2001 Census Analysis The Jewish Community of

Part 7 Issues of Jewish Identity

By:

Charles Shahar Research Coordinator Department of Community Planning FEDERATION CJA UIA Federations would like to thank the following members of the 2001 Census Analysis “Professional Advisory Committee” for their expert assistance throughout this project.

Dr. Jonathan Berkowitz, Vancouver, BC Dr. Jay Brodbar, , ON Prof. Leo Davids, Toronto, ON Mr. Colin Geitzler, Aylmer, QC Ms. Jean Gerber, Vancouver, BC Dr. Gustave Goldmann, Ottawa, ON Dr. Jack Jedwab, Montreal, QC Prof. Marty Lockshin, Toronto, ON Mr. Greg Mason, Winnipeg, MB Dr. Sheva Medjuck, Halifax, NS Prof. Allan Moscovitch, Ottawa, ON Prof. Morton Weinfeld, Montreal, QC Dr. Morty Yalovsky, Montreal, QC

UIA Federations Canada would also like to thank Réal Lortie and Marc Pagé of Statistics Canada for their expertise. Without their assistance this report would not be possible.

The researchers would like to express appreciation to Allan Schneiderman, Elizabeth Perez, Maia Cooper, Terry Trager, Romy Litwin, and Kelly Castiel of the Planning Department of FEDERATION CJA for reviewing this document, and contributing their knowledge and advice. Appreciation is also expressed to Shlomo Shimon of the Bronfman Jewish Education Centre, for his helpful insights.

Finally, special acknowledgment is extended to Lioudmila Medvedtchenko for her diligent work in the extraction and verification of statistical data.

All data in this report are adapted from: Statistics Canada, special order tabulations for UIA Federations Canada. Highlights of Results

 A large majority of Jews in Montreal, 71,420, consider themselves as Jewish by both religion and ethnicity. A further 17,345 respondents say they are Jewish by religion, but have another ethnic affiliation; whereas 4,205 people say they are Jews by ethnicity but have no religion. Finally, 4,765 are ethnic Jews who indicate another religion. The latter group was not included in this report’s definition of Jewishness.

 Using a combination of Census responses related to religion and ethnicity to define levels of Jewish identification, it was found that there is a larger proportion of Jews who are highly identified in the Montreal metropolitan area (95.5%) than in Canada as a whole (89.1%).

 More than a quarter (27.9%) of individuals with lower Jewish identification live in the “Rest of Montreal”, in areas outside the sphere of Jewish neighborhoods. There are also large numbers of persons with low affiliation residing in NDG / Montreal Ouest and the .

 13.1% of Jewish spouses / partners are married to non-Jews. This figure is considered to be the intermarriage rate for Jews residing in the Montreal Census Metropolitan Area, and includes common law and same-sex arrangements. In absolute terms, 5,700 of 43,490 Jewish spouses / partners are intermarried.

 There are 8,560 Jews (including children) who live in intermarried arrangements, or 12.2% of all Jews living in couple arrangements in the Montreal metropolitan area.

 There has been an increase of 19% of Jews living in intermarried households in the last decade, and 88% in the last two decades. In short, the number of individuals living in intermarried households has almost doubled in the last twenty years.

 The geographic area with the highest proportion of those living in intermarried households is “Rest of Montreal” (43.3%). Almost a third (29.2%) of Jewish residents in NDG / Montreal Ouest live in intermarried households.

 More than one of ten Jewish children under 15 years of age (living in couple families) reside in intermarried arrangements (12.1%).

 The percentage of common law arrangements among intermarried households is markedly higher than among those where both spouses are Jewish (31.6% and 3.2%, respectively).

 Jews born in the Former Soviet Union (24.1%) and South America (23.8%) have the highest levels of intermarriage.

 Families earning between $50K - $99.9K have the highest intermarriage levels (25.6%) of any income category. The intermarriage level is lower in the upper extreme of the income distribution.

 Regarding the youngest children of intermarried couples, just over a third (37.3%) are identified by their parents as Jews; a similar percentage (35.6%) are assigned no religious affiliation; and the rest (27.1%) are identified with other religions. Whether it is the husband or the wife who intermarries has a significant bearing on the religious orientation of their children.

 56.2% of Jewish children residing in the Montreal CMA are registered in Jewish day schools. The figures are 66.4% for elementary schools and 42.2% for high schools.

 When supplementary schooling is factored in, 60.9% of Jewish children have some exposure to education with a Jewish content. The figures are 73.2% for elementary school ages and 44% for high school ages.

Table of Contents

Comparisons of Jewish Identification ...... 2

Self-Perceptions of Jewishness ...... 5

A Closer Look at Levels of Affiliation ...... 9

Levels of Intermarriage in the Montreal Jewish Community ...... 11

Where Do Individuals Living in Intermarried Households Reside? ...... 17

The Characteristics of Intermarried Households ...... 17

Who Intermarries? ...... 19

The Affiliations of Children in Intermarried Families ...... 27

Enrolment in Jewish Day Schools ...... 28

The Challenges Ahead ...... 31

Appendix 1: The Jewish Standard Definition ...... 35

Appendix 2: The Reliability of the Census ...... 37

Census Analysis Series Issues of Jewish Identity

This report examines issues related to Jewish cultural and nationalistic aspects that identity based on figures from the 2001 represent a wide spectrum of attitudes and Census. Specifically, three subjects are beliefs. addressed: self-perceptions of Jewishness as specified in the Census; the levels and According to some analysts, Judaism has characteristics of intermarriage; and the remained vibrant and strong because of its percentage of Jewish school-aged children ability to tolerate and embrace a wide variety attending Jewish day schools in the Montreal of expressions. Others have contended that Census Metropolitan Area (CMA). opening the Jewish identity to such a multitude of expressions has further frayed or What defines someone as a Jew? According fragmented the cohesion of the Jewish to Halachic law, a Jew is anyone whose people. These perspectives have been at the mother was born as such, or who has heart of the debate on how to counteract the converted to Judaism. This definition is forces of assimilation that have threatened the straightforward, and does not rely on issues cohesiveness of the Jewish people throughout of beliefs, values or levels of ritual the centuries. observances. Being Jewish is a birth-right, which is not withdrawn even if the person In North America there has been increasing converts to another religion. Whatever the concern about the ability of the Jewish nature of one's identification, whatever the community to withstand the pressures of such self-perception, the fact of one's Jewishness assimilation, and these worries have is inviolable. implications for the future of Jewry in the Diaspora as a whole. A recent population However, it is in the expression of one's survey in the United States, for instance, Jewishness, in the strength of their Jewish suggested that since 1996, only slightly more identity, that self-perception does play a role. than half (53%) of Jewish marriages involved The Jewish experience can relate to religious, 1 two partners who were born Jewish.1 In 2001, country.3 About 40% of adult Jews were not more than 185,000 Americans who said they born in Canada, and this may account for a were raised exclusively Jewish, indicated stronger cultural and religious identity, they practiced another religion.2 although recent Jewish immigrants from the Former Soviet Union have not necessarily The Canadian situation is not as dramatic as demonstrated strong religious affiliation in the American findings, although assimilation either country. has had some impact on the character of the community. Such effects have been tempered Comparisons of Jewish Identification by a government policy, which emphasizes "multi-culturalism", a tolerance for various Studies done in the United States and Canada cultural expressions, which are woven into show that there are important differences in the fabric of Canadian life. This is in contrast the way these communities express their to the concept of the American "melting pot", Jewishness. Traditional measurements of where ethnic expressions are often absorbed identity and involvement have revolved into the overall cultural milieu, and may lose around questions of ritual observance, their distinctiveness. synagogue attendance, intermarriage levels, Jewish education, ties to Israel, as well as The effects of assimilation have also been Jewish social and communal affiliation. influenced by the fact that Canadian Jews are more of an immigrant community than Unfortunately, the last opportunity for Americans. The Jewish communities in the comparing national surveys in the United United States are generally historically older States and Canada was in 1991.4 Although than Canadian ones. Approximately 85% of these findings were presented 15 years ago, American Jewish adults were born in that their implications were very suggestive.

1 The National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) 2000-01: Strength, Challenge and Diversity in the 3 Ament, J. Jewish Immigrants in the United States. American Jewish Population. United Jewish United Jewish Communities: Report Series on the Communities, September 2003. National Jewish Population Survey 2000-01, October 2 Special analysis done of NJPS 2000-2001 data and 2004. personally communicated to the author by J. Ament, 4 Cohen, S. Jewish Identity in Canada: National Senior Project Director, Research Department, Character, Regional Diversity, and Emerging Trends United Jewish Communities. (1991). 2 For instance, Cohen (1991) found that The 1991 Canadian Population Survey also Canadian Jews observed more ritual practices suggested considerable variations in the than American Jews: 54% of Canadian Jews Jewish identification of people living in lit Sabbath candles, compared to 26% of various localities across Canada. For Americans. In terms of keeping separate meat instance, British Columbian Jewry fell below and dairy dishes, 44% of Canadian Jews did the national average in several measures of so; whereas the figure was 18% for American ritual observance and institutional affiliation. Jews. Toronto Jews generally scored neither very Comparisons also suggested that Canadian high nor very low on measures of Jewish Jews were more close-knit, and substantially identity or involvement. On the whole, the more Jewishly philanthropic than American Toronto community was somewhat less Jews. For instance, about 41% of Canadian involved in many aspects of Jewish life than Jews donated at least $100 to their those in Montreal, but more involved than Federation’s campaign, whereas only 21% of most Jews elsewhere in Canada. American Jews did so. Almost 80% of Canadian Jews said most of their friends Montreal Jewry appeared to be more were Jewish, compared to 51% of American observant and more Orthodox than other Jews. Canadian Jewry. Montreal Jews were also generally more communally active than Jews Finally, when compared with American elsewhere. Jews, Canadian Jews were more in touch with Israel and Israelis, more knowledgeable A more recent local study has also been about Israel, and more actively pro-Israel. instructive. According to a report by Shahar Almost forty percent of Canadian Jews had & Schnoor (1997), Montreal Jews are more visited Israel twice or more, compared to inclined to fast on Yom Kippur (86.7%) 17% in the United States. Forty-two percent compared to American Jews (65%) of Canadian Jews considered themselves to generally.5 They are also more likely to hold be Zionists, compared to 25% in the U.S.

5 Shahar, C. and Schnoor, R. F. A Survey of Jewish Life in Montreal: Part II. The Federation of Jewish Community Services of Montreal. May 1997. 3

Table 1 Religious & Ethnicity Affiliations Montreal Jewish Population

# %

Religion Jewish / Ethnicity Jewish 71,420 73.1

Religion Jewish / Ethnicity Not Jewish 17,345 17.7

Religion None / Ethnicity Single: Jewish 1,345 1.4

Religion None / Ethnicity Jewish & Other 2,860 2.9

Religion Other / Ethnicity Jewish 4,765 4.9

Total Having Any Jewish Affiliation 97,735 100.0

Table 2 Levels of Jewish Identification Based on Religion & Ethnicity Responses Montreal Jewish Population

# %

Higher Jewish Identification 88,765 95.5

Lower Jewish Identification 4,205 4.5

Total 92,970 100.0

4 a Passover Seder (87.8%) than American Jewish identity. These include the type of Jews (55%). About 74% of Montreal Jews identification (religious or ethnic) among have been to Israel at least twice, compared Jews, the level of intermarriage and its to 26% of American Jews. Lastly, 72.6% of correlates, and the percentage of children Montreal Jews say they had attended Jewish attending Jewish day schools. day schools, whereas the American level is 67%. The following monograph will take an in- depth look at these issues, as they pertain to All the above findings underscore the the Montreal Jewish community specifically. differences between communities both within Canada and across its borders. Cohen Self-Perceptions of Jewishness suggests that the prevailing view among Jewish community leaders is that Canadian The 2001 Census asked two questions related Jewry is actually "one generation behind" the to one's Jewishness. The first looked at the United States in the "assimilation" process. It respondent's religion. The other asked about is therefore assumed that we have more time the person's ethnic origin. Whereas the to adjust, and perhaps that we can learn from religious criterion is straightforward, the the mistakes and successes of the American question of ethnicity is more ambiguous. efforts. Whatever the validity of these Ethnicity could include implications of arguments, more data is needed to study the culture, nationality and race. It is therefore effects of assimilation generally in Canada. more prone to idiosyncrasies of interpretation. For instance, some Unfortunately, the Canadian Census does not respondents who identified themselves as allow for analyses related to Jewish attitudes Jewish by religion, claimed that their and beliefs, or adherence to Jewish customs. ethnicity was "Canadian" or "Israeli". This is an important limitation, since most factors related to Jewish identity cannot be Respondents were allowed more than one examined using the Census. On the other choice for ethnicity, and a maximum of four hand, there are certain variables which allow choices. Thus, a person could say that they for the measurement of some aspects of were ethnically Jewish and Polish. There was no way of knowing the strength of one's 5

Table 3 Census Metropolitan Areas by Levels of Jewish Identification (Row %)

Higher Jewish Lower Jewish

Total Identification Identification Census Metropolitan Area # # % # %

Montreal 92,970 88,765 95.5 4,205 4.5

Toronto 179,095 164,510 91.9 14,585 8.1

Ottawa / Gatineau 13,445 11,325 84.2 2,120 15.8

Winnipeg 14,775 12,765 86.4 2,010 13.6

Calgary 7,945 6,530 82.2 1,415 17.8

Vancouver 22,595 17,275 76.5 5,320 23.5

Canada 370,520 329,995 89.1 40,525 10.9

6 identification regarding a particular ethnic A category that was not included in this category; but if only one choice was made, definition related to respondents who said then it could be assumed it represented the they were ethnically Jewish, but claimed dominant affiliation. another religious affiliation, such as Roman Catholic or Buddhist. These people may have Despite these ambiguities, Jewish identity, as converted to another religion, or they may defined by the Census, is unique, because it simply have had an ancestor (e.g. a can be classified as both a religious and grandparent) who was Jewish. In either case, ethnic affiliation. One can also say something it was assumed that they have a very minimal about the strength of Jewish identification by affiliation with Judaism, and were therefore looking at different combinations using these not included as Jews. two criteria. Thus, a person who said they were ethnically Jewish but had no religion, Table 1 shows a breakdown of the Montreal likely had a different self-perception as a Jew Jewish population by category of affiliation. than one who claimed both religious and A large majority of Jews in Montreal, 71,420, ethnic affiliations. consider themselves as Jewish by both religion and ethnicity. They are the group Given the Census parameters, a Jew in this most clearly identified as Jews. A further report was defined as someone who indicated 17,345 respondents say they are Jewish by they were (a) Jewish by religion and religion, but have another ethnic affiliation. ethnicity, (b) Jewish by religion with another ethnicity, or (c) Jewish by ethnicity with no It is interesting that 4,205 people say they are religion. This is the Jewish Standard Jews by ethnicity but have no religion. These Definition, which was formulated in 1981 by may be secular Jews, who don't follow Jim Torczyner of McGill University. It was religious customs, some of whom may devised because this definition was more consider themselves as atheists or agnostics. inclusive than if religion or ethnicity were They likely identify more with Judaism on a considered separately. cultural level. Together, these three categories comprise 92,970 individuals, which is the Jewish population of Montreal

7

Table 4 Age by Levels of Jewish Identification (Row %)

Higher Jewish Lower Jewish

Total Identification Identification Age Cohort # # % # %

0-14 18,195 17,070 93.8 1,125 6.2

15-24 11,790 11,090 94.1 700 5.9

25-44 20,050 19,080 95.2 970 4.8

45-64 22,830 21,970 96.2 860 3.8

65+ 20,095 19,565 97.4 530 2.6

Total Montreal CMA 92,960 88,775 95.5 4,185 4.5

8 according to the Jewish Standard Definition findings should therefore be interpreted with (JSD) as applied to the 2001 Census. these caveats in mind.

There are 4,765 persons in the category that As Table 2 suggests, the great majority of was not included in the JSD (ethnic Jews Montreal Jews have a higher Jewish indicating another religion). A further identification (95.5%). Only 4.5% are analysis reveals that 53.7% of these considered as having a lower identification. individuals say they are Catholic, 22.5% say Protestant, 15.1% Christian Orthodox, 1.6% There is a significantly higher proportion of Buddhist, 1.3% Muslim, and 5.8% report Jews who are highly identified in Montreal various other religions. (95.5%) than in Canada as a whole (89.1%) (Table 3). In terms of other major Canadian A Closer Look at Levels of Affiliation Jewish communities, Toronto has 91.9% who are highly identified, Vancouver has 76.5%, In the following analyses, those that indicated and Winnipeg has 86.4%. Vancouver has the they were Jewish by religion are considered largest proportion of individuals who are less as having a "Higher Jewish Identification"; affiliated in the country (23.5%). people who indicated that they were Jewish by ethnicity but who claimed no religion, are According to Table 4, Jewish affiliation is considered as having a "Lower Jewish clearly related to age. The older segments Identification". seem to have higher levels of identification. In fact, 97.4% of seniors are highly affiliated. It is obviously difficult to judge the quality of It is the 0-14 age group that has the highest identification of any person, let alone rely on percentage of individuals with lower the limitations of the Census criteria. But affiliation (6.2%). these labels are meant for comparison purposes only. Someone who said they were It is difficult to explain the lower levels of ethnically Jewish, but had no religion, may identification among those under 15 years. have a strong commitment in different ways There are 1,125 such children listed by their (e.g. participation in community parents as having no religious identity, and organizations, supporting Israel). The 9 Table 5 Levels of Jewish Identification by Geographic Areas (Row %)

Higher Jewish Lower Jewish

Total Identification Identification District # # % # %

Centre Ville 2,405 2,255 93.8 150 6.2

Chomedey 3,765 3,670 97.5 95 2.5

Cote des Neiges 7,680 7,405 96.4 275 3.6

Cote St. Luc 19,785 19,445 98.3 340 1.7

Hampstead 5,195 5,170 99.5 25 0.5

NDG / Mtl. Ouest 5,810 5,155 88.7 655 11.3

Outremont 3,575 3,435 96.1 140 3.9

Park Avenue / Extension 1,755 1,640 93.4 115 6.6

Snowdon 7,235 6,950 96.1 285 3.9

Town of 2,255 2,200 97.6 55 2.4

Ville St. Laurent 8,250 8,140 98.7 110 1.3

Westmount 4,715 4,490 95.2 225 4.8

West Island 13,035 12,480 95.7 555 4.3

Rest of Montreal 7,505 6,335 84.4 1,170 15.6

Total Montreal CMA 92,965 88,770 95.5 4,195 4.5

10 who are still counted as Jews using the likely live in the Tosh Chassidic community Jewish Standard Definition (JSD) as a in Boisbriand. criterion. They are children who may be getting little exposure to Jewish customs or Aside from the “Rest of Montreal”, other traditions, and they represent an interesting areas with significant numbers of Jews with challenge: how to encourage a life-long lower affiliation include NDG / Montreal connection to the community. Ouest (655) and the West Island (555).

According to Table 5, many of those with a On the other hand, the West Island also has lower level of Jewish identification live in the 12,480 highly affiliated Jews, a number that "Rest of Montreal", which includes such is surpassed only by those living in Cote St. disparate areas as Dorval, LaSalle, Verdun, Luc (19,445). Hence, the great majority of the East section of Montreal, and the North Jews in the West Island are in fact highly and South Shores. affiliated, at least according to the definition used in this Census analysis. In fact, the “Rest of Montreal” has 1,170 individuals with lower Jewish identification, Levels of Intermarriage in the or 27.9% of the total in this category within Montreal Jewish Community the Montreal CMA. It is clear that many The Census can be used to analyze the lesser-affiliated persons are living outside incidence of intermarriage in the Jewish Jewish neighborhoods and are likely community. Specifically, in this report disconnected from Jewish community life as intermarriage is defined as a situation where well. a person who falls under the Jewish Standard

Definition (JSD) marries someone who is not It should be noted, however, that there are included under this criterion. It is then also 6,335 highly identified Jews in the "Rest possible to cross-tabulate intermarriage with of Montreal". This figure is larger than the a number of other variables to profile those numbers of highly identified Jews in places who are most likely to marry outside their such as Town of Mount Royal, Outremont faith. and Westmount. Many of these individuals

11

Table 6 Intermarriage Breakdowns Base Population: Jewish Spouses / Partners

# %

Husband Jewish / Wife Jewish 37,790 86.9

Intermarried: Husband Jewish / Wife Non-Jewish 3,360 7.7

Intermarried: Husband Non-Jewish / Wife Jewish 2,340 5.4

(Subtotal: Intermarried) (5,700) (13.1)

Total Jewish Spouses / Partners 43,490 100.0

Table 7 Intermarriage Breakdowns Base Population: Individuals Living in Couple Households

# %

Husband Jewish / Wife Jewish 61,445 87.5

Husband Jewish / Wife Non-Jewish 4,580 6.5

Husband Non-Jewish / Wife Jewish 3,980 5.7

(Subtotal: Living in Intermarried Households) (8,560) (12.2)

Husband Non-Jewish / Wife Non-Jewish 220 0.3

Total Individuals Living in Couple Households 70,225 100.0

12 Note that individuals who converted to According to this breakdown, 13.1% of Judaism are considered as Jewish according Jewish spouses / partners are intermarried. to the Jewish Standard Definition. Thus, This figure is considered the intermarriage intermarriage as described in this report only rate for the Montreal Census Metropolitan examines couples where the non-Jewish Area. In absolute terms, 5,700 of 43,490 spouse did not convert to Judaism. It is not Jewish spouses / partners are intermarried. possible to identify conversionary marriages using the Census information alone. Of 5,700 spouses / partners who live in intermarried arrangements, 3,360 (58.9%) It is also important to mention that common live in situations where the husband is Jewish law unions are included in the following and the wife is non-Jewish; and 2,340 statistics on intermarriage, as are same-sex (41.1%) are living in arrangements where the arrangements where one of the partners is husband is non-Jewish and the wife is Jewish and the other is not. In this report, Jewish. In other words, Jewish men are more common law and same-sex arrangements inclined to intermarry than Jewish women. refer to a union between “partners”, whereas individuals who are married are referred to as The intermarriage rate among Montreal’s “spouses”. Jews (13.1%) is the lowest of any Jewish community in the country. The levels of What is the level of intermarriage among intermarriage include 15.6% for Toronto, Montreal’s Jews? Table 6 examines the 23.3% for Winnipeg, 31.8% for Ottawa, intermarriage rate from the perspective of 34.3% for Calgary, and 41.3% for the spouses or partners. Since there are two Vancouver Jewish community. The Canadian Jewish spouses / partners when Jews marry intermarriage rate is 21.7%. within the faith, such arrangements are given a count of two; whereas in intermarried What is the total number of Jews living in families, only the Jewish spouse / partner is intermarried families, including children? considered in the calculation. According to Table 7, there are 8,560 individuals who live in intermarried

13

Table 8 Individuals Living in Intermarried Households by Geographic Areas (Row %)

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried District # # % # %

Centre Ville 1,050 845 80.5 205 19.5

Chomedey 2,960 2,580 87.2 380 12.8

Cote des Neiges 5,035 4,760 94.5 275 5.5

Cote St. Luc 14,530 14,065 96.8 465 3.2

Hampstead 4,475 4,345 97.1 130 2.9

NDG / Mtl. Ouest 3,910 2,770 70.8 1,140 29.2

Outremont 3,050 2,915 95.6 135 4.4

Park Avenue / Extension 1,360 1,165 85.7 195 14.3

Snowdon 4,685 4,360 93.1 325 6.9

Town of Mount Royal 1,990 1,790 89.9 200 10.1

Ville St. Laurent 6,360 5,980 94.0 380 6.0

Westmount 3,580 3,035 84.8 545 15.2

West Island 11,630 9,765 84.0 1,865 16.0

Rest of Montreal 5,395 3,060 56.7 2,335 43.3

Total Montreal CMA 70,010 61,435 87.8 8,575 12.2

14 arrangements. This represents 12.2% of all compared to previous definitions of individuals living in couple arrangements. Jewishness (see Appendix 2).

The small discrepancy between the Notwithstanding these caveats, in 1991 the intermarriage figures in Tables 6 and 7 intermarriage rate was 9.3%, with 7,195 Jews (13.1% versus 12.2%) results from the fact living in such arrangements in the Montreal that intermarried families typically have CMA. This compares to 8,560 in 2001, an fewer children (see Table 11), and hence are increase of about 19% in the last decade. underestimated when the rate is calculated based on all individuals, rather than only In 1981, the intermarriage rate was 5.5%, spouses / partners. with 4,555 Jews living in such arrangements. Hence, in the last two decades there has been Also according to Table 7, 220 Jewish an increase of 88% in the number of children are living in situations where neither individuals living in intermarried households. parent is Jewish. They may be products of In short, the number has almost doubled mixed marriages, where the non-Jewish since 1981. partner has divorced and then married someone outside the faith while retaining The increase in the number of individuals custody of the children, who are nonetheless living in intermarried households should be considered Jewish. considered in the context of the overall population trends experienced by the local How does the 2001 level of intermarriage community. Between 1981 and 2001, the compare to statistics available from previous Jewish population here decreased by 10.4%, decades? Unfortunately, previous Census while the number of persons living in analyses did not examine the intermarriage intermarried arrangements increased by rate on the basis of spouses / partners, only in 88%. In short, significant increases in terms of total individuals living in intermarriage levels have come despite a intermarried families. Also, there are small decline in the local Jewish population in the discrepancies between the Jewish Standard last twenty years. Definition used in the present Census,

15

Table 9 Intermarriage Breakdowns Age of Spouses / Partners (Row %)

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried

# # % # %

Both Spouses < 30 Years 2,165 1,740 80.4 425 19.6

At Least One Spouse 30-39 Years 8,810 6,810 77.3 2,000 22.7

At Least One Spouse > 39 Years 35,385 31,410 88.8 3,975 11.2

Both Spouses > 39 Years 32,335 29,110 90.0 3,225 10.0 Note: The age categories described above may overlap with one another. Hence, the totals of the columns represent more than 100% of the households in question.

16 Where Do Individuals Living in The Characteristics of Intermarried Intermarried Households Reside? Households

Table 8 looks at the geographic distribution Table 9 looks at the ages of Jewish spouses / of individuals (including children) living in partners living in intermarried arrangements. different couple arrangements. The "Rest of Note that the age categories represented in Montreal" has the largest number of Jews this table may overlap with one another. living in intermarried households (2,335). American studies have shown that younger Large numbers also reside in the West Island adults are more inclined to intermarry than (1,865) and NDG / Montreal Ouest (1,140). It their older counterparts. This trend seems to is interesting that these three areas are also be verified by the current Census data, where Jews with lower affiliation reside (see although the relationship is not linear. Table 5). For instance, the intermarriage rate when In relative terms, the area with the largest both spouses are less than 30 years of age is proportion of those living in intermarried 19.6%. It is 22.7% if at least one spouse is households is “Rest of Montreal”. Almost between 30-39 years, 11.2% if there is at half (43.3%) of Jews residing in “Rest of least one spouse greater than 39 years, and Montreal” live in such arrangements. Almost 10% if both spouses are older than 39 years. a third (29.2%) of Jewish residents in NDG / It seems that the intermarriage rate for the Montreal Ouest live in intermarried youngest couples is significantly higher than households. for older ones.

The area with the lowest proportion of Jews Table 10 provides an interesting statistic. living in intermarried households is More than one of ten Jewish children under Hampstead, with 2.9%. There are also low 15 years (12.1%), who reside with both percentages in Cote St. Luc (3.2%) and parents, live in an intermarried arrangement. Outremont (4.4%). This represents 1,975 children.

A further analysis shows that 13.1% of children less than 5 years, who reside with 17

Table 10 Individuals Living in Intermarried Households by Age Breakdowns (Row %)

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried Age Cohort # # % # %

0-14 16,275 14,300 87.9 1,975 12.1

15-24 8,865 7,925 89.4 940 10.6

25-44 14,960 12,265 82.0 2,695 18.0

45-64 17,655 15,380 87.1 2,275 12.9

65+ 12,265 11,580 94.4 685 5.6

Total Individuals in Couple Households 70,020 61,450 87.8 8,570 12.2

0-4 5,460 4,745 86.9 715 13.1

18 both parents, live in an intermarried Arrangements in which both spouses are arrangement. This involves 715 children. Jewish have a significantly higher percentage of households with at least three children It should be noted that the above statistics living at home (17.3%), compared to likely underestimate the number of children intermarried arrangements (6.6%). under 5 years residing in intermarried families, since only those identified by their Table 12 looks at family structure by couple parents as being Jewish are included in this arrangements. It can be seen that the count. Later data presented in this report will percentage of common law arrangements show that a significant percentage of younger among intermarried households is children in intermarried families are not significantly higher than among those where considered to be Jewish by their parents. both spouses are Jewish (31.6% and 3.2%, respectively). In short, almost a third of Table 11 shows the number of children living intermarried couples live in common law at home by various couple arrangements. situations. When both spouses are Jewish, the mean number of children living at home is higher The level of common law arrangements than in intermarried situations (1.3 and 0.9 among the intermarried (31.6%) is even children, respectively). Although both figures higher than that for the overall Montreal and appear low, the reader should note that these populations respectively (28.2% and are not measures of fertility, because they do 30.2%). not take into account children living outside the home. Who Intermarries?

Further analysis reveals that when a wife is Table 13 looks at intermarriage by place of Jewish and intermarries there tends to be birth. Jews born in Canada have an more children (mean=1.0) than if the husband intermarriage rate of 12.2%. is Jewish and intermarries (0.8). Jews from the Former Soviet Union (24.1%) and South America (23.8%) have the highest levels of intermarriage among immigrants. 19

Table 11 Number of Children in Intermarried Households

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried Number of Children # % # % # %

None 11,365 46.2 8,570 45.4 2,795 49.2

One 4,195 17.1 2,990 15.8 1,205 21.2

Two 5,360 21.8 4,050 21.4 1,310 23.0

Three 2,325 9.5 2,005 10.6 320 5.6

Four 725 3.0 680 3.6 45 0.8

Five or more 605 2.5 595 3.1 10 0.2

Total Couple Households 24,575 100.0 18,890 100.0 5,685 100.0

Mean Number -- 1.3 0.9

Table 12 Family Structure in Intermarried Households

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried Family Structure # % # % # %

Married couples 22,185 90.2 18,285 96.8 3,900 68.4

Common-law couples 2,410 9.8 610 3.2 1,800 31.6

Total Couple Households 24,595 100.0 18,895 100.0 5,700 100.0

20 Table 13 Individuals Living in Intermarried Households by Place of Birth (Row %) Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried Place of Birth # # % # %

Canada 47,110 41,345 87.8 5,765 12.2

Israel 2,590 2,380 91.9 210 8.1

Eastern Europe (excl. FSU) 4,380 3,995 91.2 385 8.8

Former Soviet Union 2,390 1,815 75.9 575 24.1

Western Europe 2,805 2,300 82.0 505 18.0

North Africa / Middle East (excl. Israel) 7,235 6,685 92.4 550 7.6

United States 2,620 2,250 85.9 370 14.1

South America 420 320 76.2 100 23.8

Other 465 365 78.5 100 21.5

Total Individuals Living in Couple Households 70,015 61,455 87.8 8,560 12.2

Table 14 Individuals Living in Intermarried Households by Year of Immigration (Row %) Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried Year of Immigration # # % # %

Non-immigrants 47,495 41,690 87.8 5,805 12.2

Before 1960 5,195 4,740 91.2 455 8.8

1960 - 1969 4,240 3,765 88.8 475 11.2

1970 - 1979 4,400 3,885 88.3 515 11.7

1980 - 1989 3,650 3,290 90.1 360 9.9

1990 - 2001 4,605 3,730 81.0 875 19.0

Non-permanent residents 415 340 81.9 75 18.1

Total Individuals Living in Couple Households 70,000 61,440 87.8 8,560 12.2

21

Table 15 Intermarriage Breakdowns Education of Spouses / Partners (Row %)

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried

# # % # %

Both Spouses Less Than Univ. Education 19,065 16,980 89.1 2,085 10.9

At Least One Spouse Univ. Undergraduate 17,000 14,570 85.7 2,430 14.3

At Least One Spouse Univ. Graduate 12,205 10,350 84.8 1,855 15.2

Both Spouses University Graduates 3,445 2,800 81.3 645 18.7 Note: The education categories described above may overlap with one another. Hence, the totals of the columns represent more than 100% of the households in question.

22 They also happen to be among the most Union (30.5%) live in intermarried recent arrivals to Montreal. households.

The lowest incidence of intermarriage is Intermarriage Rates of Jewish Immigrants Arriving Between 1990-2001 found among those born in North Africa / by Place of Birth Middle East (excluding Israel) (7.6%). In other words, immigrant Sephardim from this % Israel 4.8 region have the lowest rate of intermarriage Eastern Europe (excl. FSU) 28.6 in the Jewish community. There are also low Former Soviet Union 30.5 Western Europe 25.7 intermarriage levels among Jews born in N. Africa / Middle East (excl. Israel) 7.0 Israel (8.1%) and Eastern Europe (8.8%). United States 13.3 South America 39.4 Other 8.3 Regarding intermarriage by year of Total 19.0 immigration (Table 14), recent immigrants

(1990-2001) have by far the highest level of In absolute terms, of 885 immigrants who intermarriage of any landed immigrant group arrived between 1990-2001, and who live in (19%). In other words, almost a fifth of Jews intermarried households, 455 were born in who arrived in the decade before the Census, the Former Soviet Union, 110 in the United were intermarried. The lowest intermarriage States and 95 in Western Europe. The rates are found among those who immigrated remainder (225) originated in various other before 1960 (8.8%). regions.

A more detailed analysis of intermarriage Unfortunately, regarding statistics related to levels involving year of immigration and intermarriage and year of immigration, it is place of birth is shown in the table below. not possible using the Census data alone to This breakdown examines the intermarriage determine whether individuals had rates of immigrant groups arriving between intermarried in this country, or had arrived 1990-2001. It is clear that large percentages here with their non-Jewish spouse. of immigrant Jews arriving from South

America (39.4%) and the Former Soviet

23

Table 16A Intermarriage Breakdowns Family Income (Row %)

Total Both Spouses Jewish Intermarried

# # % # %

Under $25,000 2,155 1,640 76.1 515 23.9

$25,000 - $49,999 5,535 4,305 77.8 1,230 22.2

$50,000 - $99,999 8,445 6,280 74.4 2,165 25.6

$100,000 - $149,999 4,005 3,075 76.8 930 23.2

$150,000 or more 4,470 3,595 80.4 875 19.6

Total Couple Households 24,610 18,895 76.8 5,715 23.2

Table 16B Intermarriage Breakdowns Median Family Income

Median Income ($)

Both Spouses Jewish 74,851

Intermarried 70,534

24 Table 15 examines the relationship between It is interesting that studies in the United level of education and intermarriage. Note States have found an opposite link between that some education categories described in level of education and intermarriage. The this table overlap with one another. The National Jewish Population Survey (2000- findings suggest that those with lower levels 2001) found that 34% of those with a high of education are less inclined to intermarry. school education or less were intermarried, compared to 31% with a university For instance, when both spouses have less undergraduate degree, and 27% with a than a university education, the intermarriage university graduate degree.6 Cohen (1989) level is 10.9%. An intervening variable here reports that among American men who never might be age. Individuals older than 50 years attended university, the intermarriage rate is are less likely to have a university degree and over 40%; of those with an undergraduate also less likely to intermarry. degree, only 18% are intermarried.7

If at least one spouse has a university As Table 16A shows, the relationship undergraduate degree the intermarriage rate between intermarriage and income status is rises to 14.3%. If at least one spouse has a complex. Intermarriage seems to be more university graduate degree the intermarriage prevalent among middle-income families as level is 15.2%. It seems that exposure to a far as income ranges are concerned. Those university setting is in some way correlated families earning between $50K - $99.9K with level of intermarriage. have the highest level of intermarriage (25.6%). Finally, the highest rate of intermarriage is found when both spouses have university The intermarriage level is lowest in the upper graduate degrees, such as MAs or PhDs extreme of the income distribution. For (18.7%). It may be that as one continues with their educational involvement in a secular milieu, there are more opportunities for 6 NJPS (2000-01) Report on Jewish Life: Variations inter-faith encounters. in Intermarriage. See the United Jewish Communities Web Site: http://www.ujc.org 7 Cohen, S. Alternative Families in the Jewish Community. The American Jewish Committee, Institute of Human Relations (1989). 25

Table 17 Religion of Youngest Child in Intermarried Households

Husband Jewish / Wife Husband Non-Jewish /

Both Spouses Jewish Non-Jewish Wife Jewish Total Intermarried Religion of Youngest Child # % # % # % # %

Jewish 10,110 98.0 365 23.9 725 52.2 1,090 37.3

Catholic 25 0.2 285 18.6 145 10.4 430 14.7

Protestant 0 0.0 120 7.8 45 3.2 165 5.7

Christian Orthodox 10 0.1 65 4.2 35 2.5 100 3.4

Muslim 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 0.7 10 0.3

Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh 0 0.0 25 1.6 10 0.7 35 1.2

Para-religious groups 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

No religious affiliation 175 1.7 645 42.2 395 28.4 1,040 35.6

All other religions 0 0.0 25 1.6 25 1.8 50 1.7

Total Couple Households 10,320 100.0 1,530 100.0 1,390 100.0 2,920 100.0

26 instance, the rate is 19.6% among families little doubt that the community cannot afford earning $150,000 or more. to “lose” these families to the pressures of assimilation. As Table 16B shows, the median income of intermarried couples ($70,534) is lower than Table 17 is very revealing in this regard. As that of arrangements where both spouses are expected, among Jewish families, the great Jewish ($74,851). majority of the youngest children (98%) are identified by their parents as Jews, 1.7% are Results from the National Jewish Population assigned no religious affiliation, and 0.3% are Survey in the United States (2000-2001) are identified with other religions. Note, compatible with the current findings. The however, that despite the fact that the great American study found that intermarriage majority are identified as Jews, it is levels peaked in the middle of the income impossible to determine their level of distribution, and were less pronounced in the exposure to Jewish customs and rituals. extremes. For instance, 38% of households There is also no way to know from the earning between $50,000-$99,999 were Census how these identifications translate intermarried, compared to 32% of households into actual behaviors and attitudes. earning less than $25,000, and 28% of households earning more than $150,000.8 Regarding the youngest children of intermarried couples, just over a third The Affiliations of Children in (37.3%) are being brought up as Jews; a Intermarried Families similar percentage (35.6%) have no religious

affiliation; and the rest (27.1%) are being How children are being brought up in brought up within other religions. intermarried families has profound implications for the issue of Jewish In other words, almost two-thirds (62.7%) of continuity. Since the intermarriage level these children in intermarried families are not among Montreal’s Jews is 13.1% there is identified as belonging to the religious orientation of the Jewish spouse. It is difficult 8 Special analysis done of NJPS 2000-2001 data and personally communicated to the author by J. Ament, to say whether they are having either minimal Senior Project Director, Research Department, United Jewish Communities. 27 or no exposure to Judaism, but the findings environment that benefits from the are suggestive nonetheless. encouragement of educators and peers.

Table 17 also shows that whether a Jewish Studies have shown that a full-time Jewish man or woman intermarries is a critical factor education, although not a guarantee of high in the identification of the youngest child. For levels of Jewish identification and affiliation, instance, in cases where Jewish men does greatly influence these factors. Studies intermarry, 23.9% of youngest children are in the United States and Canada have identified as Jewish, 42.2% as having no consistently indicated that a Jewish religious affiliation, and 33.9% as having education has a positive impact on the another religion. In short, 76.1% do not have evolution of a person’s Jewish identity into the religious orientation of the Jewish father. adulthood.

In cases where Jewish women intermarry, In fact, a study undertaken locally by the 52.2% are identified as Jewish, 28.4% as Bronfman Jewish Education Centre found having no religious affiliation, and 19.4% as that attendance at a Jewish high school was having another religion. In short, less than significantly associated with higher levels of half (47.8%) do not have the religious religious practices and synagogue orientation of the mother. attendance.9 It was also significantly associated with higher rates of membership Enrolment in Jewish Day Schools in Jewish organizations, a higher likelihood of contributing to Jewish charities, and higher A basic foundation of Jewish life is the rates of volunteerism for Jewish education that children are given during their organizations. Moreover, graduates from formative years. A sound Jewish education Jewish high schools were significantly less should instill the values and beliefs that form likely to intermarry than those who attended essential ingredients of one's “Jewishness”. non-Jewish high schools.9 This perspective can best be promoted if the child gets sufficient exposure to Jewish 9 Shahar, C. The Jewish High School Experience: Its subjects (Torah, laws and customs, Hebrew Implications for the Evolution of Jewish Identity in Young Adults. Jewish Education Council of language, Jewish history, etc.), in an Montreal, 1998. 28 In the Montreal community there is a despite the fact that the community had long-standing tradition of helping children diminished by a further 2.3%, from 103,765 whose parents are unable to afford fees for a to 101,405 individuals. Jewish education. According to the Bronfman Jewish Education Centre Finally, total enrolment in Jewish day schools (B.J.E.C.), 45.4% of students attending day increased by 6.3% between 1991 and 2001. schools received some financial support in This increase has taken place despite the fact 2001. The total amount of scholarship dollars that the size of the Montreal Jewish given that year was $2.55 million. The rates community diminished by a further 8.3% in of subsidies have remained at similar levels the last decade. since then. It was 43.7% in 2002 and 45.1% in 2003. Clearly the community recognizes The increase in total the need to make Jewish education affordable enrolment, however, does not take into and accessible for all eligible children whose account changes in the different sectors. For parents want them to pursue such an instance, the English sector has declined education. significantly during the past decade, whereas the French and Ultra Orthodox sectors have The level of Jewish day school enrolment has seen increasing enrolment. been rising steadily in the last three decades. In 1971, total enrolment in the system was It is in this context that the present analysis 3,824. In 1981, the figure was 6,704, an was undertaken to determine the percentage increase of 75.3%. The total Jewish of Jewish children enrolled in Jewish day population of Montreal, however, diminished schools. This analysis, in fact, represents a by about 7.4% between 1971 and 1981; relatively refined estimate because discrete shrinking from 112,020 to 103,765 age groups of Jews (aged 0-19 years) are individuals. available from the Census data.

The enrolment for Jewish day schools also Table 18A presents levels of enrolment for increased from 6,704 to 7,551 between 1981 Jewish elementary schools, high schools and and 1991, a rise of 12.6%. This rise came totals. The first column relates to the base

29

Table 18A Percent Enrolled in Jewish Day Schools (2001) 2001 Census Enrolled in Other Percent of Number in Base Jewish Day Chassidic Base Non-Jewish Population Schools Schools* Enrolled Schools

Elementary School (K-6) 8,550 4,740 937 66.4 2,873

High School (7-11) 6,235 2,302 331 42.2 3,602

Total 14,785 7,042 1,268 56.2 6,475 *Includes enrolment in schools not affiliated with the Bronfman Jewish Education Centre.

Table 18B Percent Enrolled in “Mainstream” Jewish Day Schools (2001) 2001 Census Enrolled in Percent of Number in Base Jewish Day Base Non-Jewish Population* Schools Enrolled Schools

Elementary School (K-6) 5,950 3,077 51.7 2,873

High School (7-11) 5,270 1,668 31.7 3,602

Total 11,220 4,745 42.3 6,475 *This column equals the total Census base population minus the Ultra-Orthodox stream and those enrolled in non-affiliated Chassidic schools.

Table 18C Percent Having Exposure to Jewish Instruction (Includes Supplementary School Enrolment) (2001) 2001 Enrolled in Enrolled in Total With Percent Total With Census Jewish Day Supplement. Jewish With No Jewish Base Schools Schools Instruction Jewish Instruction Population Instruction

Elementary School (K-6) 8,550 5,677 579 6,256 73.2 2,294

High School (7-11) 6,235 2,633 113 2,746 44.0 3,489

Total 14,785 8,310 692 9,002 60.9 5,783

30 population of school-aged children as community attend Jewish day schools. The reflected in the 2001 Census statistics. The figure is 51.7% for elementary schools and second column shows enrolment in the 31.7% for high schools. In short, almost 58% Jewish day school system; whereas the next of children eligible for either the English or set of figures include Hassidic schools which French "mainstreams" do not attend Jewish are not affiliated with the Bronfman Jewish day schools. Education Centre, but which are nonetheless located in the Montreal Census Metropolitan Finally, Table 18C examines the total number Area. The percentages of Jewish children of children who have some exposure to enrolled in Jewish day schools are featured in Jewish education. In this analysis, the fourth column. supplementary school registration was added to the total enrolment. According to the According to Table 18A, 56.2% of Jewish results, 60.9% of Jewish children have some children are registered in Jewish day schools. exposure to education with a Jewish content. The figures are 66.4% for elementary schools The figures are 73.2% for elementary school and 42.2% for high schools. ages and 44% for high school ages. However, this table does not take into account children In absolute terms, 5,677 children are who are receiving Jewish instruction from attending Jewish elementary schools and private teachers, tutors, or family members. 2,873 are attending non-Jewish elementary schools. Moreover, 2,633 are attending The Challenges Ahead Jewish high schools, whereas 3,602 are attending non-Jewish high schools. Jews have long relied on the commitment and participation of their fellow members to help Table 18B looks at the percent of those who shape the community they live in. Montreal are enrolled in Jewish day schools, with the has a unique quality of Jewish life in North Ultra Orthodox population subtracted from America, and if this is to continue, some of the calculation. The results suggest that the questions raised in this report must be 42.3% of Jewish school-aged children who addressed. Indeed, given the recent trends are not a part of the Ultra Orthodox suggested by the Census statistics such issues

31 would seem to require serious consideration within a Jewish milieu. Those who were on the part of community leaders and described as having a lower affiliation in this planners. report need greater opportunities to participate and to identify venues where they Although there are few initiatives among the will be welcomed. The Census figures system of Jewish organizations geared suggest that a large group see their specifically to reaching the unaffiliated, there Jewishness not in terms of the religious are programs that include significant numbers aspects of the faith, but have a more secular of Jews who might otherwise not have perspective. Are there ways of introducing significant Jewish exposure. These include them to Jewish experiences that are Camp B’nai Brith, the Y-County Camp, and interesting, relevant and vital? the Israel Experience Centre. Free Hebrew for Juniors is a program that reaches Our organizations and programs typically unaffiliated children who might not otherwise cater to those who live in traditional have Hebrew language exposure in school or “Jewish” neighborhoods, whereas those who at home. reside in the geographic fringes of

community life are often less considered. Recently, a new FEDERATION CJA branch People who self-identify as Jews and was established in the West Island. This participate through their own motivation represents a clear commitment to outreach to have chosen to come to community events the Jewish population there, where as or partake of programs. But what about mentioned in this report, there are significant those who have chosen to stay home? How numbers of Jews with lower affiliation, and a can we make Judaism and Jewish life more high proportion of intermarried couples. The attractive or relevant for them? Y-JCC in the West Island has been operating there for many years, and also FEDERATION CJA must continue to attracts members who would otherwise not sensitize agencies to the issue of outreach to be affiliated with the community. the unaffiliated. It can also raise the profile

of Judaism among staff and lay leaders However, more ways must be found to create within the Federated system: by bringing a openings for those less likely to be active 32 stronger Jewish element into their work, and Beyond questions of conversion and who having them think more deeply about their should be considered a Jew, what type of Jewishness. In short, connecting community initiatives can be taken regarding the issue workers and leaders with their own of intermarriage? One approach relates to Jewishness may help them communicate a fostering accommodation: making the deeper commitment and understanding to intermarried couple feel comfortable and those who feel estranged or disengaged from accepted enough to participate in community life. community life. This process partly relates to education: explaining Jewish customs and Given the decline in the Jewish population traditions to the non-Jewish spouse; and here, continued out-migration (particularly exposing the children of intermarried among younger adults), the large numbers of couples to Jewish values and traditions. elderly, and diminishing financial resources, it seems the community should make more This approach involves giving intermarried efforts to reach out to every Jew. The families a “taste” of Judaism, so they will be organized Jewish community must therefore more inclined to choose Jewish options for create more opportunities for participation their children, even if they are not among the unaffiliated generally. necessarily inclined to raise their children Jewishly. The high percentage of intermarried households in Montreal is not unexpected, Unfortunately, there are very few entry given the generally high rates experienced points in the Jewish day schools for the by Jewish communities across the continent. children of intermarried couples. The Although Montreal has traditionally had majority of Jewish schools do not have among the lowest levels of intermarriage in policies regarding the admission of such North America, the number of individuals children. Some schools will accept such living in such arrangements has almost children only on the condition of a proper doubled since 1981, and the level continues conversion and Jewish lifestyle. Because of to rise. the lack of entry points, young intermarried Jews with young families will generally

33 choose non-Jewish schools as an alternative Jews will have any long-term impact on for their children. their choice of partners.

The organized Jewish community has few Finally, the above figures suggest that a programs currently geared to intermarried significant proportion of children are enrolled couples. For instance, there are no social in Jewish day schools. Given the evidence of programs for such couples; no initiatives run the benefits of a Jewish education in terms of in the campuses related to inter-dating; or forming a Jewish identity, and instilling seminars and conferences providing general Jewish commitment and pride, the information on this subject. Moreover, very community must continue to find ways to few synagogues have outreach programs make Jewish schools more accessible for specifically targeting intermarried couples. parents who are not now considering them as In short, the organized Jewish community is alternatives. not taking a proactive approach regarding this issue, despite the rising numbers of Aside from reflecting on how to bring people intermarried persons. into the Jewish fold, efforts should also focus on those who already have some sense of Moreover, there are only scattered initiatives Jewish identity, which may be further providing opportunities for Jewish young strengthened and enriched. As mentioned, the adults to meet one another. Whereas there best way for people to have some continuity has been an increase in Jewish dating in terms of their Jewish identity relates to services, (including online services), it education. Unfortunately, much of this would seem desirable for young Jews to exposure is over by the time a person has have more such opportunities: perhaps in the completed the primary or high school level. context of the JCC, FedNext, Hillel, and so Meaningful opportunities for adults to on. It is evident that as young Jews enter encounter Jewish ideas and values should be CEGEP and university the chances of increased. Encouraging graduates of Jewish engagement with non-Jews are pervasive. It schools to continue with more sophisticated is therefore difficult to say whether such adult education may be a valuable means of increased opportunities for meeting fellow re-enforcing Jewish continuity.

34 Appendix 1 The Jewish Standard Definition

This report uses what is known as the that we can identify Jewish affiliation at all “Jewish Standard Definition” to distinguish is critical for using the Census as a tool to who is Jewish from the rest of the better understand our community. The population. Jim Torczyner of McGill Jewish Standard Definition is meant to be as University and the Jewish Federation of inclusive as possible, reflecting the varied Montreal formulated this definition in 1981, expressions that comprise the richness of the using a combination of religious and ethnic Jewish experience. identification. It is important to note that a significant According to this criterion, a Jew is defined change to the “Jewish Standard Definition“ as anyone who specified that they were: was implemented in the current analysis of  Jewish by religion and ethnicity. Census data. The category of those who had  Jewish by religion and having another “no religion and a Jewish ethnicity” was ethnicity. expanded to include those with “no religious  Jewish by ethnicity with no religious affiliation and a Jewish ethnicity”. affiliation. The category of “no religious affiliation” is Anyone who specified another religion broader than that of “no religion” because it (Catholic, Muslim, etc.) and a Jewish includes those who consider themselves ethnicity were excluded in the above agnostics, atheists and humanists, as well as definition. those having no religion. Since it is possible to be Jewish and have such affiliations, it Using this criterion, it is not possible to say was felt that this change would better reflect how a person behaves “Jewishly”: for the broad spectrum of Jewish affiliation. instance, whether they adhere to traditions Data from previous Censuses have been re- or attend synagogue on a regular basis. analyzed to ensure compatibility with the However, despite this limitation, the fact current criterion.

35 Appendix 2 The Reliability of the Census

The Census is a massive and complex projected from a 20% sample of households. undertaking, and although high standards are The responses to long-form questions, when applied throughout the process, a certain projected to represent the whole population level of error still characterizes the inevitably differ from the responses that endeavor. Such errors can arise at virtually would have been obtained if these questions any point in the Census process, from the were asked of all households. preparation of materials to the collection of data and the processing of information. Statistics Canada has a number of quality control measures that ensure Census data are There are a number of principal types of as reliable as possible. Representatives edit errors that impact on the Census. In the questionnaires when they are returned, coverage errors, dwellings or individuals are and follow up on missing information. There missed, incorrectly enumerated or counted are also quality control measures in place more than once. Regarding non-response during the coding and data entry stages. errors, responses to the Census cannot be obtained from a certain number of Despite these controls, a number of errors households and/or individuals because of and response-biases can nonetheless impact extended absence or extenuating data obtained from the Jewish population. circumstances. For instance, certain segments of the Jewish community may be reticent to answer In response errors, the respondent Census questions fully or accurately. misunderstands a Census question and answers incorrectly or uses the wrong Recent immigrant populations, who are response box. Processing errors occur during suspicious of government-sponsored the coding and inputting of data. projects and are wary of being identified as Jewish, may avoid indicating such an Finally, sampling errors apply only to the affiliation, or may answer certain questions long-form. Statistics based on this form are more cautiously.

36 Members of the Chassidic and Ultra- When using the table, the reader should Orthodox communities may be more consider the right column as reflective of the reluctant to participate fully in the Census average level of error expected for a given effort, due to specific Biblical injunctions cell size. Of course, some cells may reflect that prohibit Jews from “being counted.” It errors smaller or larger than the average. is unclear whether such restrictions have had About ninety percent of errors will fall an impact on their responses, but anecdotal between ± the average error specified below. evidence suggests that these communities Ten percent of errors are expected to fall respond adequately. For instance, the Tosh outside this range. Chasidic community of Montreal, which is fairly isolated geographically from the rest Cell Value Average of the Jewish population, has had significant Error representation in previous Censuses, 50 or less 15 although it is unclear as to what extent their 100 20 enumeration was complete. 200 30

500 45 Finally, since both the religion and ethnicity 1,000 65 questions are only included in the long-form 2,000 90 of the Census, sampling error arising from projections based on a 20% sampling of 5,000 140 households is a factor in all Census analyses 10,000 200 related to the Jewish community. 20,000 280 50,000 450

The level of sampling error inherent in any 100,000 630 cell of a data table can be precisely calculated. Statistics Canada provides a table Source for Appendix 2: 2001 Census Dictionary Reference Guide (pg. 275). Published by Statistics that measures these errors, and they are Canada, August 2002. Catalogue No. 92-378-XPE. summarized below. Obviously, for large cell values, the potential error due to sampling will be proportionally smaller than for smaller ones.

37