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1. The Indus Valley Civilization

Preview What came to be called was an amalgamation of beliefs and practices from several sources. This chapter focuses on the first of the two major contributors: the Indus Valley Civilization. In subsequent chapters we will focus on the second: the Indo-. The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization in the nineteenth century revealed a sophisticated and long-forgotten ancient culture that appears to have contributed to the development of the Hindu traditions. In this chapter, we examine the architectural ruins and artifacts left by this civilization and contemplate their import for its inhabitants and for subsequent Hindu history. This examination reveals that Indus Valley religion focused on maintaining ritual purity and appropriating divine powers to assist in reproduction and the maintenance of life. Finally, we introduce the Indo-Aryans with a brief discussion of their relationship to the dwellers of the Indus Valley.

Two major cultural streams contributed to was then northwestern and is now Paki- the development of what later came to be stan stumbled upon the remains of an ancient called Hinduism. The first was an intriguing city known only to locals. The engineers were and sophisticated ancient culture known today only interested in the well-fired bricks from the as the Indus Valley Civilization. The second ruins, and they proceeded to quarry the city for source was a nomadic people called the Indo- that resource. It was not until the early twenti- Aryans, whom most scholars believe migrated eth century, as other similar sites were uncov- into India from Central Asia and bequeathed ered, that archaeologists appreciated the full to their most sacred texts and rituals. significance of this unwitting discovery. They In this and the next two chapters, we will study determined that the ancient city, now reduced each of these cultures and explore their respec- to railroad ballast, was part of a vast network of tive influences on the evolution of the Hindu villages and towns constituting an entire civili- Traditions (box 1.1). zation long forgotten by the rest of humanity. The discovery of this ancient culture, one of the most remarkable archaeological finds of modern The Indus Valley Civilization times, compelled scholars to revise their under- standing of the earliest and has In the nineteenth century, British engineers in recent years sparked a heated debate about the searching for ballast for a railway line in what original inhabitants of the .

15 16 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures the great cultures of the ancient world. ancient the of cultures great the of one be to River,out Indus turned the along situated were settlements its of many because has come to light since the first excavations was ValleyIndus Civilization the that first suggests the since light to come has B period of 360 B 360 of Aperiod many traditions. O years. human 4,320,000 A spans. life shorter and lust, materialism, discord, by cruelty, evinced and morality and piety human of Treta, D yugas—the later The years. thousand ahundred of average livean and pious naturally are who beings, human with relationships have end. no will and beginning no had has pattern This yugas. of cycle new awhole initiating beginning, anew marks yuga final the of end at the destruction world’s The re-created. and is it destroyed before lengths varying of yugas or successive ages, four of aseries undergoes universe the Vedic the era, after developed cosmology Traditional H V A Hindu to view the stages of H of stages the to view A T aB Thus, years. such 1600–800 1600–800 1500 3300–1400 800–200 800–200 200 200 500–1500 he Periods of Hindu History Hindu of Periods he ox ccording to a common method of reckoning, the four yugas make one Mahayuga make one yugas four the reckoning, of method toccording acommon lthough most H most lthough The Indus Valley Civilization, so named Civilization, Valley Indus The 1.1 The first period, known as the S as the known period, first The b . c c . . e e .–present .–500 .–500 T b iew of T of iew . c b c wo wo . . b . e indus regard the passage of time as cyclical rather than linear. than rather A as cyclical time of passage the regard indus c e . . c . . e . c . e . . e V . indus would not think of their history in a linear fashion, the following scheme is one way is one scheme following the fashion, alinear in history their of think not would indus iew ime rahma lives 155,520,000,000,000 human years! human 155,520,000,000,000 lives rahma indu history. indu s o B of life day the in is asingle Mahayuga ne f

T ime rahma-days equals one B one equals rahma-days vapara, and (the current period)—are characterized by the decline decline by the characterized period)—are (the current Kali and vapara, atya Yuga, is a golden age in which the gods maintain close close maintain gods the which in age Yuga, is agolden atya 1 What What Modern Period Modern I Medieval and L and Medieval Vedic Period Classical Period (coincident with the A the (coincident with Period Classical E ndus Valley Civilization Valleyndus Civilization known tomany asHinduism. complex grand the to significantly contributed culture this that suggests evidence history,the Indus Valleysacredtheir of part as Civilization the regard not do today Hindus many While Sumeria. and Egypt ancient as impressive as pic and E and pic rahma-year, and aB rahma-year, and arly Puranic Period Period Puranic arly rahma, the creator god according to according god creator the rahma, ate Puranic Period Period ate Puranic ccording to an ancient H toccording ancient an rahma lives one hundred hundred one lives rahma , lasting for a period of of aperiod for , lasting xial A xial ge) indu indu , 17 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization - - - - Mohenjo-daro

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H INDIA All of the Indus Valley municipalitiesAll of were the IndusValley Delhi fied as villages or The towns. largest and most important are cities known as and Civilization designations that refer to towns built much later on the ruins of urban the centers. In ancient their Mohenjo-daro heyday, and Harappa may have each hosted a popula tion as large as forty to fifty thousand, which was immense by ancient standards. Harappa appears to have been the capital, and accord the as to referredsometimes is culture theingly Harappan Civilization. highly organized and carefully planned, dis playing remarkably similar features. The uni formity of these cities suggests a authority since centralized many of and code enforcement, the settlements were over fifty The miles apart. towns the of layout the and buildings of remains indicateinhabitantstheirthatprized and order Ahmadabad Lahore

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a h n G I b.c.e. . . At its height, Mohenjo-daro S e a b.c.e A r a b i a n . . Around 1900 Major sites Harappan Other sites archaeological Modern cities Existing rivers rivers Former civilization Extent of Harappan and flourished between AFP15 Map 1.1 Indus Valley Civilization Valley AFP15 Map 1.1 Indus Second proof 3/01/11 IRAN b.c.e b.c.e. The Indus Valley Civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization was spread throughout the northwestern part of the

What is known about the Indus Valley cul Valley Indus the about known Whatis 2600 and 1900 entered a period of disappeared declinearound 1400 and ultimately ture comesexclusivelyture archaeologicalfrom evi because itsdence, cryptic script has never been completely deciphered. We do not even know what the citizens of themselves. this The civilization archaeological called data indicate that the Indus Valley culture was established around 3300 the Indus Valley Civilization covered most of present-day Pakistan, the westernmost part of and partsin present-dayofAfghanistan, India, an area estimated to include over five hundred fifteenOver 1.1). (figure miles squarethousand hundred Indus Valley sites throughoutregion have thisbeen unearthed so far, and most have yet to be fully Severalexcavated. hundred of these sites are large enough to be classi Fig. 1.1 Indian Subcontinent in an area roughly the size of Texas. 18 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures on thedevelopment oftheHindu Traditions. impact possible its and culture Indus the about us tell they what comprehend to attempt and discoveries that appear to have religious import archaeological experts.the by Weconsider will debated frequently judgments are and conjectures remain these ambiguous, often are facts - arti the because and corroboration, for able practices. Yet, religious sources are unavail- literary since and worldview its about judgments informed make to scholars for enough reveal do society, they this of story complete the tell economy. Harappan the in role significant a played trade that gests sug Asia Central and Mesopotamia as away far as artifacts Valley Indus of discovery The crafts. and arts of production the on centered cities larger the in life and herding cattle and agriculture on focused life village that except economy their about little know also ety.We soci their structured or themselves governed dwellers Indus way the about little very know we administration, central indicates that tency consis urban the from aside organization. But lhuh h acaooia dt d not do data archaeological the Although - - - nu delr wr poal axos about anxious probably were dwellers Indus many cultures,premodern today, Like Hindus like and hygiene.the bodily of matter a than andcleanness.purity with preoccupation deep a to point all structed con- were they which with care the tions,and loca- central their the baths, of ubiquity The centuries. many by Rome ancient in facilities similar predate baths public 1.2).(figure These each had a large bath with central public access Harappa and Mohenjo-daro well. as did municipali- ties but lavatories, advanced feature homes individual did only Not today. homes Pakistani and Indian many in found facilities to superior fact in are and time the of cultures other in found those to superior were systems relatively modern way. The plumbing and sewer a in tiles ceramic with lined and plumbed were that facilities toilet and bathing indoor cated sophisti- with furnished were homes Private cleanliness. with concern intense an that to points evidence the is cities Indus the of tures - fea intriguing and obvious most the of One Purity andPollution lot etil, hs ocr ws more was concern this certainly, Almost N L Picture Civilization. Civilization. I the of inhabitants the for purity ritual of centrality the suggests Mohenjo-daro in facility bathing this of prominence The Mohenjo-daro. of Bath 1.2 Fig. .Y.) ibrary /A ibrary ndus Valley Valley ndus

The Great Great The (Photo: ©D (Photo: rt R rt esource, esource, e A 19 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization - indus. athing for ritual lya Mauter.) Fig. 1.3 Bathing in the . B purification is still an important aspect of the religious practice of most H (Photo courtesy of Creative Commons, I We We do not know what specificthings the not always explicit or written- Unspo into law. ken taboos are often laid upon those areas of life where one may run the Societies impose these riskrestrictions out of order. of violating and personal prevent they that belief shared the social disorder, and for this reason many cul- tures enforce taboos with harsh punishments for violations. Whenever order has been vio- lated, it must be restored to ensure social and develop therefore Cultures well-being. personal ritualmethods for reestablishing purity. Indus dwellers regarded as Whatever ritually the impure. cause of most likely servedand to contaminants remove impurity, the baths reinstate the order of just things, as public and private baths do in contemporary Hindu tradi the actfirstIn religious of modern India, tions. that ritual a bathing, is Hindus most for day the bodily appropriate the into individual the brings and mental states for relating to the have temples gods Hindu and many Today, persons. other tanks or reservoirs that as function ritual baths. such Many natural as bodies the of river water, serve Ganges, this purpose as well (figure1.3). , , sacred Despite the wide variation in practices, all purity regulations essentially involve maintain- ing a community’s order, its sense of what is right and appropriate. Purity regulations are ritual purity. Ritual sweat purity, the removing than as more involves hygiene, compared to and grime that accumulate on the body avoiding germs and that cause disease. In its most cleanness of state the is purity ritual sense, basic is what for approaching required is that or holy. It often concerns what and how one eats, the kinds of clothes and ornamentation one wears, the flow ofone’s bodily fluids, and and death. sex, birth, mysteriesthe great of life: What counts as pure and impure varies greatly from culture to culture and time to time (box Observant1.2). Jews and Muslims pork regard as unclean, but others consider it a great deli- Traditional cacy. Christianity once considered childbirth to be an occasion contemporary Christians most requiring but purification, ritual no longer regard it as such. In some societies, including Hindu India, one may become ritu- ally contaminated simply by coming into - con who is impure. with someone tact 20 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures different religious traditions (or parts of those traditions) have regarded as unclean. as traditions)have of those regarded parts traditions (or religious different that activities the of some delineates list following The as well. cultures within variation great is often There to time. time from and to culture culture from vary polluting ritually to be considered activities of kinds The • • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • • • • Judaism 1.2 Box slam Flatulence S cold become has Touching and thatis unwashed acorpse D manner prescribed E alcohol Consuming prey of birds E Menstruation Touching dog or apig Masturbation S Childbirth A Menstruation leprosy with Touching someone grave a or Touching body,bone, ahuman adead D non-Jews E manner prescribed E prey, of birds snails and bats, reptiles, E leep or other forms of unconsciousness of forms other or leep exual intercourse exual ating meat that has not been slaughtered in a in slaughtered been not thathas meat ating and bats, reptiles, amphibians, pork, ating by utensils used using non-Jews or with ating a in slaughtered been not thathas meat ating amphibians, catfish, shellfish, pork, ating bnormal bodily discharges bodily bnormal rinking wine made by non-Jews made wine rinking efecating efecating

R itual itual I m p urity • • • • • • • • • • Hinduism • • • • • • Z • • • • • • Shinto oroastrianism Touching or seeing someone who is unclean who someone Touching seeing or E Childbirth caste E Menstruation S bodies dead with Contact D E Tanning leatherwork and stillbirth or Miscarriage Menstruation nails or B S wolves or ants, flies, snakes, with into contact Coming bodies dead with Contact thoughts Wicked ahome in Wearing shoes words taboo Speaking D blood with Contact S ickness ickness cavenging ating with the left hand left the with ating alower of by aperson prepared food ating meat ating ody waste such as excrement and clipped hair hair clipped and as excrement such waste ody eath one’s thatof father especially eath, 21 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization ndus Valley male animals? Why .Y.) The great majority of the seals portray male portray seals the majority of great The questions. many raise images soapstone The esource, N rt R cance of the images on the seals is still a matter matter a still is seals the on images the canceof debate. and of speculation legs and flanks hornsmassive with and animals (figure 1.4).Indeed, throughout the artifacts the male sex ruins, is found in the Indus Valley artis- animals; by represented exclusively almost tic representations of the human male are rare. Many of the animals are easily recognizable: buffaloes, elephants, rhinoceroses, bulls, , and antelopes. But other seals display strange creatures that appear to be imagination, such products as of a three-headed the antelope and a bull with a single horn protruding from its forehead, like Thisa “unihorned” unicorn’s. bull is one of the most common images on the seals. The bull often appears along with what seems to either be of a whichbrazier or censer, may have been used for ritual purposes. Bra- ziers can be used for cooking sacrificial meat, receptacles forand censers are burning incense. Why do they depict only - - orromeo / A .Y. Four on right:.Y. B esource, N rt R cala / A (Four on left: S teatite, or soapstone, seals provide archaeological evidence for much of our understanding of I Seals. S

religious practices. Fig. 1.4 Artifacts In addition to architectural ruins, the excava- tion of the Indus Valley cities has revealed a host of intriguing artifacts. Some of the most interesting of these relics are the hundreds of tiny soapstone seals that were used probably to were seals These stamp softclay. into designs as trade, merchant the in property mark to used one might use a signet Similarring. seals have been found as far away as Mesopotamia, sug- these between connection commercial a gesting While the practical use of the two civilizations. signifi- the mysterious, so not is seals Harappan There, devout Hindus restore the pristine order the pristineorder restore devoutHindus There, that might have been disrupted by inappropri ate behavior or or thoughts, by contact with a person who is deemed unclean. What we find in the sophisticated baths and lavatories of the Harappan Civilization is probably the est earli expression of religious practices that history. Hindu throughout run 22 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures raig n uig iul ersnain of representations visual using and creating By powers. such obtain to attempt symbolic a represent may Valleyseals Indus the of images heart.the residein wereto thought animal The which strength,- incorpo and courage to animal’s the human rate a allow to believed was animal powerful a of heart the example,eating cultures,for some In animals. in admired qualities they certain incorporate to sought often have beings world, human ers. the Throughout associated pow- animal of appropriation human the are with depictions these Perhaps ity. sexual- male of symbols as taken are humans flanks. and than rather animals why wonderStill, must we horns animals’ the on emphasis strong the does as supposition, this supports display, obvious on genitals their animals,with male only portray functions. seals tive the That reproduc- and about, sexuality anxiety perhaps with,fascination intense expressan images and To images.the that begin, conclude reasonably may we unusual these of meaning the cidate opentorevision. kept always other sources, they must be held tentatively and or literary from confirmation be without certain cannot answers because But hypotheses. later our guide help can practices and beliefs and Hindu cultures ancient other of know we What uninformed. necessarily not but course, to answer these questions will be speculative, of Efforts imaginary? others and realistic animals the of some are Why trade? for property ing mark - as such purposes, commercial for used been have they would why meaning, religious have seals the If seals? the of some on objects ritual be to appear what by suggested tance,as impor- have religious animals the Do flanks? and horns animals’ the accentuate images the do Why form? human than rather animal in exclusively almost represented sex male the is With this caveat in mind, let us try to elu- to try mind,us in let caveat this With bols ofdivinefemales. These 1.6). - sym certainly almost are (figure figurines comparable world the of parts many in unearthed been have period time same the Second, similar representations of females from divine. the symbolize they that possibility the out rule figurines not does human unremarkably appear the that fact the realms, two these of a vast vast a of existence the theorize to scholars some led has as divine. regarded be to come can beings human vidual indi- and forms, human assume can chapters, subsequent in see shall we as goddesses, and gods domains.The human the and divine the distinctionsbetween sharp make always not do to have roots in the religion of the Indus Valley assumed goddesses.traditions Hindu First,the are images the that argument the support tors fac- two alone. But figurines the examining by tions of a single goddess) cannot be ascertained - manifesta different (or goddesses or women ofwomen (figuretrue 1.5). symbolize to society,this not in was sexuality same male the insufficient somehow seemed men While hairstyles. elaborate and breasts, thighs,hips,bare full exaggerated with women depicting figurines terra-cotta numerous of ery - discov the is sexuality with captivation ture’s objectof veneration. wastheprincipal bull the that indicate might designs these in ance appear- frequent Its practice. cultic of objects the made and worshiped been have may they prowess.so,sexual If their of because sacred as sible that the animals themselves were regarded themselves. Furthermore,for pos- is potency it the of Indus Valleyacquiremayhaveto intended that dwellers the animals, potent sexually The widespread discovery of such images images such of discovery widespread The hte tee mgs inf human signify images these Whether Indus Valleythe Furtherunderscoring cul- 2 Because of the betweenpermeability ohr goddess mother 3

religion that long long that religion 23 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization - (Photo courtesy of Creative Commons, Matthias The Venus of Willendorf. This figurine from urope is one example of an ancient goddess

orthern E women themselves were perhaps regarded as sacred. Kabel.) Fig. 1.6 N Sexuality and the Sacred intimate between sexualityconnection The and the sacred may strike some modern persons, particularly those living in the West, as odd. For many religion today, seems more involved in suppressing sexuality rather than aging encour and celebrating it. To understand correlation the of sex and divinity in the ancient we world, must appreciate several things about the way early humans viewed the world their and role in it. First, we must bear in mind who some believe may been have at one time the object of worldwidedevotion. - - - That 4 mages .Y.) ndus Valley esource, N rt R Female figurine from the Indus I Valley.

ildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz / A such as this terra-cotta statuette from the I Civilization were perhaps representations of goddesses who were worshiped for their live-giving powers. antedated the worship of male gods. (Photo: B Fig. 1.5 hypothesis has been controversial not and enjoy universal does acceptance among schol ars. ars. But whether or not such a wide-reaching cult ever existed, it is dwellers quiteof the Harappan likely Civilization thatvener the divine worship The a of mothergoddess.ated a mother figure has a long, deep-rooted tradi tion in Hindu history, and thus it is plausibleat thatleast the Indus Valley images are the vestiges of what may be the earliest thatform of tradition. Even if the figurinesgoddesses per arese, it seems not evident that in the Indus Valley culture, the reproductive powers of women were revered and celebrated, and 24 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures seals and terra-cotta figurines depicting aspects seals figurines and terra-cotta culture, the creation and usage of the soapstone Harappan the In reproduction. human of vice same creative and procreative powers in the ser- the harness to or re-create to them provoke to thought was gods the of act primordial the ing imitat- performance magical people.A its and sex ized acts to ensure the of fecundity the land - ritual perform might women and men tures, sexual union of a god and goddess. In such cul- wereinhabitants its and produced world by the the how cultures some told of mythologies The practices. magical of object the made often was it survival, human to vital so was animal, and could induce rain. Because reproduction, dancing both human ceremonial believed societies means.example,Formany technical other and effect through the use ofrituals, words, thoughts, desired a achieving of process the sense,is this magic.Magic,in call would we what of power other. each on weredependent life. sense, this In realms human and divine the and meat reproduce) (or produce to required they blood) of form the (in materials raw and nourishment the with gods the provide to was example, for sacrifice, of functions the of One ways. certain in forces these assist and with ate cooper to necessary was it believed often they reproduction was governed by forces greater than themselves, thought ancients the although assumption. reasonable a Second, millennia for was beings human of reach the beyond powers ago. turies by controlled was reproduction That cen two than more centuries, little nineteenth and early eighteenth the late until did not arise egg and sperm of merger the by created was life new that idea mystery.The fundamental a was females and males of union sexual the by produced were beings human new How awe. of object the was process reproductive the that Third, the in believed peoples ancient most - - courtesy of http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: of courtesy three faces looking in different directions. directions. For different in looking faces three a bull or buffalo. The seated figure seems to have a ,including an elephant, a rhinoceros, and vidual is surrounded by various kinds of animals, tantalizing features to other this seal as well. are The indi- There history. contemplative its throughout interior-looking, spirit an had has India then true, If meditation. of practitioners them—were of some least at Indus—or the on dwellers earlier the that possibility intriguing the 1.7).(figure raises meditation seal and This fundamental pose in the Hindu practice of posture,a lotus the be to appears what in ting sit- person a illustrating seal a is attention our worth archaeology Harappan of bit Another Proto- associated with meditation in the later H later the in meditation with associated I the from seal 1.7 Fig. the crucial matterofcontinuing life. the crucial in forces divine the assisting and petitioning magically of way a been have may sexuality of

This soapstone soapstone This Animals. the of Lord , ndus Valley displays a figure in a posture posture in a afigure displays Valley ndus S indu traditions. traditions. indu hiva_Pashupati.jpg.) (Photo (Photo 25 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization - ndus Valley Civili una Park.) ome scholars think the hiva, the god of ascetics, may be rooted Shiva as Mahayogi. S

(Photo courtesy of Creative Commons, L A second seal similar to the Pashupati ficus ) religiosa is easily recognized by the dis - artifacts. Again, the Again, evidenceartifacts. leaves us with no definitive conclusion. lotus the in sitting figure another portrays image position (see figure third 1.4, bottom seal row, to appears figure this Pashupati, Like left). from have more than one face and to wear a horned but these features headdress, are even less clear than on the . What is intrigu- ing about the second is seal, however, the tree design that appears to grow out of the - head dress. Most scholars agree that the design is a stylized The version pipalof tree the pipal tree. ( tinctive Thisshape motifof hasits been leaves. modern image of S the iconography of similar figures from the I zation. Fig. 1.8 - - - , “Lordof , Pashupati , , “Great Meditator” (fig but the dispute about their about dispute the but

Mahayogi Comparing the Indus Valley imprint with a modern image of Shiva helps substantiate thesubstantiate Shivahelps of image modern a contention that the seal depicts this popular Hindu Thegod. corresponding modern image is called Hindus Hindus today, multiple faces or heads are an iconographic convention symbolizing divine On omniscience. the figure’s head sitsa - head some but clear, not is figure the of sex The dress. who study this seal believe the figure is male and sporting an erect phallus. As with it other is artifactsnot exactlyfrom the Indus Valley, clear who or what Many this image represents. early like- an be may figure this believe scholars have They Shiva. as known later god the of ness particularthis dubbed seal titles for Shiva. of the many one the Animals,” appearance in the image illustrates how even experts in the field may come to vastly differ ure ure 1.8). Juxtaposing the two images numerous reveals similarities. Both figuresthe lotus assume position for meditation. surrounded by animals. BothIn the modern are image, Shiva wears and sits on a tiger or leopard skin and is accompanied by his ion, animal the bull compan . The motif of the horned headdress in the soapstone seal seems replicated to in the modern tridentShiva’s be or the horns of Nandi. Although not so represented in the Mahayogi image, Shiva is described in later as having an erect despite Yet these phallus. comparisons, not all scholars are convinced of the argument. Some are not even persuaded that the Indus Valley is image intended to represent a human figure; they see it as a buffalo head attached tosome To it ais body. not human evident that the figure has three faces and an erection. Thesefeatures are latter not associated with Shiva in later iconography, Hindu ent conclusions when presented with the same 26 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures after thedissolution oftheIndus Civilization. after dha sat on the night of his awakening, centuries the pipal is the same tree under which the Bud- or the manifestation of a goddess. Interestingly, spirits for home a be to tree pipal the sidered be taken as a guide, may the Harappans have con- can practice Hindu subsequent If sacred. ers regarded the tree as auspicious and probably reasonable to conclude that Indus Valley dwell- of the role trees play in later Hindu history, it is figure 1.4, top row, third seal from left). In view (see tree the goddess,within a appears perhaps the act of venerating it. In another, a woman, or tree,images,the in surround apparently people found on a large number of Indus seals. In some cerned with procreation and purity.and procreation citizens with Its cerned con- deeply was culture Harappan available. currently evidence the by supported best seem Indus Valley, let us sum up the conclusions that be identifiedas “religious.” There was no separate domain of life that could distinguished. sharply not were profane, and holy the secular,or and sacred the that world: the of parts many in existence ancient of fact clearly recognizable temples underscores an important of absence the event, any present-day In for Hindus. is it as home, the in located was culture this in worship of place central the that be may found.It been has precinct sacred a as identified positively be can that worship of house or temple no yet, as And arrows. or spears,of swords,traces no found have ologists few real weapons have been discovered; archae- since culture, peaceful relatively a apparently was IndusValley find. The to failed have they have uncovered around theIndusRiver iswhat archaeologists what as important as Perhaps The AbsenceofEvidence To conclude our sketch of life in the ancient this civilization during its life span. itslife during this civilization ful in its efforts. Little seems to havechanged in success- quite was history, its society Indus the boundaries.throughout Andits respecting and powers its harnessing and honoring by world the maintain to and were they as things keep to function: conservative a served culture this here and now. Religious and beliefs practices in the in life renewing and sustaining of purposes the exclusively—for not chiefly—if been have to seem practices death.Ritual after individual even the for store in be might or what wonderedabout afterlife an about much thought ers dwell- Indus that indicate to ruins the in little is hereafter.There life a toward not and earth on here life present the toward oriented were practices and beliefs that indicates it culture, Indus of sketch accurate an is this that extent dwellers Indus placed a premium on order the and restraint. To suggest the cities organized practice,meditative rites,of well- and evidence Purification figures. divine and animals of ers pow- sexual the incorporate to ways on tered cen- have may images of practices production the Ritual and goddess. the of symbol the regarded as sacred and perhaps revered through were reproduction of powers Female fertility. enhance to magically used been have may and male of sexuality may have been the focus of veneration Representations bull. the foremost animals, perhaps male certain worshiped likely lization, modern scholars were faced with with great the of demise faced the explaining of task were the scholars modern lization, Civi Valley Indus the of discovery the After of theAryans Civilization andtheAdvent The DemiseoftheIndusValley - 27 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization when and may have b.c.e. Out of India theory. from the subcontinent to the changed course, leaving Today, however, most Today, scholars of ancient But there is another theory to explain the theoryhas India Out of the years, recent In India think the Aryans’ arrival in South Asia the- invasion The invasion. an shortof well was ory is now generally acknowledged as heavily - colonial Western of ideology the by influenced ism. Other evidence paints a different picture of the movement into We India. know, for example, that the Indus Civilization was already in serious decline by 1600 b.c.e., the Aryans supposedly subdued by military the means. Recent region satellite photogra- phy has shown that between 1900 and 1600 b.c.e. the region desiccated. Archaeology confirms that cities of the Indus Civilization were being abandoned during this period. Furthermore, there is no evidence, archaeological or other- to suggest a wise, The massive Aryan conquest. Aryans’ own extensive writings never mention wars or hostilities against peoples who can be positively identified as indigenous to India. In slowly Indo-Aryansmigrated the likelihood, all and relatively peacefully into the Indus region beginning around 1600 citizens remaining the with time a for coexisted culture. of the native relationship between the Indus dwellers and the According Aryans. to the this Aryansidea, were actually indigenous to India, not Central Asia, and migrated per- This world. the throughout locations other spective is known as the According to this hypothesis, Aryan was culture actually an outgrowth of the Indus Valley Civilization. An upshot of this theory is that the foundations of the Hindu traditions wholly the are product of Indian culture with no outside sources. influences from seek who communalists, Hindu by revived been ’ ’ - - - - ndian Aryans azi emblem. itler has not diminished dolf H , an ancient, Aryan symbol when bands of light-skinned (Photo courtesy of Creative Commons, Vivek Joshi.) swastika b.c.e., ndia. The swastika. The swastika is an ancient I

ts modern association with A its usage in I symbol, long antedating its appropriation as a N I Fig. 1.9 tion of the documented love of war and idea of such conquest. a military The invasion and conquest, informedin fact, Adolf Hitler’s creation of the myth of Aryan superiority and his appropria (figure 1.9). culture and its relationship Aryans, with a people the with whom Indo- the Hindu tra ditions had long been associated. The theory earlythetwentiethprominence in tocame that century suggested that the Indus Civilization declined near the middle of the second lenniummil nent from Central Asia and dark-skinned conqueredIndus dwellers. Many the members of Harappan society were killed off, and survivorsthe were subjugated and assimilated into the Indo-Aryan culture. This theory was not an unreasonable conclusion, given the Aryans ventured into the Indian Subconti 28 T he Hindu T r ad i t i ons Part I—India’s Early Cultures of Aryan culture and its impact on the devel the on impact its and culture Aryan of as much amatterofpoliticsashistory. the subject of great debate. The issue has become so-called the charged in the current political of climate India, highly are stake at issues the view. Because of point their support to evidence archaeological ofIndia Out positionliterature use and Aryan the absence of the of proponents The culture. form of migration, denigrates Hindu and Indian milder a by even or invasion by India,whether than other fromanyplace came Aryans the that ern scholars. Hindu nationalists believe the idea Westand - Indian some by politics,and Indian in traditions and interests Hindu promote to the theory the that theory the began Aryans moving rather adopts examination Hinduism.Our of opment swastika sacred andpollution purity ritual Pashupati Pakistan O mother goddess Mohenjo-daro Mahayogi I I Harappa A A ◆ ndo- ndus Valley Civilization ryans ryans question ryan In the next chapter, next the In study our begin we will ut ofI K EY A ryans ndia theory

TERM has now become now has question Aryan S - detail. greater in hypothesis that explore to now turn revise revise that position or it discard altogether. we that require may arguments scholarly and discoveries future theory that understanding migration the with Aryan the present I Thus, of study.whatthey the about larger significance study these data must always keep an open mind who those and interpretations, multiple to ject sub often is cultures ancient to relating data the civilization, Harappan the of consideration our in seen have we as But evidence. the available all of sense greatest the makes migration majority,arly the hypothesis of a relatively quiet schol this of opinion the In traditions. Hindu the of history the of scholars most by held tive 1600 around Asia Central from subcontinent the into peacefully how haveHarappans’ the andI 6. 5. 4. how didtheI 3. 2. 1. ◆ Q movements? political ofmodern theobjectives support A Civilization’s decline? What are thepossiblecauses oftheI venerated amothergoddess? What evidence suggests that theHarappans and female sexuality? H religious may practice bepresent inthelater oftheI Which aspects physical hygiene? andhow doesitdifferWhat purity isritual from UE ryans’ ambiguousorigins beenused to indu traditions? S TION S F S ndus Valley male dwellers depict OR

b.c.e. REVIEW ndus Valley Civilization’s hs s h perspec the is This ndo- ndus Valley 5 We - - - 29 Chapter 1—The Indus Valley Civilization xford xford O niversity University xford niversity Press, 2001. Press, University xford er Study h The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Questdwin. The for the Origins of Vedic The Chalice and the Blade: Our History, Blade: Our and the History, Chalice The iane. Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Indo-AryanDebate. The Migration Culture: O York: and New 1988. Harper, York: New Our Future. 1975. of Chicago Press, Chicago: University ed. O York: ew Civilization. N Valley 1998. Press, of the Earth. the Religion Mother: Rediscovering 1987. Harper, York: New For Furt The Great Cosmic Cosmic Great The Monica, Mor. and Barbara jöö, Bryant, E R Eisler, Roots The of Ancient India. 2nd A., Jr. Walter Fairservis, Mark. Jonathan Ancient Cities of the Indus Kenoyer, S ◆ LECTION F RE

ER H URT F OR S F TION S UE Why do you think sexuality—whether it is think sexuality—whether do you Why so important celebrated—is or being restrained practice? in religious functions religious and political, social, What do symbols serve? a symbol itself become Can powerful, apart it represents? the reality from of the swastika the origin Consider and the an emblem of the Nazi as meaning it attained Party. is it important about an ancient theorize Why to little evidence is too when there even culture, the are What conclusions? definite reach to dangers of such theories? Q ◆ 1. 2. 3.