern form of discusses the international influence of the YMCA practice like Yoga and meditation. By engaging with (circa 1930) in reimagining the role of physical fitness this text Ryan is making a strong effort to show ways within the formation of whole person. Following that Yoga and meditation can be beneficial to the India’s national director of the YMCA, J.H. Gray, faithful Catholic. Singleton writes, “Physical culture, as conceived by 20 V.F Vineeth’s (CMI), Yoga of Spirituality: the Indian YMCA, was education through the body, Christian Initiation into Indian Spiritual Traditions. not of the body.” (original emphasis) (91). In the next Bangalore, India: Vidya Vanam Publications (1995: chapter Singleton quotes Vivekananda as stating, 14). “…unless one has a good physique one can never
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32 Stephanie Corigliano
aspire to Self-realization.” (101) Singleton then goes composition, it was likely recorded shortly after Yoga on to suggest that an understanding of Yoga as Makaranka (1937/1938). 32 physical training became an alibi for training A.G. Mohan, (135-6). Mohan maintains that towards violent anti-colonial resistance. (103) In this, this approach of reading the YS from the specific strength and endurance training were viewpoint of Vishishta-advaita was taken up by complemented by a nationalistic rhetoric that touted Krishnamacharya in order to offer a counter the superiority of indigenous Indian practices. perspective to the several interpretations that were Additionally, this militaristic focus also may have in circulation from schools of Śaṅkara’s Advaita- contributed to the particular developments of āsana vedānta. However, in this, Mohan also contends that (and its ascendancy to the primary or best-known the practical components of practice are the same component of Yoga practice) and to the introduction and that only the philosophical perspective (namely of new forms of āsana postures. Singleton’s work is the sūtras which directly refer to īśvara, or God) are effective in drawing out the particular development influenced by this interpretation. See also the short of Yoga in India during the twentieth century. video on this topic: http://www.youtube.com/ Clearly, this shared context would have influenced watch?v=rKucJJppmMo the development of Krishnamacharya’s thought. This general approach, which demonstrates the However, Singleton’s work also overlooks historical variety of interpretations and also underscores a background (c.f. medieval haṭha texts as well as certain continuity within the text irregardless of the historical commentators of the YS that place philosophical perspective also underscores the emphasis on health and purity of the body) that may averred theological neutrality of Yoga practice in the counterbalance the impression that Yoga for tradition of the YS, which is promoted by householders (non-monks/renunciates) for the Krishnamacharya and also by all three of the MY initial purpose of health is an exclusive development gurus discussed in this text. 33 of the twentieth century. Quotations from the Yoga Rahasya are taken 30 In the introduction to the Krishnamacharya from TKV Desikachar’s translation, Nāthamuni’s Yoga Healing & Yoga Foundation’s translation of the Yoga Rahasya: Presented by T. Krishnamacharya. Chennai: Makaranda, Krishnamacharya’s grandson, Kausthub Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram (1998, 2010). This Desikachar, highlights this point stating, “While is primarily a translation of the text with a few brief Krishnamacharya never involved himself in politics notes of commentary inserted by Krishnamacharya, or political movements, it is quite clear from his presumably added after the composition of the words in this book, that he was a nationalist at original text. 34 heart…” (K. Desikachar in Yoga Makaranda, 2011:21). Krishnamacharya (1998, 2010: 25). 35 31 The first publication of this text is 1998, nine As stated above, Īśvara (God) is identified as years after Krishnamacharya’s death. However, Vishnu-Narayana (Harī) most likely on account of based on talks and other texts that reference this Krishnamacharya’s own religious background.
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