Permafrost Investigations in Saskatchewan and Manitoba Brown, R

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Permafrost investigations in Saskatchewan and Manitoba Brown, R. J. E.

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NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

CANADA

DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH

PERMAFROST INVESTIGATIONS IN

SASKAT CHEWAN AND MANITOBA

R. J. E. Brown AI'JALYXI}

Technical Paper No. 193

of the

Division of Building Research

OTTAWA

September 1965 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

METHODS AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION 3

CLIMATE 5

GEOLOGY 7

TERRAIN 9

Relief 9 Drainage 9 Vegetation l0 SoiIs TZ

PERMAFROST t3

High Areas t4 Low Areas r5 Air Photo Patterns I8

DISCUSSION 18

CONCLUSION z4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS z5

REI"ERENCES z5

TAB LrS I and II

APPENDIX A PERMAT'ROST INVESTIGATIONS IN SASKATCHEWAN AND MANITOBA

R. J. E. Brown

Since I950 the Division of Building Research, National Research Council, has been studying the numerous construction problems caused by permafrost in northern Canada. A basic requirement in solving these problerns is knowledge of the distribution of perrnafrost and the location of its southern lirnit; inforrnation is being obtained continually from field investigations, the scientific and technical literature and reports frorn individuals and agencies working in perrnafrost areas.

Information regarding distribution and character of permafrost is particularly vital in the southern fringe area where construction is cornplicated by patchy distribution of perennially frozen ground and the proximity of its temperature to 32"F. The existence of permafrost in this area is greatly influenced by rnicroclirnate and local terrain conditions, which form cornplex interrelationships producing variable and unpredictable ground thermal conditions.

At present the southern fringe of the perrnafrost region is experiencing increasing economic developrnent with the establishment of new towns, comrrrunication lines, rnines and oil exploration. In the northern sections of the Prairie Provinces, particularly, new roads are being constructed northward through this area of the permafrost region, several hundreds of rniles south of the sixtieth parallel of latitude.

Because of the increasing developrnent and unusually difficult engineering problems encountered in the southern fringe of perrnafrost, the Division of Building Research initiated, in 1962, a long-term prograrn of field surveys along the various roads in the affected regions of the Province of Alberta and the Mackenzie District (Reference I). In 1963 these field surveys were extended to the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan; and will be followed in future years by sirnilar studies in the northern sections of other provinces into which the southern fringe of perrnafrost penetrates. z-

The provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan were chosen as the site of the 1963 investigations to complete the survey of the Prairie Provinces begun in Alberta the previous year. The permafrost boundary in Canada is most easily studied in the Prairie Provinces for several reasons:

(t) Access is facilitated by a network of recently constructed roads extending into the southern fringe of the perrnafrost region. There is no such similar network in either British Columbia or east of Manitoba. In Alberta, the Mackenzie Highway extends from Grirnshaw to Hay River through the southern fringe; and in Saskatchewan three roads have been eompleted within the past two years, to Li Loche in the west, to the Churchill River' at Otter Rapids in central Saskatchewan, and to Flin Flon,- Manitobd., in the east. These roads do not crosa the entire width of the southern fringe, but they penetrate well into it. In Manitoba there is a road to FIin Flon frorn The Pas and a branch road extending northeast to Thompson near the northern rnargin of the southern fringe. In conLrast, road developrnent in British Columbia is lirnited to the Alaska Highway and the Stewart-Cassiar Highway, not yet completed. There are no roads in the southern fringe in Ontario, Quebec or Labrador.

(Zl The absence of relief such as occurs in the Cordillera and Labrador-Ungava results in a less cornplicated distribution pattern and aids the investigation of perrnafrost in the Prairie Provinces. In British Columbia and the Cordillera region of southwestern Alberta, distribution is cornplicated by the extrerne variations in elevation. Permafrost occurs on mountain slopes and sumrnits, but not at the valley bottorns. Ontario does not present this cornplication, but land access is exceedingly difficult. In Quebec and Labrador the distribution of perrnafrost is cornplicated by the relief north of the Lau^rentide Scarp and in the Torngat Mountains.

East of the Cordillera in the Prairie Provinces, the only areas of significant elevation are several highlands in Alberta in the vicinity of the Mackenzie Highway - Buffalo Head, Naylor, Hawk and Clear Hills in the south, and the Caribou Mountains, Mount'Watt and the Carneron Hills further north. The highest of these are the Clear Hills rising 2,000 ft above the surrounding Peace and Hay River low- Iands and 3,600 ft above sea leve1. In Saskatchewan the Thunder Hills and Wapawekka Hills rise to slightly rnore thanZ,000 ft above sea level. Apart from these the relief is fairly subdued, varying frorn l,500 ft above sea level in Alberta to 500 ft in eastern Manitoba. 3-

(3) The econornic developrnent of the area has been increasing considerably during the past few years. In Alberta' the Mackenz\e Highway was rebuilt as the road network was extended north to Yellowknife and down the Mackenzie River. The Great Slave Lake Railway is now under construction to provide access to the base metal ore deposits at Pine Point southeast of Hay River. In the past few years, the Saskatchewan Governrnent has undertaken to connect its northern settlements to the south by road and to provide a northern route from Prince AIbert to Flin Flon. In Manitoba, the establish- rnent of the large International Nickel Cornpany plant at Thompson, Manitoba, has prornpted the construction of a road to that town. Coupled with these rnining developments is the increased interest of the three provincial governrnents in developing facilities for recrea- tional activities - carnping, fishing and hunting - in the northern hinter- Iand.

Contacts were established in Saskatchewan with the provincial Department of Highways and Transportation and the Departrnent of Natural Resources, and in Manitoba with the Highways Branch, Departrnent of Public Works. Considerable inforrnation was obtained from these agencies on permafrost conditions encountered during construction and maintenance of the roads.

These field investigations were carried out during September 1963 when the depth of tharv had reached its maximurn and seasonal frost of the forthcoming winter had not yet begr.rn to forrn. Investigations were carried out in Saskatchewan frorn Prince Albert northwest to La Locbe, north to La Ronge and the Churchill River, and northeast to Flin FIon. In Manitoba, investigations were carried out between Flin Flon and The Pas and east of Cranberry Lake and Wekusko (Figures I and 2).

METHODS AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATIONS

Prior to the actual field investigations, information on the clirnate and terrain was obtained frorn the technical literature. Aerial photographs and large-scale topographic rnaps of selected areas were exarnined in the office to identify the various types of terrain and the character of the relief, vegetation and surface drainage. From this prelirninary examination, potential perrnafrost Iocations were noted for subsequent field investigations.

In the field, detailed investigations were carried out to obtain inforrnation on the areal extent of bodies of perrnafrost, the -4-

depth to the permafrost table, and, where possible, the thickness of the perrnafrost. Supplementary information included the type of vegetation, the thickness of the living surface vegetation cover, the thickness of peat, the type of underlying mineral soil and the character of the ground ice.

The rnain objective was to delineate, approxirnately, the areas of perrnafrost and relate their distribution to the various environ- mental features such as relief, drainage, vegetation and soil t1pe. With this information it is possible to predict in a qualitative manner where permafrost might be expected in other areas.

Field equiprnent consisted of portable, rnanually operated equiprnent. A 6-ft aluminiurn Hoffer probe and I|-inch diarneter screw-type soil auger with 3-ft extensions were used to determine the depth to permafrost and soil profiles in areas where perrnafrost did not exist. In frozen ground consisting either of peat or fine- grained mineral soils, it was usually possible to chop holes and obtain sarnples to a depth of 6 ft with the Hoffer probe. Holes were advanced to depths of l5 to ZO ft by chopping with an ice chisel attached to J-in. pipe and cleaning out the frozen chips of soil with a 4-in" diameter posthole auger. Frozen clay soils could usually be penetrated with the screw-type auger because of their considerable unfrozen water content and plastic nature even a few degrees below 32"8. Frozen silty and sandy soils could be penetrated for a few feet without difficulty, but frozen stony and gravelly soils resisted the rnanual equipment.

The observations are listed in Table I, beginning with the roads in the west {Canoe Lake, Buffalo Narrows, La Loche) and progressing eastward to the Thornpson Road in Manitoba. The location of each observation point is designated in Table I by the number of rniles frorn the beginning of the road. Typical types of terrain are illustrated in Figures 3 to 17 inclusive"

The following exarnple is presented to illustrate the use of the symbols in Table I to describe the terrain and perrnafrost conditions (Figure ll)" Location No. 34 (Colurnn 1) is located 3 rniles north of Waskesiu (Colurnn Z) on the Waskesiu Road in Saskatchewan. It consists of high ground (Colurnn 3-H) in the background and a depression (Colurnn 3-L) in the foreground. Jack pine grow on the high ground (Colurnn 4-J); the depression is treeless (Colurnn 4 - None) except for several spruce islands where there are spruce up to 30 ft high and sorne tarnarack (Colurnn 4-S(30)T). The ground vegetation on the high ground consists of hurnrnocky Sphagnum and other rrlosses (Colurnn 5 - HSphM); the treeless portion of the depression is covered with sedge and the water table is at the ground surface (Colurnn 5 - Se(w)); on the 5-

spruce islands it consists of humrnocky Sphagnurn with lichen and Labrador tea (Colurnn 5 - HSphLnLt). There is no peat in the high area and its depth was not rneasured in the treeless portion of the depression because the ground was too wet. In the spruce islands the peat exceeded 6 ftinthickness (Colurnn 6 - > 6f.t - 0 in.). The rnineral soil consists of a rrrixture of clay and silt in the high area (Column 7 - CSi). The composition of the rnineral soil was not ascertained in the depression because the peat was too thick to be penetrated. There is no permafrost in the high area or the treeless portion of the depression (Colurnn B - No). On the spruce islands the depth to perrnafrost is Z ft - 6 in. in the Sphagnurn hurnrnocks (Colurnn 9 - Z ft - 6 in. (hurnrnock")), I ft - 6 in. in lichen-covered rnicro-depressions between humrnocks (Colurnn9 - I ft - 6 in. (Irn between H)), and there is no permafrost beneath the Sphagnurn-covered micro-depressions between hurnmocks (Colurnn9 - between H). The perrnafrost beneath the humrnocks is Z ft - 0 in. thick (Column l0 - Z ft - 0 in. ). The thickress of permafrost beneath the lichen-covered rnicro-depres sions was not ascertained.

CLIMATE

The study area, central Saskatchewan and west central Manitoba, is located in an interior continental position in North America. Its eastern extrernity is only 300 rniles west of Hudson Bay, but the prevailing west to east circulation of air masses and disturbances means that this large body of water has little influence on the weather patterns of the area. Its cooling influence on the climate is rnanifested, however, by the southward trend of isotherrns frorn west to east. The clirnate is essentially continental in character with long cold winters, because of the high frequency of polar continental air, and short generally warrn surnmers, frorn warrn continental air. The weather pattern during the surnrner is characterized by frequent cool periods in the rear of eastward rnoving cyclones. Because of the lack of rnajor relief forms between Hudson Bay and the Cordillera, the factors affecting the clirnate of the area prevail throughout the Prairie Provinces with variations caused primarily by latitude (Reference Zl.

Air ternperature observations are available for a nurnber of stations within and adjacent to the area under consideration (Reference 3). Their locations are shown on Figure IB and rnonthly and annual averages of daily rrrean ternperatures are given in Table Z. The rnean annual isotherm for 30"F is also shown on Figure lB (Reference 4). 6-

McMurray, Alberta, Iies outside the study area B0 rniles west of La Loche, Sask.; it is included because it is the closest station to the west portion of the area. It is the rnost northerly of the eight stations under consideration, although its rnean annual air temperature (30.5"F) is higher than those at Island Falls, Sask., (28.4"F) and Wabowden, Man., (27.6"F) to the southeast. The mean annual air temperature at Flin FIon, Man., (3l.Z"F(968 ft asl)) is slightly higher than that at The Pas, Man., (31.0"F.(890 ft asI)), although it is 75 miles further north. FIin Flonrs slightly higher elevation rnay be a factor. Another feature is that the rnean annual air temperature at Wabowden, Man. ,(27.6"I-) is lower than that at Island Falls (ZB.4"F), although the forrner station is further south. It is also nearer Hudson Bay, which has a cooling influence. Except for Prince Albert, Sask., rnost of the stations lie near the 30"F isotherrn. A graph of the averages of the rnean monthly air temperatures for the eight stations is shown in Figure 19.

Freezing and thawing indices provide an indication of the amount of heat withdrawn from and added to the ground. On Figure lB it can be seen t}:'at freezing indices vary from about 3500 degree days in the vicinity of Prince Albert to about 4500 at La Loche and The Pas. The thawing index throughout the study area is about 3500 degree days"

Precipitation observations are available for the eight stations" The maximum occurs in the sulnrner rnonths, being rnostly frontal but partly convectional inorigin.Total precipitation values are slightly higher in the east towards Hudson Bay; the highest individual total is I9 " 56 in. at Island Falls. The sarne general pattern applies to the rnean annual rainfall, the highest total of I3.37 in. being at Wabowden. The snowfall pattern does not have the sarne trend, but varies at randorn frorn one location to another. The highest totals are at Island Falls with 67.9 in. and La Ronge with 5?. I in. The highest rnonthly totals of snowfall at all stations occur in the late fall during Novernber and Decernber.

An interesting feature of the snowfall regirne is the srnaller total fall in February than in January and March. July is the only snow-free rnonth at all stations, and only McMurray has a trace of it in August. Rain has been recorded in all rnonths of the year at McMurray and Prince AIbert, but is absent at the other stations in Decernber and January except for a trace at Island Falls and The Pas. Data on the average depth of snow on the ground each rnonth are available only for the east half of the study area represented by Island Falls, The Pas and Wabowden. Monthly precipitation totals are presented in Table II. A graph of the averages of rnean rnonthly total precipitation for the eight stations is shown in Figure I9. 7-

In sumrnary, it is evident that air ternperature and precipitation values for the eight stations are fairly sirnilar, arqr dif - ferences resulting prirnarily from latitudinal variations relative to their proxirnity to Hudson Bay. A cornposite hythergraph based on the averages of mean rnonthly ternperatures and mean rnonthly total precipitations for the eight stations is shown in Figure 2Q. The continental character of the climate is borne out by the large difference between summer and winter air ternperatures, coupled with the occurrence of rnost of the precipitation during the surnmer.

GEO LOGY

The chief geological feature is the boundary of the Precarnbrian Shield, which extends diagonally across the study area from northwest to southeast. North of the boundary lies the ShieId with its typical terrain of rock knobs and ridges, peat-filled depressions, and innurnerable lakes. To the south, the bedrock is of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic age with rolling relief, few rock outcrops and scattered lakes (Figure 2l) (Reference 5).

The rocks of the Precambrian Shield are mainly acidic, consisting of granodiorite, granite, quartz diorite and granite gneisses, including rnuch granitized sedirnentary and volcanic rock. Within this geological province there are srnall subdivisions of Archaean rocks falling into three categories: (i) rnainly sedimentary and derived metamorphic rocks including argillite, slate, arkose, quartzite, greywacke, conglornerate, sedirnentary gneiss and schist, and iron formations; (zl mainly volcanic and derived rnetamorphic rocks including andesite, dacite, basalt, rhyolite, trachyte, rninor volcanic breccia and tuff, greenstone schist and hornblende gneiss; (3) un- divided sedimentary, volcanic and rnetam,orphic rocks.

South of the Precarnbrian Shield the rocks becorne progressively younger, varying frorn Ordovician to Upper Cretaceous. An east-west band about 40 rniles wide of ordovician lirnestone, dolornite, sha1e, argillite, sandstone and quartzite extend.s frorn Descharnbault Lake east to wekusko. South of this area, in the southeast corner of the study area, is a band of Silurian rocks that are rnainly sedirnentary, consisting of sandstone, shale, lirnestone, dolornite, conglomerate and. solne volcanic rocks. Frorn La Ronge northwest to La Loche, a Zo- to 40-rnile band of Devonian rocks lies adjacent to the Precambrian Shield. These rocks consist of sedirnentary and volcanic rocks of shale, limestone, dolornite, conglornerate and sandstone. .8-

The remaining rocks in the study area south of the Palaeozoic are Mesozoic. A band of Lower Cretaceous about 20 to 60 rniles wide extends in a northwest-southeast direction from La Loche, Sask., consisting mainty of sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale and conglomerate. The remainder of the area east and west of Montreal Lake and south to Prince Al.bert is Upper Cretaceous.

South of the Precarnbrian Shield the relief is subdued except locally in the Upper Cretaceous area. Preglacial erosion of soft bedrock shales has produced highlands of lirnited extent including the Thunder Hills west of Montreal Lake, and the Wapawekka Hills south- west of Descharnbault Lake, both rising to about 2,200 feet. Apart frorn these highlands, the relief south of ghe Shield is due to the variety of glacially deposited materials that cover the bedrock to varying depths.

During the Pleistocene, the Precarnbrian Shield was intensively glaciated by ice rnoving frorn the northeast; the resulting relief is irregular, with rocky parallel ridges separating poorly defined depressions and innurnerable narrow lakes. Drift deposits on the uplands are thin in some places and absent in others where rock barrens of Precarnbrian granites and gneisses are exposed (Figure ZZ)(Ref-erences 6 and 7).

The section corresponding approximately with that underlain by Devonian rocks was occupied by Lake Hyper-Churchill at an early stage in the retreat of the ice; hence the flat or undulating surface. The sandy nature of the J.acustrine and till deposits has possibly been inherited, in part at least, from a thin basal sandstone on the Precarnbrian basement at the,north side of the section, even though the rnain bedrock is dolornite or lirnestone. South to Prince Albert and to the southeast the ice rnodified the landscape by depositing rolling Inoraine on the uplands, such as the 'W-apawekka Thunder and Hills, and srnoother lacustrine deposits on the lowlands.

The east section of the study areawas subrnerged under glacial Lake Agassiz andthe consequent deposition of lacustrine clays and sands has had the effect of levelling what was forrnerly an irregular and rolling Precarnbrian surface (Figure ZZ )(Reference 8). The lacustrine deposits are shallow on the rocky uplands and deeper in the valleys extending back along the latter considerable distances frorn the present day lakes. 'West of The Pas and Cranberry Portage there are conspicuous ridges of sand and gravel that rnark beaches forrned at successive levels as the post-glaciai lake drained. The character of the old lake bottorn is a succession of low narrow, paralleI rises with swarnpy depressions between. -9-

TERRAIN

ReIief

The relief of the area under study is gently undulating to hilly, The southern boundary of the Precarnbrian Shield, which extends across the area frorn northwest to southeast, rnarks the change between the southern and northern portions. South of the Shield the relief is mainly the result of preglacial erosion of the soft bedrock. Subsequent glaciation modified the landscape so that the present relief is characterized by rolling morainic and glacio-fluvial deposits. The highest elevations are found on the Thunder Hills, which rise to ZZ30 f.t northwest of Montreal Lake and the Wapawekka FIilIs, rising to rnore than 2000 ft south of Lac La Ronge. North of the Shield the relief is the typical rock knob and depression t1rye characteristic of the Precarnbrian, the maxirnurrr variations in elevation being in the order of several hundred feet. Apart frorn the highlands mentioned above, elevations throughout the study area vary frorn slightly over 2000 ft in the west to slightly under 900 ft in the southeast at The Pas on the Saskatchewan River lowland (Figure Z3)(Reference 5). On the ground, however, this steady drop in elevation from west to east is not perceptibte.

Along the various roads in the study area the relief is interrupted by numerous lakes and the Churchill and Saskatchewan Rivers dnd their tributaries. Local relief consists of alternating elevated areas and depressiorrs (hereafter referred to as t'high areasrl rrlow and areasrt respectively) ; differences in elevation vary frorn only a few feet to about ZO ft and rnore. These high and low areas vary in e*tent frorn a few hundred yards to several rniles. Occasional low areas of a few hundred yards occur within high areas and vice versa.

The ground burface of the elevated ar eas is srnooth and virtually devoid of the rnicro-relief features that are corntnon in the depressions; these consist of hurnrnocks and peat plateaux rising to 3 or 4 ft above the surrounding surface.

Drainage

Regional drainage is provided by the eastward-flowing Saskatchewan and Churchill Rivers and their tributaries. The Saskatchewan River flows through a fairly flat to gently undulating lowland underlain by Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedirnents. The Churchill River, which i's actually a series of lakes and connecting strearns, flows though the hilliet Precarnbrian Shield. -10 -

Local drainage varies considerably from good to excessive on the high areas to poor in the depressions. As a result, bog conditions are widespread both south of the Precarnbrian Shield and within it, although slightly elevated areas such as peat plateaux are well drained. The greatest extent of bogs occurs east of Wekusko, Manitoba, where such conditions exist for about 40 miles.

Vegetation

The study area lies entirely within the taiga or boreal forest region, which extends east-west across Canada in a band several hundred miles wide. This vegetation zone has been described by several authors, but generally all of thern attribute sirnilar characteristics to it. J. S. Rowe (Reference 9) provides a description of the five forest sections through which the various roads extend (Figure 24).

The southeastern section is terrned the Manitoba Lowlands Section. The prevailing vegetation on the flat, poorly drained land consists of patches of black spruce (Picea rnariana) and tamarack (Larix laricina), with intervening swarnps and rneadows. Good stands of white spruce (Picea glauca), aspen (Populus trernuloides), and balsam poplar (P. balsarnifera), sornetimes in rnixture with balsarn fir (Abies balsamea) and white birch (Betula papyrifera) occur on the better-drained alluvial strips bordering rivers and creeks. Low ridges throughout are generally forested with jack pine (Pinus banksiana) or asPen.

The south central and western portions of the study area lie in the Mixedwood Section. Tree growth on the well-drained uplands consists of a rnixture, in varying proportions, of aspen and balsarn poplar, white birch, white spruce and balsarn fir, the last two species especially prominent in old stands. The cover type of greatest areal extent is the aspen, a result of the ability of this species to regenerate readily following disturbance. In addition to its'usual dorninance on sandy areas, jack pine enters into the forest cornposition on the drier till soils and rnixes with black spruce on the plateau-like tops of the higher hills. Lower positions and the upper water catchrnent areas develop black spruce and tarnarack on shallow peat.

The Upper Churchill Section lies irnmediately north of the Mixedwood Section. Extensive stands of jack pine occupy the sand plains and low ridges, and intervening poorly-drained areas are forested with black spruce and tamarack. White spruce and aspen are of less importance here than on the upland tills of the Mixedwood Section, although both species, as well as balsarn poplar, are well represented - lt -

where drainage conditions are favourable. Balsarrr fir and white birch are present but not abundant. Large areas of swarnp and bog are cornmon.

The Nelson River Section includes the northeast portion of the study area east of Snow Lake, Manitoba, and north of the Hudson Bay Railroad. Stands of black spruce constitute a large part of the forest cover, but proximity to the nurrlerous and extensive swamps that lie back frorn the rivers is reflected in a restriction of growth. Where drainage is better, along the sides of rivers, on islands or on low ridges, good stands of white spruce with sorne balsarn poplar, white birch, aspen and balsarn fir are customary. Extensive and repeated fires, however, have fragrnented all the forest cover, and Iarge areas support srnall-growth aspen, white birch, and scattered white and black spruce, or jack pine and aspen or grassy scrub on rocky barrens. Tarnarack is present with black spruce in the swarnps.

The northern portion of the study area, Iying on the Precarnbrain Shield, is included in the Northern Coniferous Section. The predorninant tree is black spruce, which forrns stands on the thin soils of the rock knob uplands and on the poorly-drained lowland depressions; it is associated on both'positions with jack pine and tarnarack, respectively. Frequent fires have favoured the spread of jack pine and are probably responsible also for the general although scattered representation of white birch over the rnajority of sites. In river valleys, around some of the lakes, and on south-facing slopes where rnore favourable conditions of soil and local climate occur, white spruce, balsarn fir, aspen and balsarn poplar forrn rnixed stands of good growth.

The low areas are characterized by bog vegetation - open bogs with scattered stunted black spruce growing on deep accumulations of Sphagnurn and sedge bogs. The best black spruce growth occurs where the organic accurnulation is relatively thin and drainage is improved; this is a characteristic of both sedge and Sphagnrun bogs. The tallest black spruce grow to about 30 ft. Tarnarack is cornrnon, either rnixed with black spruce or, Iess frequently, in pure stands. Scattered jack pine growing to Z0 ft are encountered in drier bogs. The ground cover consists predorninantly of Sphagnurn, with patches of feather and club mosses, Iichen and Labrador tea. There are also extensive wet sedge rneadows.

The high areas with rnoderate to good drainage support a rnixed cover of trernbling aspen,white spruce and jack pine, with undergrowth of willow and a1der. The tallest trees grow to 80 and I00 ft in -tz-

dense stands averaging about 5 ft between trees. Areas with more level relief, poorer drainage and finer textured soils have wlrite spruce as the rnajor cover, with occasional aspen. Improved drainage, coarser grained soils and rnore irregular relief results in an increase in aspen and a decrease in white spruce, ultirnately giving rise to relatively pure aspen stands with occasional white birch on the crests of high areas in soils of sand-clay-loarn textures. Mixed aspen-jack pine forest growth is cornmon in regions of well-sorted sands. The ground vegetation consists of various berry plants, grasses, Labrador tea, discontinuous cover of feather and club mosses, and sorne lichen.

Scattered burned over areas occur in the study area. Following a fire it appears that aspen is the rnain species to regenerate on rnediurn to fine-grained soils, and jack pine the rnain post-fire species on sandy are as "

Soils

Throughout the study area the soils vary frorn coarse-grained sands and gravels to fine-grained silts and clays. Their character is strongly influenced by their nature of origin, the coarse-grained soils being associated with till, moraine and shoreline deposits, the fine- grained soils with lacustrine deposits. Following deposition of these rnaterials, profile development has occurred producing pedological variations.

Rowe (Reference 9) has described the pedological characteristics of the soils in each of his forest sections. In the southeast section of the study area - Manitoba Lowlands Section - the influence of the lirnestone parent material can be seen in the overlying lacustrine clays deposited in Lake Agassiz, rnodified tills, and sand and gravel shorelines; the soil profiLes tend towards rendzinas and high-lirne rneadow and peat profiles. In areas long under forest, shallow grey wooded profiles have developed on this highly calcareous substraturn.

To the northeast, the Nelson River Section has developed on lacustrine clays and sands deposited in glacial Lake Agassiz. Podzolic profiles norrnally develop on well-drained areas; podzolic gleysols are typical of poorly drained slopes; and rnoss and peat characterize the lowlying spruce-tamarack covered peat bogs.

The south central and western portions of the study area - Mixedwood Section - is covered with rnorainic deposits on the uplands and glacio-lacustrine deposits in the lowlands. The characteristic soil profile development tends to grey wooded rather than podzol. Immediately north of the Mixedwood Section lies the Upper Churchill Section on sandy lacustrine and till deposits. The soil profiles under pine forest on the sandy tills and lacustrine plains are strongly leached, the whiteness of the eluviated horizon showing up strikingly wherever the surface hurnus is rernoved, as along bush trails. On heavier materials, for exarnple on sorrre of the rnodified tills or banded lacustrine deposits, grey wooded profiles have developed in association with white spruce and poplar forests,

On the Precarnbrian Shield the soils consist predorninantly of till with scattered patches of glaciofluvial material. The deeper drift of slopes and valleys shows podzol profile developrnent, while the less well-drained areas are peat filled,

PERMAFROST

Central Saskatchewan and west central Manitoba, which corn- prise the area under study, are located in the southern fringe of the discontiuror-rs permafrost zone. Perrnafrost occurs in scattered patches varying in extent frorn less than 50 ft to several acres. The thickness of these patches varies from I to 2 ft at the southern lirnit of the perrnafrost region to rnore than 20 ft in the vi.cinity of Snow Lake, Manitoba.

The rnost southerly occurrences of perrnafrost examined by the author in Saskatchewan and western Manitoba are Iisted in order and describeci in Table I. In the northwest portion of the study area on the Buffalo Narrows Road and La l-oche Road in Saskatchewan only two occurrences of permafrost were encountered, one about 1I rniles north of Ile-b-ta Crosse (approx. 55" 35'N) where the permafrost is Iess than 100 ft in extent and about, 3 f.t thick (Location No.26, Table I), the other about I rnile south of La Loche (approx, 56" 30tN) where the permafrost occurs in very small patches less than 50 ft in extent and about Z f.t thick (Location No.24, Table I, Figure 7). In central Saskatchewan, the rnost southerly occurrence of permafrost was encountered east of Waskesiu Lake, about 50 miles north of Prince Albert (approx. 54'N), where the perrnafrost is restricted to srnall spruce islands 100 ft or less in extent and was about 2 ft thick (Location No,34, Table I, Figure 11):, Ln eastern Saskatchewan, the rnost southerly occurrence on the tr{anson Lake Road was encountered at MiIe 57 north of Srneaton (approx. 54" Z0'N) where the patches of perrnafrost are of limited extent and about Z ft thick (Location No.7B, Table I). In western Manitoba the most southertry occurrence on The Pas-Flin FIon Road was encountered about 30 miles north of The Pas (approx. 54" I0'N). Thus, it appears that the southern l.irnit of permafrost in this section of Canada tends in a northwest-southeast direction corresponding to the pattern of mean annuatr air isotherms, t4-

There is no report of permafrost on the Thunder and Wapawekka HiIIs, the only highlands in the study area. They rise to about 22O0 f.eet and are located just south of the 30"F mean annual air isotherrn. In Alberta patches of perrnafrost h;.ve been encountered in the Birch Mountains, which rise to nearly 2800 t and straddle the 30"F rnean annual air isotherm. It is irnprobable, although not irnpossible, 'Wapawekka that perrnafrost exists in the Thunder HiIIs and Hills.

Along the roads in the study area all occurrences of perrrafroet were encountered in bogs. None was found in the relatively elevated stretches (high areas), which support tree growth consisting prirnarily of dense poplar and jack pine, with taII spnrce and some birch.

In the peat bogs occupying the depressions (Iow areas), the vegetation consists prirnarily of two associations:

(l) Little or no tree growth, rnarsh sedge I to ? ft high and thin rnoss, predorninantly of the feather and other non-Sphagnum types, scattered patches of Sphagnurn. These areas are aknost always very wet.

(21 Scattered, stunted black spruce and tarnarack, thick, often very hurnrnocky Sphagnurn, scattered occasional pat'ches of lichen, Labrador tea. Some of these areas are wet and some are fairly dry.

In the Precarnbrian Shield, most of the peat bogs are only a few hundred yards in extent, being closely confined by rock knobs. These bogs support vegetation described in association No. (2). A few bogs, which were rnore extensive, suPport vegetation described in association No. (I).

In Northern Alberta occurrences of perrnafrost were encountered on north-facing slopes of east-west oriented stream valleys intersecting the Mackenzie Higtrway. No such perrnafrost was encountered in Saskatchewan or Manitoba.

High Areas

Along the roads in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, ?7 high areas were investigated for permafrost. Of these, nine were cornpared with adjacent low areas (Locations No.2, 29, 34, 8I, 98, 105, l6I, I78; l9I in Table I; Figure 11). The other 14 were exarnined without '-l reference to low areas (Locations No. 1, I3, 15, I9; ?8, 3I, 7?, 3, 85, 89, L54, L57, 184, 195 in Table I; Figures 3 and 4). These areas . l5 -

covered the range of terrain conditions encountered in the high areas along the investigated portion of the highway, varying in Iength from several hundred yards to several rniles. Elevations above the low areas ranged between a maxirnum of about 20 tt, with a considerable slope to the adjacent low'areas, and less than I ft, with an almost imperceptible slope.

The tree species include jack pine, spruce, balsarn, poplar and scattered birch varying in height from 40 to B0 ft. The stands are usually dense, trees averaging 2 to 5 ft apart. Undergrowth of willow and alder grows to a rnaximurn height of about l0 ft. In rare cases one or two tarnarack were observed. Generally, the gror:nd cover consists of forest litter with patches of feather moss, Sphagnum and Iichen. Soils range frorn sand to clay with stones and organic matter. The soils are frequently wet, the water table rising to within a few feet of the ground surface.

Numerous high areas, including those rnentioned here, served as gravel and borrow pits during construction of the roads in the study area. No perrnafrost was encountered in subsurface investigations or in pits used for highway construction.

Low Areas

During the study in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, 183 low areas covering the range of terrain conditions along the various roads were investigated for permafrost. They vary in extent from a few hundred feet to several rniles. As mentioned previously, several distinct associations of vegetation with related drainage occur.

Generally, the tree growth consists of stunted, scattered spruce varying in height from 2 to 20 ft, with occasional tamarack, willow, alder and dwarf birch. The ground surface vegetation is a rnosaic of Sphagnurn, feather and other rnosses, Labrador tea and marsh sedge in various combinations. The micro-relief varies frorn flat to very hummocky. Individual hurnrnocks vary to a maxirnurn height of 3 ft and diarneter of 4 ft. Variations in elevation frorn one association to another range through several feet. Peat platearuc rising 2 to 3 ft above the surrounding, poorly drained areas are prevalent. Surface and subsurface drainage is variable. Standing water is usually associated with marsh sedge areas and rnany of the lowest lying Sphagnum areas. The peat plateaux and individual hurnrnocks are drier. Depth to the mineral soil (rnoss/lichen and peat) in 181 low sites varied within wide limits from 6 in. to L3 ft, withan over-all average of 3 ft 9 in. At slightly rnore than half the sites the depth to the rnineral soil varied ,16-

fron: 2 to 3 f.t. At 3t sites it exceeded 5 ft. The thickest known peat in the'study area is ?Z ft on The Pas-Flin Flon Road .

As in the high areas the mineral soil ranges frorn sand to clay with scattered stones and organic rnatter. Gravel was encountered at only one location (Location No. 132, Table I) on The Pas-Flin FIon Road, 4l.l rniles north of The Pas. Sand is generally the predogninant material in the west part of the study area on the Canoe Lake, Buffalo Narrows, La Loche, and Dor6 Lake Roads. In central Saskatchewan on the La Ronge and Otter Rapids Roads the soils are a mixture of coarse and fine-grained rnaterials. Sandy soils predominate on the Hanson Lake Road to Flin Flon. In Manitoba fine-grained soils predorninate. Within these few broad divisions srna1l isolated areas of different types of soil were encountered.

Permafrost was encountered in 77 of. the 183 low sites exarnined. Sphagnurn cornprises the cover at all the perrnafrost sites and at all but five of the other low sites. Lichens (Cladonia sp. and Cetraria sp.) grow at l3l of the low sites, were absent at 20, and were not noted at the remaining 46 sites. Of the 13I low sites where lichenwas found, perrnafrost was encountered in 7l and not in the remaining 60. In the 20 low sites where no lichen was growing four had perrnafrost and 16 did not. In the rernaining 46 low sites permafrost was encountered in l3 and not in the remaining 33.

In all but three perrnafrost sites the perrnafrost table occurred above the rnineral soil in the peat. The average depth to perrnafrost of.77 deterrninations was Z ft Z irr., the rninimurn depth to the perrnafrost table encorrntered throughout the investigations, I ft 6 in., at five Iocations. Maxirnum depths encountered were 4 f.t 9 in. and 5 ft 6 in. The depth of the permafrost table at 70 of the sites was encountered between the 1 ft 9 in. and ? ft 6 in. depth.

Perrnafrost thickness was deterrnined at 57 of. ttre 77 permafrost sites. The thinnest perrnafrost encountered was 3 in. at MiIe 73 on the llanson Lake Road. The thickness of the perrnafrost increased gradually northward. At Mile 2.2 on the Thornpson Road it was Il ft thick at Location No. 197 (Table I). The thickest perrnafrost encountered was found in the northeast portion of the study area at Mile 11 on the Osborne Lake Road (Location No.86) where it exceeded a thickness of IB ft 3 in. The position of the permafrost layer relative to the vertical position of the peat was examined in 7? of. the perrnafrost sites. At 38 of thern permafrost was confined to the peat layer; at another five the bottom of the permafrost layer coincided with the peat-rnineral soil interface. Perrnafrost extended into the rnineral soil at the rernaining 29 sites. .t7-

The relationship of perrnafrost occurrence to tree species was also noted. Jack pine was encountered in 36 of the low sites. Permafrost occurred in 12 of. these but not in the rernaining 24. Tarnarack was encountered in 53 of the low sites with permafrost in 19 and not in the rernaining 34.

lce was encountered in rrlany of the holes advanced into perrnafrost. Much of it occurred in layers, the thickest about i itt. In the varved clays in the northeast portion of the study area it was found also in the forrn of srnall pellets and other randorn inclusions.

Pronounced rnicrorelief in the forrn of peat plateaux, ridges and rnounds rising to heights of 3 to 4 ft above the surrounding peat bog surface was encormtered at 19 of the low sites. It was usually indicative of permafrost and was encounteted at l5 of the l9 sites. A peat rnound, which appeared to be a palsal was encountered in a peat bog at Mile 2.? on the Snow Lake Road (Figure I2). Its horizgntal dirnensions were about 75 f.t (north-south) by I50 ft (east-west), although the west end had been rernoved during construction of the road. The flat top of the palsa was about B ft above the surrorrnding peat bog surface, and was covered with dense spruce up to 30 ft high and 2 to 5 ft apart. Trees on the slopes, particularly those adjacent to the exposed section, were leaning because of thawing of the perrnafrost. The ground cover consisted of hurnmocky Sphagnum, lichens and Labrador tea with scattered feather rnoss. The peat exceeded I? f.t in thickness. Depth to permafrost which extended below the B-ft depth, varied frorn I ft 5 in. to 2 ft 6 in. The surrounding peat bog was wet, supporting a spruce-tarnarack growth. Perrnafrost was patchy, occurring in srnall, slightly drier hurnmocky areas, but not in low wet spots.

Subsurface investigations in permafrost were carried out at numerous locations including the following:

Location No.96 (Hanson Lake Road - MiIe 129.3)

Soil Profile: 0 to 3 ft 0 in. peat 3ft0in. to5ft 5 in. - silty clay with stones to I/8 in. diameter below 5ft5in. - alternating layers of sand and clay ?f.t3in.to5ft 5 in. - perrnafrost

A low hill or knoll of perennially f,rozen peat about I0 ft or less in height occurring in peatlands or peat bogs. - IB -

l,ocation No. 105 (Hanson Lake Road - MiIe 185)

Soil Profile: 0 to 2 ft 6 in. - peat 2 ft 6 in. to 4 ft 0 in. - sand below4ft0in. -silt 2 ft 6 in. to 4 f.t 0 in. - permafrost

Location No. l9? (Thornpson Road - Mile 2.2) Soil Profile: 0 to 4 ft 0 in. - peat 4ft0in. to 6 ft 0 in. - silt clay 6ft0in. to 13 ft 0 in. brown varved clay (light varves - t/B in. thick, dark varves - l/Z in. thick) 2 ft 0 in. ro 13 ft o in. perrnafrost

Air Photo Patterns

Vertical air photo coverage is available for the entire extent of the study area. The photographs were taken, however, before the roads that were used for the perrnafrost reconnaissance were constructed. As a result it was difficult to locate on the air photos the exact position of the sites that were investigatedo Typical photographs both in the Precambrian Shield and south of the Shield were exarnined in Ottawa prior to the field studies. The patterns characteristic of the high and low areas were found to be similar to those encountered in the investigations carried out in northern Alberta the previous year (Reference l). Thus, the areas rnost probably containing permafrost - i.e. the low sites - can be delineated on the air photos and field investigations to verify its existence or absence concentrated in these locations.

DISCUSSION

The chief problem arising frorn perrnafrost investigations along the roads extending north frorn Prince AIbert, Sask. , and The Pas, Man. , is the prediction of perrnafrost conditions frorn existing clirnatic and terrain features. An accornpanying problem is the assess- ment of the relative influence of climate and terrain on the formation and rnaintenance of a perrnafrost condition (perennially below 32'F.).

The patchy distribution and thinness of perrnafrost in the study area is characteristic of the extrerne southern fringe area of the discontinuous zone, where perrnafrost exists in a delicate thermal state close to 32"F. Observations in Canada and other countries indicate the existence of a broad relation between rnean annual air and ground temperatures in perrnafrost. Many investigators have estirnated the mean . 19 -

annual air ternperature required to produce and rnaintain a perennially frozert condition in the ground, but there is rnuch disagreement on this rnatter. In Canada the southern lirnit of perrnafrost, as known at present, Iies generally between the 25 and 30"F rnean annual isotherrns. The difference between rnean annual air and rnean annual ground temperatures, and variations in this difference frorn one location to another, are caused by clirnatic factors other than air temperature, in cornbination with surface and subsurface terrain factors. The cornplex energy exchange regirne at the ground surface, which is influenced by these factors, is such that the mean annual ground ternperature is several degrees warrner than the rnean annual air temperature (References 10 and 1I).

The rnean annual air ternperature in the study atea varies from 33.4" F at Prince Albert to 27.6"F at Wabowden (Figure I9). Although the exact positions of the rrlean annual air isotherrns irnrnediately to the north and south of the 30"F isotherrn are not available frorn the Clirnato- logical Atlas (Reference 4), the study area appears to lie approxirnately 'W'abowden, between t]r,e29 oF and 32"F isotherms. (Island FaIIs, Sask., and Man., having rnean annual air ternperatures of ZB.4 and 27.6"F, respectively, actually lie slightly outside the study area. ) This places it clirnatically south of the area investigated in northern Alberta (Reference I), between the 25 and 30"F isotherrns. Thus, conditions encountered in the Saskatchewan Manitoba investigations rnore probably correspond to those enceuntered in northern Alberta between High Level and Peace River. Although no investigations were carried out in this area, the terrain is sufficiently sirnilar to that observed in the Saskatchewan - Manitoba study area to suggest that perrnafrost conditions are sirnilar.

An exarnination of the freezing and thawing indices bears out the sirnilarity of the air ternperature patterns between the study areaand the area in northern Alberta between High Level and Peace River. In Saskatchewan and Manitoba the 4,5O0 degree days freezing index extends in a northwest-southeast direction frorn La Loche, Sask., along the Churchill River, north of. La Ronge, to Flin FIon and Cran- berry Portage in Manitoba; in northern Alberta it intersects the Mackenzie Highway just north of High Level. In Saskatchewan the 3, 500 degree day freezing index is located in the vicinity of Prince AIbert; in northern Alberta it is Iocated at Peace River. The 3,500 degree day thawing index lies just north of the study area in Saskatchewan and Manitoba and in northern Alberta it intersects the Mackenzie Highway about 50 miles north of High Level, AIberta.

In northern Alberta at Keg River, where the rnean annual air ternperature is 30. B"F, perrnafrost occurs in widely scattered patches a few feet thick only in peat bogs. In the Saskatchewan - Manitoba study area also, all the perrnafrost occurrences were encountered in peat bogs. -20-

In the northern portion of the northern Alberta study area at Hay River, N. W,T., where the mean annual air temperature Ls 24.7"F, permafrost is not reetricted to one type of terrain; it occure in widespread patches to a thicknese of 40 ft and possibly more. Similar mean annual air temperaturee and perrnafrost conditions are not encountered in Saskatchewan and Manitoba until one proceeds about 200 rniles north and northeaet of the study area to Lake Athabasca and Thompaon, Manitoba.

The difference between mean air and mean ground ternperature is not conatant, as mentioned previously. Thus, precise prediction of permafrost temperatures frorn the mean annual air temperatures alone is not possible. Nevertheless, the situation at Hay River, Lake Athabasca and Thompson supports the suggestion that a rnean annual air temperature of, aay, 25"F or less is almost certain to indicate a permafrost condition in the vicinity. The perrnafrm t is several tens of feet thick, not restricted eolely to one particular type of terrain, and ground temperatures are between 3l and 32,"F, i. e., approximately 6nF warrner than the mean annual air ternperatures. Climate ie thus the rnost irnportant factor influencing the exis'tence of perrnafroat. Regardless o{ terrain conditions it will occur'here, although variations in the terrain will cause variations in the depth to permafrost, ite areal extent, and thickness.

To the south, the terrain gradualty assurnes a dorninant role over climate in deterrnining the exietence of permafrost. Thus, at the extreme southern lirnit of permafrost in Saskatchewan and Manitoba (3 miles east of Waskesiu, Sask., - Location No.34, Table I, Figure 11; 3l miles north of The Pas, Man., - Location No. I25, Table I) perennially frozen ground having a temperature between 3l and 32"F, (sirnilar to that existing where the rnean air ternperature is 25'F) in fact prevails in areas having a rnean air temperature as high as 31 to 3ZoI.. Field observations indicate that this perrnafrost is confined, however, to spruce-sphagnum peat bogs and that permaffost does not exist under any other type of terrain. This restriction raises a number of questions regarding the origin and persistence of permafrost and the factors governing developrnent of the various types of terrain. In other words, the two rnain questions arising frorn these investigations are first, why does perrnafrost occuf only in spruce-Sphagnum peat bogs; second, what are the err.lriron- rnental factors governing the distribution of these peat bogs?

The origin of permafrost in these bogs may possibly be attributed to one or rnore causes. It rnay be a rernnant o{ the cooler clirnate of the Pleistocene; it may be short-Iived perrnafrost of perhaps several decadesl duration that forrned as a result of air ternperatures stightly lower than those prevailing at present; or it may be short-lived, formed As a resutt .zL-

of such terrain changes as snow cover and drainage, which are conducive to the initiation of a permafrost condition without a change in air ternperature. In all three cases the permafrost is protected by moss and peat; it would probably disappear and not re-forrn if this cover were rernoved.

The mechanisrns that can cauoe permafrost to forrn in these bogs appear to be associated with variations through the year in the heat exchange at the surface of the rnoss and peat (Reference l2). During the surnmer a thin surface layer of dried peat having a low therrnal conductivity prevents warrning of the underlying soil. During the cold part of the year the peat is saturated frorn the surface, so that when it freezes its therrnal conductivity greatly increases" Because of this the arnount of heat transferred in winter frorn the ground to the atrnosphere through the frozen ice-saturated peat is greater than the arnount transrnitted in surnrner in the opposite direction through the surface layer of dry peat and underlying wet peat. A considerable arnount of heat is also required during the warrn period to rnelt the ice and to warm and evaporate the water. The net result is a negative imbalance of heat and conditions conducive to the formation and preser- vation of perrnafrost.

It is difficult to specify the limiting sumrner or winter air ternperatures above which perrnafrost cannot forrn and persist in the above-mentioned manner even in peat bogs. It appears that this rnechanisrn operates in the study area. Perrnafrost, particularly in the southern portion, rnay have forrned when air ternperatures were lower than they are at present, and perhaps it is now degrading. In any event, present air ternperatures appear to be sufficiently high to render the formation of permafrost virtually irnpossible except in the peat bogs. In this particular type of terrain its existence is being rnaintained by the rnoss and peat.

Perrnafrost is very sensitive to environrnental factors, its extent and thickness varying in response to fluctuations in climate and terrain. Thus, the permafrost in the peat bogs lnay vary in age 'W'ithout f4orn a few years to several centuries or rnore. knowing the climatic history or the age of the peat bog it is virtually irnpossible even to estirnate the age of a patch of perrnafrost, much less ascertain it precisely. The areal extent and thickness of a patch of perrnafrost is not related necessarily to its age. A small patch only a few feet in extent could be centuries old, as old as the peat bog itself; a larger patch exceeding, se- t one acre could be only a few years old, the result of a snow dri{ting pattern, for exarnple, which has changed gradually because of tree growth and accompanying increase in crown density. -zz -

There is actually such a close relationship between vegetation, drainage and relief that it is difficult to single out the significant effect of each of these factors on the negative he:rt irnbalance that exists in the bodiee of perrnafrost. Many bogs show traces of forrner pool vegetation, indicating encroachrnent by Sphagnum and permafrost when eufficiently dry conditions have been attained. The irnportance of drainage (water conditions) is shown by the absence of perrnafrost in areas where the water table is at. the ground surface, even if the ground cover consists of Sphagnum. Surface water between hummocks inhibits the existence of perrnafrost bet',rreen the hurnrnocks but not beneath theur (Figure 25). Permafrost occurs also in peat platea\rx elevated a few feet above a wet Sphagnurn area having nG permafrost.

The thermal properties of vegetation also are an important factor. Feather mosaes and marsh sedges do not appear to be as good insulators ae Sphagnurn, and probably cannot protect permafrost from thawing. It is improbable that permafrost can form under rnarsh sedge coverr partly because of the poor insulating qualities of this type of vegetation. Peat is a very effective ineulator of perrnafrost. It occlurs in both rnarsh sedge and Sphagnurn areas as a resutt of the accurnulation of these types of plant material. It appears, howevetr, that the arnount of water in the peat as well as the character of the peat itself is an irnportant factor as far as the existence of perrnafrost is concerned.

Attempts were made to assess the importance of various cornponents of the environrnent as indicators of perrnafrost. Arr interesting feature is the appearance of jack pine and even a few poplar trees in sorne peat bogs in the stUdy area; none were encountered in sirnilar sites in northern Alberta, Of the I83 low sites that were exarnined jack pine was encountered in 36; permafrost occurred in l2 of these sites. Tamarack was encountered in 53 low sites of which 19 contained permafrost. Frorn these observations, it appears that tree species by themselves cannot be employed as reliable indicators of permafrost.

Lichen has been cited by sorne investigators as a reliable indicator (Reference l3); but, in fagt, it is not, even where it cornprises a considerable proportion, say 25 per cent, of the ground cover. Of the I9? sites that were exarnined, lichen was noted at I3I; perrnafrost occurred in only 60. In 20 of the 197 sites no lichen was present and perrnafrost occurred in 4. In the remaining 46 sites lichen was not noted, and permafrost occurred in I3 of them. In a few bogs permafrost was restricted to small scattered patches a foot or two in diameter around the base of trees. Lichen patches also were frequently associated with .23-

the sarne Iocations. It appears, however, that the preseirce of permafrost was associated rnore with the shade provided by the trees than with the lichen, because lichen also grew in exposed areas between trees where there was no permafrost.

Numerous burned-over areas were observed in the study area, but it was difficult to ascertain the effect of the fire on perrnafrost. The largest burn was encountered on the Hanson Lake Road from Mile I52 to about Mile l?5 (burned in 1960). The fire had burned or charred all trees and blackened the rnoss surface. No perrnafrost was encountered in peat bogs in this burn area (Location Nos.I0l, I02 and I03 in Table I), but it may not have occurred in these areas prior to the fire. In another burn area on the Chisel Lake Road (Location No. 190, Table I, Figure 16), perrnafrost was encountered although the Sphagnurn wae charred.

It was found that the thickness of peat does not aPpear to be related to the areal extent of the low areas. Sorne large bogs extending for several rniles appear to have a rnaxirnurn peat thickness of about ? to 3 ft, in contrast with sorne srnaller bogs where thicknesses exceeding 5 ft were encountered. In peat bogs containing perrnafrost there did not appear to be obvious reasons why the perrnafrost occurred entirely within the peat layer in sorne bogs and extended into the rnineral soil in others. There rnay be a rninirnum thickness of peat that wiII perrnit the existence of perrnafrost, although this cannot be used as a definite rule. The thinnest peat layer encountered in the study are a was 0 ft 6 in. The thinnest peat layer encountered in a permafrost site was I ft 10 in., but ZI non-permafrost sites had a thinner peat layer. Of the 77 petrnafrost sites only 13 had a peat layer thinner than 3 ft.

The type of soil does not appear to have any bearing on the existence of permafrost. Soil types range frorn sand to clay in both the high and low areas, and it is rarely possible to predict them even from surface vegetation. The sarne type of perrnafrost and associated conditions prevail on all types of soil in relation to the vegetation, relief and drainage conditions.

No perrnafrost exists in the high areas; here the surface cover consists of forest litter with patches of feather rnoss, Iichen and grass. These areas have good surface drainage, but frequently high water tables. The ground vegetation does not appear to provide sufficient insulation to preserve perlnafrost, although there is not sufficient water in the soil to inhibit its forrnation. -24-

CONCLUSION

Climate is the rnost important factor influencing the formation and continued existence of perrnafrost. This is borne out by the location of the mean annual air isotherrns relative to the distribution of permafrost, and indicates the existence of a broad relationship. South of the 30"F isotherrnperrnafrost occurrences are rare. North of the 25'F isotherrn permafrost is widespread.

Between these two isotherrns, the distribution of perrnafrost is patchy and erratic because of variations in local terrain conditions. This is supported by field observations-reported herein along the roads in the study area in Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

Permafrost occurs only in peat bogs in low areas; none was encountered in the high areas. Even in the peat bogs, perrnafrost does not exist where rnarsh sedge is growing and water lies at or near the ground surface. It is restricted to dry Sphagnum areas. Drainage, therefore, appears to be one of the main terrain factors influencing the existence of permafrost, but drainage conditions are so closely inter- related with vegetation that it is difficult or virtually impossible to assess the contribution of each.

The role of snow cover in the distribution of permafrost has not yet been studied in these investigations. It is hoped that winter observations will be carried out in the future to ascertain, for exarnple, whether there are significant snow cover variations between areas with perrnafrost and areas without it.

It appears that terrain factors are paramount in determining whether or not permafrost exists at a particular location in the study area. This is sirnilar to the situation occurring at Thompson, Manitoba (Reference l4), in northern Alberta in the vicinity of Keg River (Reference l), and in other areas in the southern fringe of the perrnafrost region. Thus, a rnajor factor in predicting the existence of permafrost in this fringe area is the distribution of peat bogs, although reasons for their scattered distribution are not clearly understood. Because the roads are located on high areas with good drainage whenever possible, it is probable that nurnerous peat bogs in the area are not visible from the road and are ornitted frorn the investigations. Nevertheless, it is fairly certain that a representative proportion of the peat bogs is within easy access of the roads. .25-

ACKNOW I.trDGEMENTS

The assistance of Mr. D. C. MacMillan, Soil trvlechanics Section, Division of Building Research, in the field investigations carried out during Septernber 1963 is gratefully acknowledged.

Nurnerous agencies and individuals have contributed information on permafrost and related conditions in the study area that has facilitated the task of describing the field investigations and assessing the observations. These include: Departrnent of Natural Resources, Saskatchewan, - Mr. R. C. Hovdebo, Prince Albert, Sask.; Departrnent of Highways and Transportation, Saskatchewan, - Mr. R. J. Genereux, Mr. B. W. Mickleborough, Mr. J. H. Peterson and Mr. M. P. Kocur, Regina, Sask; J.D. Mollard and Assocs. Ltd. - Dr. J.D. Mollard, Regina, Sask. ; Department of Public Works, Manitoba, Highways Division - Mr. M. Corkal, The Pas, Man.

REFERENCES

I. Brown, R. J.E. Perrnafrost Investigations on the Mackenzie Highway in Alberta and Mackenzie District. National Research Council, Division of Building Research, NRC ?885, Jtrne 1964, 67p. z. Haurwitz, 8., and J. M. Austin. Clirnatology. McGraw-Hill Co. Inc., New York and London, L944, 4I0p.

3. Canada. Ternperature and Precipitation Norrnals for Canadian Weather Stations Based on the Period I92I-50. CIR 3208, CLI 19. Meteorological Branch, Department of Transport, June 1959.

4. Thornas, I./.K. Clirnatological Atlas of Canada. National Research Council and Departrnent of Transport, Meteorological Branch, Ottawa, 1953, 253p. (NRC 3l5I).

5. Canada. Departrnent of Mines and Technical Surveys, Geological Map of Canada, 1955.

6. Canada. Atlas of Canada. Geographical Branch, Departrnent of Mines and Technical Surveys, Ottawa, 1957' I09 p.

7. Geological Association of Canada. Glacial Map of Canada, 1958-

8. Elson, J.A. Soils of the Lake Agassiz Region. In Soils in Canada, (Ed. by R. r.. Legget). The Royal Society of Canada, Special Publications No.3, L96I, p.5l-79. 26-

9. Rowe,J.S. Forest Regions of Canada. Department of Northern Affairs and National Resourceg, Bull. 123, Ottawa, 1959, 7Ip.

10. Brown, R. J. E. The Distribution of Perrnafrost and Its Relation to Air Ternperature in Canada and the U. S, S. R. Arctic, Vol. 13, No.3, Septernber 1960, p. 163 -177. ll. Brown, R. J. E. The Relation Between Mean Annual Air and Ground Temperatures in the Permafrost Region of Canada. Presented to the International Conference on Perrnafrost, Purdue Uni- versity, Novernber 1963. lZ, Brown, R. J. E. The Influence of Vegetation on Perrnafrost. Pre- sented to the lnternational Conference on Perrnafrost, Purdue University, Novernber 1963.

13. Radforth, N. W. The Ice Factor in Muskeg. Proceedings, First Canadian Conference on Permafrost, Associate Conernittee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, Technical Mernorandurn No.76, National Research Council, Ottawa, January 1963, p.57-78.

I4. Johnston, G. H. , R. J. E. Brown and D. N. Pickersgill. Permafrost Investigations at Thornpson, Manitoba. National Research Council, Division of Building Research, NRC'1568, October L963,51p. _27_

TABLE I

SASKATCHEWAN AND I4ANITOBA PERT{AFROST SURVEY

TITLES OF COLUMNS AND EXPLANATION OF SYMBOI,S IN TABLE I

Golumn I Reference nurnber of observation point Listed in nurnerical order beginning with western Saskatchewan and progressing eastward to the Thornpson Road in Manitoba

Column 2 Location of observation point Number of rniles frorn beginning of road

Colurnn 3 Relief H - relatively elevated area L - relatively low area or depression

Colurnn 4 Tree species P - poplar J - jack pine S - spruce B - birch T - tamarack W - willow A - alder :k - nurnber in brackets is height in feet of tallest tree (b) - burned over

Column 5 Surface terrain features Sph - Sphagnurn moss M - rnoss other than Sphagnum Ln - lichen Lt - Labrador tea Se - sedge C - grass F - forest litter H - hurnrnocky (p) - peat plateau (*) - standing water or wet -28 -

TABI.IC I (continued - Z)

Column 6 Thickness of living ground vegetation and Peat i. e. depth to top of mineral soil from ground surface

Column 7 SoiI type G - grave Sa - sand Si - silt C - clay X - scattered stones O - organic

Column 8 Existence of permafrost

Colurnn 9 Depth to perrnafrost

Column l0 Thickness of perrnafrost

Column I I Photograph in report Figure number TABI.F I (continuerl - 3)

s S KA T C H F w A N

I 234 5 6 7 8 9 lo tl

CANOE LAKE ROAD I HPJS-No

BUFFALO NARROWS ROAD

z3 HPS I -SaNo LS HSphM(w) >6r-0rr - No

334 LST HSphSe(w) 5r - 0rr SaSi No

443 LS sph >6r-otr - No

f, 5l LS sph No

6 84.5 L sJ(b) HSphLt 3r - Oil SaCSi No

7 97.5 LS SphLt Zt - 6tt Sa No

8 99.s L S(ls)* HSphLn Zt - Orr SiSa No

9 99.9 LS Sph(w) >6r-otr - No

I0 loz L S(30)AB FISphM 3r - 0rr Sa No

lr ro9.5 L S(l 5) HSphMLn 1r - 6rr Sa No

L2 113.8 L s(15)T FISphSeM 2t - 6tt Sa No

LA LOCHE ROAD

13 4-8 H Till No

t4 I LS sph lr 0r csi No

15 ll H PJSAW MF 0l 4" SaX No

16 17 LS sph 4l 0r csi No

t7 ZZ L PJs(Z0)(b) HSphMLt 6r' SiSa No

18 26 L s(15)J HSphLt(w) 5r 6r' sa No

19 30-35 HJ No

zo 5l L JS(12) HSphM ll 0rr SiSa No

zt 5l LS HSphLn(p) 3l 0rr Sa No

zz 56 L s(30) FISphLtSe zl 0rr SaX No

23 58 L s(15) HSphLnLt l' 9" SaSi No

24 65 L s(15) HSphLnLt 4' orr GSi Yes zl 2l 0r, Fig.

25 66 L S(20)T SeHSph zl 6" SaSi No

ILE-A-LACROSSEROAD zO 2.5 s s(lo) HSphLn >6r - 0' - yes 3r - 0', z, - l0,l L None SeSph(w) >6r - 0rr - No

27 3 L s(40) FISphse 4r - o, - No

DORE LAKE ROAD z8 H sP(80)BJ FM Sa No 29 I H P(6) MLt SaSi No LS sph zl _ 6t,

30 J) LS HSphl,nLt(w) zl - 6,t Sa No

3l 37 HSJ Sa No

3Z 40 L S(15)T FISphLtSe(w) z' 0 Sa No

33 4l L T(20) SphSeM(w) >61 0 No -30-

(continue d

I 234 5 6 7 8 9 l0 lt WASKESTU ROAD

34 J HSphM - csi No None Se(w) No Yee Zr - 6tl Fig. l2 (humrnocks) Yes 1r _ 6rl s(30)T HSphLnLt (Ln be- tweenHl No Sptr (between H)

TSW No

LA RONGE ROAD

36 z None Se -No s(50) HSphMLnLt(p) zt _ 6tl SiSa No

37 r0.3 L sT(25) HMLnLt 0r - 6r' -No

38 lr.l L sT(25) HMLnLt 0r - 6rl -No

39 43.8 L s(20) T l{SphLnLt 2t - ztl Sa Yes 2l 0r' 0l

40 59 ,t JSr(b) HSphLnLtM(w) Ir _ 6rt -No

4l 60 L sTJ(r 0) HSphLnLt(w) >6r - Ort -No

4Z 69 I None SeG -No s(5) HSphLnLt(w) 4t - 6tl -No s(25) HSphLnLt 4r - 6rl -No

43 70 9 L sTJ( z0) HSphMLnLt l' _ 6rl XNo

44 73 L sT(30) HMSphLt(w) 0' - 6rrto Sa No )t nll

45 5 L sr(30) HMSphLnLt(w) -No

40 82.9 L sT(zo) FISphLnLt(w) zt 6tt SiSa No

84 L sr(35) MHSphLn 2t Oil CSaSi No

48 88 L Sr(zo) HMSphLt 3r _ Otr Sa Yes 0rl 0rl

49 89 LST HMSphLtLnSe 3r - 6rl Titl No

50 90. L ST(40) HMSphLnLt 3r _ 0rl SaX No

fl 9r L s(40) HMSphLn Lt(p)(w'l zt - atl -No

5Z 94.5 L SPBAW(20) HMSphLnLt 3r - 0rr SaX No

53 a4 8 L SPJBTA\/(50) HMSphLnLt zt - otl SiSaX No

54 98 L sJ(20) HSphLnLt >6r - 0rl -No

OTTER RAPiDS ROAD f) Se(w) No 2 | >tt UJI llSphLnLt Yes Zt - 6tl zr - 0rl - 56 tl L sTJ(20) HSphLnLt Ir 6r'to SaSi Yes 3r - 0rl Ir - 6rl Zt _ 6tl 57 18 LST I'ISph zt _ otl SaX Yes Zr - 0rl >0' - 6rl

58 20. 5 LST HSphLnLt 5r - 3rl qi Yes 2r - 6rl Zt - 6tl 5q z6 L s(20) LISphLt >?t - 0r! Yes 1r _ 6rt lr - 5rr Fig.9 bU 30.5 L s(30) sph lr - l0rl SiSa Yes Zt - Ztl >lr - 0rl

6l 33.4 L s(30) HSphLnLt zt _ otl SaSiX Yes Zr - 6tl lr _ 6rl

6Z 39 L S(40) FIMSph 0 SaX - 31-

TABI.E (continued

z 4 567 l0 ll

OTTER RAPIDS ROAD (Cont'd)

- 63 39.8 L sT(30) HSphLnLt(w) 3t orrto X Yea Zt - 6tl 4tl 6r _ 0rl

- 64 40 8L s(30) FISphLnLt 6r 0rr - Yes lr - 6rl lr _ 6rl

o5 4Z 5L s Sph lr- 6r'to SiSaX No 6r-Oil

66 42.9 L5 Sph lr - 0r' - No

67 43.9 LST Sph lr - 0rr - No

68 44. r LS Sph lr - 5rr X No

69 44.5 LS HSph 3t - 0rr SiSaX Yes Zt - 6tl or 6t,

?0 45 L S(zs) Sphhl-t 5r - 6tr X Yea lr - 6rl 3r gtt

?l 46.5- L S(40)TJPA MHSphLnLt(wl 2, - O" SaX No 47

72 47.5 H JPB - Bedrock No

73 48 H JPsB(s0) - Bedrock No

NEMEIBEN LAKE ROAD

74 3* L sJ(30) SphLnLt lr - Or'to SaX No zt - otl

t) 3i L s Sphl.nl.t(w) 2r - 0r' Sa No 1f ao L s(30) HSphLnLt(w) 3r - 0rr Si Yes Zt - Otl ll 3rt

HANSON LAKE ROAD

77 13.5 LS Sph Zt - Att Sa No

78 57 LS HSPhLnLt >6r - 0rr - Yes Zr - 0'l 2r _ orl

79 60.5 L s(25) FISphLnLt(w) Zt - 6t'to - No >6r _ Otl

80 6t-62 LS HSphLnLt(w) >6r - 0rr - No

81 60-73 No H s(40)JTP

82 70 L s(40)JTP HMSphLnLt(w) 3t - 6rr SaX No

83 72 LS Sphl.nl.t(w) Zr - 0r' to - No 3r _ 0tr

84 73 L s(r0) SphI-nLt >3t - Qtr - Yes Zt - 6tl 0l 3rl

85 73.5- H sJ(roxb) No 79.5

86 91.5 LS SphLnLt lr - 6rrto Sa No 2t - 6tl

87 99 L s(20) SphLnLt Zt - Ott Sa No - Fig. 15

88 100.5 L s(15)J HSphLnLt Zt - Ott Sa No

89 llr HJ LnMl- Ot - Ztt Sa No - Fig. 5

90 rt4.7 L S(10) IlSphLn 3t - 6tt - Yes Zt - Otl 0l - 9rt

91 II7 LS SphLnLt Zt - 6tt - No

92 lr9 LS SphMl,nl-t 3r - OI to - No 3t _ 6tl

93 120.8 L S(r0)T HSphMLnLt 2t - 6tt - No

94 r23.7 L s(20) FISphLnLt 3r - I0r' Sa Yes lr - 9tl >21 3rt

95 127.6 L s(30) FIMLn(w) 3r- 0r'to Sa No at Lrl -3?-

I (continued - 6)

I 234 5 6 7 8 9 l0 lI HANSON LAKE ROAD (Coartd) 129,3 96 L s(15) HSphLnLr 3r - 0r' sisacx yee ?t - 3tt 3t _ ztl f 97 46. I L S(25)WA FISphMr.nLtSeG 2t - 6,,to SaSiC yee Zt - 6tt t' _ 6r, 4r - 0rl

98 147.5 H S(40) HMSphLnLt 3, - (;,r No ilu L S(15) HSphMLnLt 5r - 0r' yes Zt - ott lr - 0rl 149.9 99 L S(35) ESphMLnLtG Z'- 6t'to - No Fig.6 3r - 0rl f00 150.5 L S(35) HSphLnLt >6r - 8r' - yee Zt - Ott l, _ 0rl l0I 163 L S(15)(b) lLSphLnLr Z' - Ot' SiC No

l0Z 164.5 L S{zol(b} FrSph 3r - 0rr - No

103 158.5 L S HSphLnLtSeG{wl 4' - 6', - No 177. 104 I L S(25) Sph lt - 6,'10 SiC No zr - otl

r05 185 H JS _ No L S(25) F{SphLnLt Zt - 6rt SaSi Yee Zt - 61t lr - 6tl L SJ(SXb) HSphLnLt Zt - 6t' SaSi No 106 193 L S(15)JP FISphLnLr 2t - ott sic yes 2r _ 0[ zt _ 6tl l0? 193.3 L SJPW(b) FISphLnLt Zt - O" SiC No f 08 196 L S(30) FISphLnLt(p) >6' - OI Sa yes lr _ 9r Zt _ gtl f 09 197.3 L S(ZO)JT(bI ltSphl.nl,t >6t - 0,, - yes Zt - Ott Or _ 6r, Fig. 16 ll0 ZOI L SJ(30) FISphLnLt Z, - 3r'to Si No 3r - Ott

lll 203.3 L S(ZO)J(b) Sph >6r - 0r - yes l' - 9', 4t - Ztl llZ 209.3 L SJT Sph Zt - Ott X No

I 13 213.5 L S(40)TJ FISphLnLt Zt - Ot' SaX No ll4 215.5 L S(50)B HSphLnLt(p! 3r - 0t, Sa yes Zt - 9ti >tr - 9r'

ll5 216.l L S(40) HSphLnLt(p) >Zr - 9r' - yes Ir - 9r' 6r _ 0r, ff6 215- L - Sph(p) yes lr-9r,ro 22O Zr - Orr

JAN LAKE ROAD Ll7 I L S(8)J(b) HSphLnLt 3t - gtt sic yes zt _ ott 0r _ 9r, f l8 4 L S(f 5) LISphLnLt Zt - 3ttto Sa yes Zt - 3tt Or _ 6rl zt _ 6tl

A MISK LAKE ROAD rr9 z4-Z L S sph 3r - oil sic yes 2r - orr 0r _ 6rl TABr.F. I (continued - 7)

THE PAS FLIN FLON ROAD

120 L S(30)T HSphLnLt 4l- 6"to X No 5r _ 6rl 3r _ 0rl r2I 13 L sTJ(35) HSphLnLt 4t - 6tt cx No

rzz 16 L S(30)T Sph 4r-6il cx No

tz3 I8 L s(30) sph 3'_3tt x No

tz4 23 L S(30) sph 3r - 6rr No

tzs 3l L S(30) sph 4r - 3il SiC Yes 2r - Orl Ir - 0rl

tz6 34 L S(25) sph 3r - Oil Gsi No

r27 34.9 LS sph 3'-6rt x No

I 28 37.3 LS sph(p) 3'_0rr x No

lz9 38.5 LS sph 2t _ Otl No

r30 39.s LS sph zt - ott sicx No

l3l 40 LST sph 2t-6tt x Yes Zr - Otl 0r _ 3r'

r32 41.r LS F{SphLnLt l'- 0rrto GSa No Zr - 6tl r33 44.3 LS sph 5r - 3tr Yee 2r _ 0rr 2r _ 0rl

r34 45.6 L s(30) HSphLnLt 3' - 6r' CSi Yee zt _ orl Ir - 9r' Fig. 7

I 35 46.4 L SPBJ(25Xb) flSphLnLt 3r _ 0rr sic Yes zr _ 0rl or _ 9rl

136 48.4 LS sph Yes zt _ 6rl

137 50.8 L s(30) sph >6r - 3r' Yes 5r_6I sph(p) 2' _ 0rl >4t _ 3tl

138 52.8 L s(30) FISphLnLt 3r - oil csix Yes 2r - 0t'to 0r_ 3ilto zt _ 6tl 0r _ lorl r39 54.8 L s(30) FISphLnLt >61 - 0r' Yes zt _ 6tl lr _ 4rl

140 56 L s(25)J HSphLnLt No HSphLnLt(p) >zt _ gtl Yes Ir _ 9rl lr - 0rr Fig. l0 I4l 57.3 L s(30) SphLnLt >6' _ 0rr No SphLnLt(p) >8r _ 9rl Yes 2t _ 6rl 5r _ 3rt r4z 59.9 L s(30)TJ HSphLnLt 6t - 0r' Sa Yes 2r - 0rr to Ir _ 3il to zt - 3tl lr _ 6rl t43 63 L S(l5)BJ FISphLnLt 6r _ 0rr SiC Yes zr - 0rl 0' - 6r'to Fig. l8 HSphLnLt(p) zt _ 6tl 5r _ 6rl t44 68 L s(30) HSphl-nl-t >3r - 9" Yes Zr - 3tt to 3r _ 9rl t45 7l L s(20) sph >6r - 0rl Yes zt _ otl sT(2) No t46 7t.6 L S(25) MLnLt zr _ orl No t47 83 L S(40) Sphl,nLt )$l - gtt Yes 4t - 9rl >lr _ 3rr SphLnLt(p) lr _ grr >4r - 3rl t48 86.Z L sr(30) sph Zt - Ott Sa No

149 90.8 L STPWA IlSphLt zt - 6tt sic Yes 2r _ 0rr 0r _ 9rl lso 9r.8 L s(15) SphLnLtSe >6t _ 0rl No Fig. I I

I sl 93.2 L S(30) sph >(;r - 0rl No TABLEI(continued-8)

l0 ll

SIMONHOUSE ROAD

r52 3. I L s(zslT [r _ 6l5,t sicx Yes Zt - Otl lr _ 0r' HSphLnLt s(40) 3]r - 0l)rt SiC No

153 4 L ST(20) HSphLnLt z,t - 6l(rl sicx Yes Zt - Otl >4' _ 0"

I 54 4-9.5 H PJs(80) No

r55 9.5 L s(30) HSphLnLt 3lt- 0l)r' csix No

156 1r L s(30) HSphLnLt z 66r, Sa No

r57 rr-16 H PJS No

ls8 16 L s(35)T HSphLnLtSe(w) ztt - 6l) sicx No

r59 17 L s(20) HSphLnLt E 0l)r' No

160 18 L s(30) HSphLnLtSe >4 0l)rl Yes 2t - Otl 0l 6r' ( one patch)

r6l 19-65 H SJPB(60) F No LST SphLnLt Yes

162 23 L s(30) HSphLnLt 3I 0r,0l)r, sicx No

163 26 L s(35) HSphLnLt 5 6rt6l.ll X Yes lr - 9tl lr

164 30 L s(20)J(b) FISphLnLt 4 0rl0llrl No Fig. I4

165 3r L s(20) HSphLnLt 6r,6r Yes Zt - Otl ll 0

t66 33 L s(20) HSphLnLt 4 6rt6r,tll No

167 35 L S(30) FISphLnLt 3' 0rltll SiC Yes 1r - 9r' 4l ntt

168 38 5 LS sph No

169 39 f LS sph >61 0rl Yes Zt _ Atl zt - otl

s(30) HSphLnLt 0rl 170 4l -r Sa No sJ(30) MLn ot 6r, r7r 42.9 L s(30) HSphLnLt 3lt_ 6ttll Yes Zt - 0rr 0r _ grl t7z 44 L s(25) HSphLnLt AI 6r' sic Yes 2t - 0rr 0r _ 6rl HSphLnLt(p) >6r 0r' Yes 2t - 0r, 3r _ 9rt

173 50 L S(20)T HSphLnLt 3' 6r'll SaSiC No

ll l r74 56 L S(20)T HSphLnLt 4l 6r' SiC Yes Zt - 0f >41 0rl

175 59 L s(l 5) HSphLnLt 4l 0r'll Sa Yes Zt - Oil zl 0r'

176 60 L s(r5)T HSphLnLtSeG No t'r_ 0r' SiC FISphLnLt Yes lr - 9" r77 62 L s(25) HSphLnLt 7lt_ 9" sic Yes lr - 9,t >4 3,t l 78 62-65 H sJPB(60) F No LST SphLnLt Yes

179 65 L, s(20)J HSphLnLt llt_ o No

SNOW LA K]E R o AD r80 0.8 L T No

I8l l.8 L sJT( 30) I-ISphl,nLt lr - Otl x No

LgZ 2.4 L s(30)JT tISphLn I.t 5r _ 6rl No LISpbLnLt(p) Yes lr _ grl

I83 2.7 ST HSphLnLtSe(w) )St - gtt No Fig. r3 IlSphLnLt Yes s(30) FISphMLnI-t >l z' - 0r' Yes lr - 6rrto >6r _ 0rl 7l - Atl

184 tz-?3 FI PJS Bedroc No

185 23 L s(30 >20 es Zr - 0rr -35-

TABT.EI(continued_p)

t234 6 7 I 9 l0 ll

OSBORNE LAKE ROAD

186 II L s(3o) HSphLnLt 4l 0 sic Yeg lr _ 9I >l8t 3l

187 t2 L s(60)JP HMIlr Yeg 2t _ gtt 0l 3l 3l 0rl SiC HSphLnLt(p) Yes zt _ ott 7l 9l

CHISE L LAKE ROAD

188 4 L S(30) HSphLnLt 5r_3il X No

189 6 L s(30) FISphLnLt zt - 6tt sic No

190 I L s(zsxb) HSphLt >6t - 0rl No HsphLt(p) Yes zt _ otl Fig. l7 r9l 0-8 H SJ - Bedrock No L ST Se No

\4fE KUS KO ROAD l9Z l0 L S(40) Sph >6r - 3r' - No Sph(P) Yes 2t - 0rr >4' - 3r' t93 II L S(10)JT HSphLnLtSeG l, - 0r'ro SiC No Ir - 6rl

194 lZ.5 L S(25) HSphLnLt 2r- 3r,to sic yes lr - 6rr >4r - orl >3r - Orl

195 rZ.5- H No t4

THOMPSON ROAD t 196 I L s(12) HSphG I, - OI SiC No ?, S(25) MLn

197 Z.z L S(25) FISph(w) - yes - - zt 6t' sic Zt 6tt >3r Orl Hsph(p) 4' - 0t' Yes 2r - Orr llr - 0t' 36

.TAI] I Ti II (a) Monthly avelagc of

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Moy June July Arg. Sept. Ocl. Nov, Dec. Year McMurray, - Alta. 6.2 0.5 15.4 34.4 48.8 56.2 61.6 58.0 47.8 36.5 15.0 -1.8 30.5 Prince - AIbert, Sask. 3.0 2.6 14,7 36.I 50.r 58.I 64.9 6r.8 5r.z 39.3 19.4 4.6 33.4 La Rouge, Sask. - -0.9 6.0 rz.8 3r.z 48.1 56.5 63.6 60. 4 50.z 37.O 16.r !. 2 30.9 Cumberland House, - Sask, 9.7 0.9 rz.4 34.I 49.i 58.I 64.8 60.9 50.0 36.9 18.8 3.7 3t.7 Island Falls, -11.7 -4.5 Saek. 9.7 28.5 43.9 54.7 62.7 59.6 48.4 36.5 15.4 -2.9 28.4 The Pas, Man. -7,4 -0.5 ll.6 3r.3 46.0 56.6 64.5 6r,3 50.3 38.I IB. 4 I.5 3r.0 Flon, - -0.2 Flin Man, 6.9 tz.7 3Z.Z 47.2 5?.6 65.4 61.8 50.I 38.3 15.9 0.3 3t.z Wabowden, -r0. -4. Man. 2 | 8.9 27.7 43.5 53.5 62.4 57. Z 48.4 33.3 13.8 -3.3 27.6

(b) Average monthlaprecipitation (in. ) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. M"y June JuIy Arg. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year McMurray, Alta, 0.83 0.62 0. 8s o.77 r. 39 z. Lr 3.08 z. 25 t.67 0.97 0.95 0. 83 16.32 Prince Albert, Sask. 0. ?l 0.61 0.71 r.0z r.58 z.59 ?..23 1.93 1.42 0.96 1.05 o.94 t5.75 La Ronge, Sask. 0,91 0. 50 00 r. 0.7? r. 57 2.65 Z.5l z,42 t,72 r. zo l. 30 0.92 t7.47 Cumber.land House, Sask. 0.69 64 0. 0.88 0.93 l. 82 Z,35 2.89 1.98 i.85 1.10 l.0t 0.93 16.99 IsIand Falls, Sask. l. 06 o. 98 0.87 0.92 1.48 z.4g 2.78 2.86 z.26 t. 24 l.; 49 I.l3 19.56 The Pas, Man. o.79 0.65 jz 0.84 l. 0z r.79 z. 36 z. 69 ?. z. t5 r. l0 r. 16 0.89 r7.76 Flin Flon, Man. 0.76 0.64 o,99 0.8 I l. ?0 z. 33 2.98 z. lo 2.50 o.75 0.98 0. 65 t7.19 Wabowden, Man. o.66 0.52 0.62 0. 8l l. 38 3.05 3.ZL z.?5 2.45 r.oz 0.85 0. 6l 17.93

Jan. Feb, Mar. Apr, May June July Aog. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year McMurray, Alta. 0. 0z 0.0z 0.05 0. 39 t.32 z. I I 3.08 z. 25 l. 63 0. 65 0. 07 0.01 11.60 Prince Albert, Sask. 0. 0l o.0l 0.oz o.49 r.47 2.59 2.23 r.93 t.37 0.s9 Q.1l 0.01 10.83 La Ronge, Sask. 0 0.0l 0.04 0. 30 t. 48 ?.65 z.5l z.42 t.7l 0.62 0.0z 0 ll.76 Cumberland House, Sask. 0 0 0 0.43 l.8l 2.35 z.8g l.98 l.80 o.75 0.08 0 lz.09 Island FzlIs, Sask. T T 0. 0l 0. z8 r. z4 2.47 ?.78 2.86 z. zz o.8z 0.09 T 12.77 The Pas, Man. T T 0.0r 0. 4l r.6z 2.35 2.69 z.32 2.08 o.74 0.07 T rz. zg FIin Flon, Man. 0 0 0 0. 36 t.67 2.33 2.9S z.ro z.50 0. 55 0. 0z 0 tz.5l Wabowden, Man. 0 0 0.0z 0.06 t. 24 2.96 3.2r 2.75 2.44 0.63 0.05 0 13.3?

(d) Average monthly snowfall (in. ) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr, M"y June July Arg. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year McMurray, Alta. 8. I 5.0 8.0 3.8 0.? 0 0 T 0.4 3.2 8.8 8.2 47.2 Prince Albert, Sask. 7.O 6.0 6.9 5.3 I.l 0 0 0 0.5 3.7 9. 4 9.3 49.z La Ronge, Sask. 9. r 4.9 9.6 4.7 0.9 0 0 0 0.1 5.8 rZ.8 9.2 57.r Cumberland House, SaC<. 6.9 6.4 8.8 5.0 0.I 0 0 0 0.5 1q o 1 9.1 49.0 Island Falls, Sask. r0.6 9.8 8.6 6.4 2.4 0.2 0 o o.a 4.2 14.0 rf .3 67.9 't.9 The Pas, Man. 6.5 8.3 6.r t.7 0.1 0 0 0.7 3.6 r0.9 8.9 54.7 Flin FIon, Man. 7.6 6.4 9.9 4.5 0.3 o o 00 z.o 9.6 6.5 46.8 Wabowclen, Man, 6,6 5,z 6,0 7.5 r.4 0.9 0 0 0. I 1a 70 6. I 45.6

(e) Nornral monthly tlcpth of snow on ground (in.) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. M"y June July Arrg. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Island Falls, Sask, 16.0 zt.o 18.o 3.o 9.0 rz.o The Pas, Man. 18.0 20.0 15.0 8.0 rl.0 Wabowden, Man. 18.0 zz.o t4,0 z,o 7.Q IZ.0 N o\ + e e

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L Figure 3

Mile l3 - La Loche Road, Sask. The tree vegetation on this high area consists of tall dense poplar, jackpine and spruce gr owing on till in which there is no permafrost. This vegetation is typical of the high areas. Septernber 8, I963 (BRS 2378). Figure 4

Location No. 89 - Mile IlI - Hanson Lake Road, Sask. TalI dense stand of jackpine growing on feather moss and lichen covered sandy slope in which there is no perrnafrost. Similar Pure stands of jackpine stretch for miles along this road. Septembet 19, 1963 (BRS 2449). Figur e 5

Location No. 99 - Mile I49.9 - Hanson Lake Road, Sask" This 1ow area has tree growth of dense spruce up to 35 ft high and the ground vegetation is humrnocky Sphagnurn, feather rrtoss, Iichen, Labrador tea and grass below which is peat to a depth of Zr-6r'to 3l -0r'. There is no perrnafrost present although lichen is visible in the for egr ound. September ZO, 1963 (BRS 2459\. r lgure o

Location No. L34 - Mile 45.6 - The Pas-Flin Flon Road. Man. This Iow area has tree growth of dense spruce up to 30 ft high and the ground vegetation is hummocky Sphagnurn, Labrador tea and scattered lichen below which is peat to the 3t -6tt depth overlying clayey silt. The permafrost table is at t]ne zr-0t' depth (in the peat) and the permafrost is 1r-9rr thick extending to the 3t-9tt depth in the rnineral soil. The vegetation at this location is sirnilar to the vegetation at Location No. 99 but there is no perrnafrost at the latter site. Furtherrnore, this location is south of Location No. 99. Septernber 25, I963 (BRS Z49Z). Figur e 7

Location No. 24 - MiIe 65 - La Loche Road, Sask" This low area has tree growth of spruce up to 15 ft high and the ground vegetation is hummocky Sphagnum, Iichen and Labrador tea below which is peat to tlne 4 ft depth overlying clayey silt. The perrnafrost table is at the Zt-0rr depth (in the peat) and the permafrost is Zt -}tt thick extending to the bottorn of the peat layer. This is the only perrnafrost location encountered on the La Loche Road, the other peat bogs on this road having sirnilar vegetation and peat thickness. September B, 1963 (BRS Z3B6). Figur e 8

Location No. 59 - Mile 26 - Otter Rapids Road, Sask. This 1ow area in the Precarnbrian shield is about 200 yards in diameter near the top of a hill and is flanked by a rock outcrop in the left background. The tree growth in the low area is spruce up to z0 ft high and the ground vegetation is sphagnurn, Labrador tea and scattered lichen patches below which is peat exceeding 7 ft in thickness. Permafrost is 1r-5rt thick extending from the I f -6rt to Zt -l lrr depth. Tree growth on the rock outcrop is tall poplar, jackpine and spruce, typical of the high areas and no perrnafrost was encountered. September 15, 1963. (BRS Z4ZI). _19""_" 9_

Location No. 140 - Mile 56 - The Pas - Flin Flon Road, Man. This low area in the Precarnbrian shield is flanked by a rock outcrop in the background. The tree growth in the low area is spruce up to 25 ft high with scattered jackpine and poplar and the ground vegetation is hummocky sphagnrrrn, Labrador tea and lichen below which is peat exceeding Zt -9tt in thickness. Permafrost was encountered in the 4 ft high peat plateaux but not in the intervening depressions. permafrost is I ft thick exteriding frorn the l t-9r to Zt -g.t depth. Tree growth on the rock outcrop is tall poplar, jackpine and spruce typical of the high areas and no permafrost was encountered. Septernber 24, 1963 (BRS 2487). Figur e I 0

Location No. I50 - Mile 91. B - The Pas - Flin Flon Road, Man. This low area in the Precambrian Shield is flanked by a rock outcrop in the background. The tree growth in the low area is spruce up to l5 ft high and the ground vegetation is Sphagnum, Tabrador tea, Iichen and scattered patches of rnarsh sedge overlying peat exceeding 6 ft in thickness. This site is sirnilar to Location No. 140 but no permafrost was encountered here even in the dry Sphagnur-n areas. Furthermore, this site is north of Location No, 140. The vegetation on the rock outcrop is tall poplar, jackpine and spruce typical of the high areas and no perrnafrost was encountered. Septernbet 24, 1963 (BRS 2479). Figur e I 1

Location No. 34 - Mile 3 - Waskesiu Road, Sask. This l-ow area consists of spruce islands surrounded by rnarsh sedge in the middle ground and jackpine covered slope in the background. The tree growth on the spruce islands is dense spruce up to 30 ft high with scattered tarnarack and the ground vegetation is hurnrnocky Sphagnurn, Labrador tea and lichen overlying peat exceeding 6 ft in thickness" Permafrost occurs in the spruce islands in hurnrnocks where it is 2r-0rr thick extending frorn the Z!-6I to 41 -6rt depth. In intervening lichen covered depressions which are dry, the permafrost table is at the Ir-6rr depth; in intervening Sphagnum covered depressions, which are slightly wet, no Permafrost was encountered. No perrnafrost was encountered in the wet treeless rnarsh sedge area surrounding the spruce islands nor in the jackpine covered slope having clayey silt soil. Septernbet lZ, 1963 (BRS 2396). oq) 4dd HV

"ts1*- Figur e I 3

Location No" L64 - Mile 30 - Si:ironhouse Road, Man. This low area has tree growth of scattered spruce up to Z0 ft high, rnost of the trees being Z to 5 ft higb and a few jackpine; the area has been burned over. The ground vegetation consists of hurnrnocky Sphagnurn, Labrador tea and lichen overlying peat to the 4 ft depth. No perrnafrost was encountered. Septernber 27, L963 (BRS Z5O3). Figure l4

Location No. 8Z - Mile 99 - Hanson Lake Road, Sask. This 1ow area has tree growth of spruce up to Z0 ft high and the ground vegetation is hurnmocky Sphagnurn, Labrador tea and lichen; note the widespread lichen cover in foreground. The peat extends to the Z ft depth overlying sand. No perrnafrost was encountered. September 19, 1963 (BRS 2447). .* ?

Figur e I 5

Location No. 109 - Mile I9'F.3 - Flanson Lake Road, Sask. This ]ow area has tree growth of sprlr:.ceup to Z0 ft high, scattered jackpine and tarnarack, and a few trfes which were burned rnany years ago. The ground vegetation consifsts of hurnrnocky Sphagnurn, Labrador tea and lichen; note the wi{espread lichen in foreground. The peat exceeds 6 ft in thickness. fhe depth to perrnafrost is Zr -0r' and it is 6 in. thick extending to t$e Zt-6tt depth. Septernber ZI, 1963 (BRS z4tr)" Figur e I 6

Location No. 190 - Mile 8 - Chisel Lake Road. This low area was burned fairly recently; the trees are charred spruce up to 25 ft high. The surface of the hurnrnocky Sphagnurn cover is charred but it is rnoist and'green beneath and Labrador tea is thriving. The peat exceeds 6 ft in thickness. Perrnafrost was encountered in the hurnrnocks from tlne 2r-0rr to 6r-0t' depth being 4 ft thick. No perrnafrost was encountered in the intervening hollows. Septernber 30, I963 (BRS z5z4)" Figur e I Z

Location No. 143 - MiIe 63 - The Pas - Flin FIon Road. The low area in the foreground has tree growth of spruce up to 15 ft high, a few birch and jackpine, and the ground cover is hurnrnocky Sphagnuln, Labrador tea and lichen below which is peat to the 5 ft depth overlying silt clay. Note the peat exposed in the ditch in foreground. There are a few peat plateaux about 3 ft high. Below the peat plateaux, perrnafrost extends frorn tlne 2r-0tr to Zt-6tt depth being 6 in. trrick. At one location it extended {rorn the Zt-Oil to 7t-6rt depth being 5r-6tr thick. The depth to permafrost in the peat plateaux is Zt-61r. No perrnafrost was encountered in the high area in the backgro,rnd having tree growth of tall spruce, poplar and jackpine. September 24, 1963 (BRS Z4B4l. t

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In addition to the perrnafrost investigations carried out along the roads in the study area, information on occurrences of perrnafrost in other parts of Saskatchewan and Manitoba have been obtained from the technical literature, questionnaires and personal interviews. The locations and sources of information are listed below and are shown on Figure A-I. The information is presented as it was obtained from the source and the reliability of the observations has not been verified. The absence of permafrost at a particular site does not necessarily preclude the existence of perrnafrost nearby in a different type of terrain. The locations are listed in alphabetical order under each province and can be located on Figure A-I by number and co-ordinates.

SASKATCHEWAN l. Beaverlodge (Eldorado) (59" 33rN; 108'30tW) Patches of permafrost in peat bogs (8).'l'

Z. Buffalo Narrows (55" 51tN; 108'30fN) Dry sandy soil - no permafrost encountered (15).

3. Camsell Portage (59' 37tN; 109" 13rw) Patches of perrnafrost in peat bogs" None encountered in sandy soil (9).

4. Deschambault Lake (54" 55tN; I03" ZZIW) No permafrost encountered in pockets of peat-covered clay and sandy soils (24).

5. Dillon (55'55rN; 108"578W) No perrnafrost encountered in peat-covered clay and sandy soils (15).

6. Fond du Lac (59'19tN; I07"11rW) Sandy soil - no perrrrafrost encountered to IZ-ft depth (9, i5).

7. 9"""""_ (59" Z3!N; 108" 5ZtW) Perrnafrost encountered at mine in rock flour overburden frorn ?,0-f.tdepth to bedrock at 60-ft depth extending over several acres (14, 15).

'k Sources of inforrnation listed on pages A-8 to A-10 inclusive. A_Z

B. I1e-).-1a Crosse (55' ZTtN; 107' 53rW) No perrnafrost encountered in townsite (15).

9. Island FaIls (55" 3ZtN; l0Z" ZIIW) Perrnafrost encountered at Power plant, l/4 acre in area and 15 to Z0 ft thick (17).

10. La Loche (56"29tN; 109'27rW) No perrnafrost encountered in well excavation to depth of 50 ft (9).

II. Langley Bay (59'Z6tN; I0B" 530W) Patches of perrnafrost encountered at depth of I to 2 ft in peat-covered sandy soil (3).

IZ. La Ronge (55'06tN; 105"17rw) No perrnafr ost encounter ed in well excavation to depth of Z0 ft (15).

13. La Ronge - Uraniurn City Highway location Discontinuous perrnafrost in peat bogs between Stony Rapids and Uranium City (ZZ).

14. La Ronge Uraniurn Mines Ltd. (Beaverlodge area) No permafrost encountered (19).

15. Milliken Lake (Beaverlodge area) (59"26rN; 108'43tW) Patches of permafrost encountered at depths varying frorn 6 to Z0 ft in peat-covered sandy soits (23).

16. Patuanak (55" 553N; 107'43tW) Possible occurrence of permafrost at 4-ft depth in sandy clay overlain by sand and gravel (15).

I7 . Pelican Narrows (55'10tN; tOZ'56rW) No permafrost encountered in well excavation to depth of I0 ft (15).

18. Pinehouse Lake (55'3lrN; 106"35t W) No perrnafrost encountered in two well excavations to depths exceeding 30 ft (IZ), A-3

f9. Reindeer Lake Highwav Occurrence of ftozen ground, possibly permafrost, encountered in a peat bog Z ft below the ground surface 5. 8 miles north of Churchill River (ZZ).

ZO. Southend (56"19iN; 103'14rW) Patches of perrnafrost in peat bogs (9),

ZL. Stony Rapids (59"16rN; 105"50tW) No perrnafrost reported (15).

22. Uranium City (59"34tN; 108"37rw) Patches of permafrost in peat-covered silt and clay soils in townsite and along road to Black Bay (6, 15, 35).

23. Wollaston Lake Post (58'03rN; 103"33!1M) Occurrences of frozen ground, possibly permafrost, encountered in excavations to 5-ft depth for buildings ( 38).

MANITOBA

l. Agassiz Mines Ltd. (55'52tN; 100"59rW) Patches of permafrost in peat-covered sand and silt at depth of. 4 to 6 f.t. (1).

Z. Arnery (56"33rN; 94'04tW) Perrnafrost with rnassive ice encountered beneath peat- covered slopes of clay-gravel ridges to 30-ft depth. No permafrost encountered in depressions between ridges (17).

3. ,A,thapapuskow Lake (approx. 54"30rN; 100"40rW) Perrnafrost encountered in sand frorn 3-ft to 15{t depth (17).

4. Bird (56'30rN; 94"14rW) Permafrost encountered in peat-covered clay soils at l-ft depth below ground surface. No permafrost encountered to 75-ft depth in gravel deposits (6). A-4

5. Brochet (57'53rN; 101"40tW) Perrnafrost encountered at lJt depth in silt bank of small creek. Areas having no permafrost are covered with jack pine, spruce and tamarack - no moss cover (I3).

6. Caribou River (approx. 59"30rN; 96'W) C""ti"""us perrrlafrost at L-IfT-ft depth in rnoss-covered soil (34).

7. ChiseI Lake (54'50!N; 100"0?rW) Patches of perrnafrost encountered (271"

8. Churchill (58 " 47!N; 94'lltW) Continuous perrnafrost extends to depth of about 150 ft in gravel, sand and clay soils on bedrock. Temperature at Z1-ft depth was 27.5'F and at 54-ft depth, ZB.9"F in JuIy 1955 (9, 37]'"

9. Churchill River (approx. 57" 33!N; 95"IBf W) P.r-rf"""t in shore of lake consisting of peat 3 ta 7 ft thick - about I rnile west of river (I0).

10. Cranberry Portage (54"35!N; 101"23tW) Perrnafrost in peat-covered depressions. None encountered in silty sand ridges (6).

11. Cross Lake (54" 37rN; 97" 46rW) . No perrnafrost encountered to Z0 -ft depth in peat-covered soils (I5).

IZ. Flin Flon (54"46tN;101'5ZtW) Patches of permafrost 10 to Z0 f.t thick encountered in peat-covered clay soils in depressions between rock hills (9, 16, 17). Building on piles in soil consisting of. LZ ft of peat over clay--layer of frozen ground 4 ft thick encountered in clay during construction (6).

13. 9iliam (56'ZlrN; 94" 46jW) Permafrost is encountered beneath the ground surface throughout the area (9)"

14. Gods Lake (54"40rN; 94'09tW) No permafrost encountered in townsite (9). A-5

15. Gods Lake Narrows (54" 33rlrl; 94" Zg.Wl Permafrost encountered at L-L/Z-ft depth in clay soil B miles southeast of settlement (5).

16. Hudson Bay Railroad No perrnafrost encountered south of 54" 30rN. Patches of permafrost confined to peat-covered depressions between 54"30tN and 56'30rN. Permafrost appears to be continuous north of 56"30rN (?).

17. Ilford (56'0atX i 95"36tW) Patches of permafrost are approximately 1? ft thick (Z).

18. Island Lake (53' 58fN; 94" 46rW) No permafrost encountered in excavation in clay soil in townsite to depth of l0 ft (9, 15, 25).

19. (56'0zrN; 96" 3Irw) Patches of perrnafrost 5 to 50 ft thick encountered in varved clay soils (6, Zll,

20. Kettle Rapids (56"Z4tNt 94" 36rW) Discontinuous permafrost to rnaxirnum thickness of 40 f.t. Sorne gravel ridges in vicinity are not frozen (Zl). n. Landing Lake (approx. 55'lBtN; 97" 4ZrWl Patches of permafrost in peat ridges in bogs and in peat- covered varved clays 12, 1Z).

ZZ. Limestone River (approx. 56"31rN; 94't0tw) Gravels on north bank of river r'ot ftozen (12).

23. Little Churchill River (approx. 56'52rN; 95" 50rW) Permafrost encountered at mouth of Switching River under peat 2 to 8 ft thick (10).

24. Lynn Lake (56"51!N; 101"02tW) Permafrost encountered to I00-ft depth in moss- and peat- covered silts and clays in depressions. No permafrost encountered in sand and gravel ridges or rock outcrops (6,361. A-6

7,5. Lrrnn Lake Railroad North of Sherridon permafrost is widespread, being encountered at I-I/Z-ft to 6-ft depth (31).

26. MacBride Lake (approx. 56"52tN; 99"57'Wl Permafrost encountered at 4-I/2-ft depth in moss-covered clay soil (33).

27. Mid-Canada Line (55" 52rlit; 95'35rW) Widespread permafrost encountered at 4-ft depth in moss- covered clay soil (Il).

28. Mid-Canada Line (55" 46rNt 96" I3rW) Widespread perrnafrost encountered at depths of Z to 5 ft in moss-covered clay soil (I1).

29. Mid-Canada Line (55'4IrN; 96"39tW) Widespread permafrost encountered at 6-ft depth in moss- covered clay soil (ll).

30. Mid-Canada Line (55"37 rN; 97"Z3tWl Widespread permafrost encountered at 6-ft depth in moss- covered clay soil (11).

31. Nelson House (55"47rN; 98'51rW) No permafrost encountered in excavation in silt to depth of.7 ft in townsite. Patches of permafrost encountered . in peat bogs near settlement (9, 15).

32. y_U"* (54"00t5; 97"47tW| Frozen ground encountered at 26-tt depth at bedrock contact in excavation in silt clay soil. No other reports of frozen ground in vicinity (15).

33. Oxford House (54'5?rN;95" l6tW) Patches of perrnafrost encountered at Z-ft depth in moss- 'covered clay soils in depressions; No permafrost encountered in higher areas not covered with moss (15).

34. Port Nelson (57"03rN;92"36rW) Discontinuous perrnafrost encountered at depth of. I-I/Z f.t and extending to 30-ft depth. Perrnafrost absent in sorne gravel ridges and tidal flats (9, 17). A-7

35. Pukatawagan (55' ++tN; I01"19rW) Peimafrost encountered at 5-I/2 -ft depth in excavation in clay soit (15).

36. St. Theresa Point (53"4!!N; 94'5ltW) No permafrost encountered in dry coarse-grained soils (28).

31. Seal River (approx. 59"N) Permafr ost encountere d at 4-I/?- to 6 -ft depth in tilt and at shallower depths in peat deposits (32).

38. Sherridon (5.5'08rN; 101'05!W) No permafrost encountered in clay soit (26).

39. Simonhouse (54" 26tN; 10I"23r W) Permafrost encountered at 4-ft depth in postholes in peat bogs along Hudson Bay Railroad north of Simonhouse, but not to south (6).

40. Snow Lake (54'54cN;100"02rW) Patches of permafrost encountered in pockets of soil in rock outcrops (27).

4I. South Indian Lake (56"+8tN; 98"58rW) No permafrost encountered in excavation to 10-ft depth in clay soil (4).

42. Split Lake Post (55"15tN; 96"05tW) No permafrost encountered at settlement (9).

43. The Pas (53" 49rN; 101"15tW) No perrnafrost encountered in townsite (6).

44. Thompson (55'45tN; 97" 50tW) Patches of permafrost 5 to 50 ft thick encountered in varved clay soils (6).

45. Wabowden (54" 54rN; 97'l4rW) Patches of permafrost encountered at 3-ft depth in varved clay soils (7).

46. Wanless (54"IO!N; 10l"Z3tW) Patches of permafrost encountered at 4-to 10-ft depth in moss-covered clay soils in depressions (29). A-8

47. Weir River (settlement) (55'49rN; 94'06rW) Patches of permafrost to thickness of 40'ft. Depth to permafrost 4 to 5 ft in sand and gravel ridges and I ft in peat-covered silt and clay soils in depressions (18).

(area) (57"IoiN; 48. -- Weir River 93'14!w) Ct"ti""ous perrrrafrost to thickrress of 90 ft and more in peat-covered depressions and low ridges of gravel, sand and silt (18).

49. USlg-*g_(approF. 54' 35!N; 99" 30rw) Patches of permafrost encountered in 40-rnile wide peat bog extending northeast of settlement. Peat is 9 ft thick with hurnmocks and ridges on surface. No permafrost in townsite (20).

50. Wolverine River (appro>c 59'30rN; 97"30tW) Continuous permafrost at 7-I/2-ft depth in moss-covered soil (34).

51. YS"t rgg!gr1t-(S?"01tN;92"l8rW) DGcotrtinuous permafrost encountered at depth ot ZJ/Z tt and extending to Z0-ft depth. Perrnafrost absent in some gravel ridges (t, 30). A-9

SOURCES OF INFORMATION l. Agassiz Mines Ltd. , Wiunipeg, Manitoba.

2. Antevs, E. ilLate Glacial Correlations and Ice Recession in Manitobarr, Memoir 168, 1931.

3. Big Jaclgot Mines Ltd. , Kirkland Lake, Ont"

4. Brears, D. M. , South Indian Lake, Manitoba.

5. Cable, W. , Gods Lake Narrows, Manitoba.

6. Canada, Building Research Division, National Research Council, Ottawa, Ont.

7. Canada, Canadian National Railways. I'Perpetually Frozen Subsoil in Northern Canadatr, Winnipeg, Man. , 29 March 1940, 50p.

8. Canada, Eldorado Mining and Refining Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta.

9. Canada, Geographical Bureau, Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa, Ontario. Jenness, J. L., Permafrost questionnaire - ?2 JuIY 1946.

10. Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Departrnent of Mines and Technical Surveys, Ottawa,, Ontario.

11. Canada, Royal ,Canadian Air Force.

IZ. Clancy, R. S. , Provincial Office Building, Prince Albert, Sask.

13. Garlatt, W. R. , Brochet, Manitoba.

14. Gunnar Mining Ltd., Gunnar, Sask.

15. Hudson!s Bay Company.

16. Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co. Ltd. , Winnipeg, Manitoba. A -10

17. Johnston, W. A. trFrozen Ground in Glaciated Parts of Northern Canadart, Roval Society Can. Trans. , Sect. 3:24, Decernber 4, 1930. lB. Kennco Explorations (Canada) Ltd. , Toronto, Ontario.

19. La Ronge Uranium Mines Ltd. , Toronto, Ont.

?0. Manitoba, Highways Branch, Departrnent of Public Works, The Pas, Man.

Zl. Manitoba FIydro.

ZZ. MoLlard, J. D" and Assocs. Ltd. , Regina, Sask.

23. Pitchvein Mines Ltd. , Kirkland Lake, Ont.

24. Postrnaster, Descharnbault Lake, Sask.

25. Postmaster, Island Lake, Manitoba.

26. Postrnaster, Sherridon, Manitoba.

27. Postrnaster, Snow Lake, Manitoba.

28. Postmaster, St. Theresa Point, Manitoba.

29. Postmistress, Wanless, Manitoba.

30. trReport of Cornrnittee on Depth of Perrnanently Frozen Groundrt, Nature, Vol. 34, 1886, p. 485.

3r. Richardson, H. W. rrBuild Railroad Through North Canadian Bushrr, , Vol. 35, No. 10, Oct. f953.

32. Ritchie, J. C. rrThe Vegetation of Northern Manitoba - III - studies in the subarcticr" Arctic Institute of North America, Tech. Paper No. 3, Jan. 1959, 56p.

33. Ritchie, J. C. rrVegetation of Northern Manitoba - I - Studie s in the Southern Spruce Forest Zorrert, Can. Jour. of Botany, Vol. 34, 1956, pp. 523-56I. A-11

34. Russell, G. A. , Winnipeg, Manitoba.

35. Saskatchewan, Department of Natural Resources.

36. Sherritt-Gordon Mines Ltd., Toronto, Ontario.

37. U. S. Army, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Corps of Engineers, Hanover, N. H. Lange, R.

38. Wiggins, R. W. , W-ollaston Lake Fost, Sask. gc

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