PART I.I Weimar Germany 1918-23: Creation and crises D Was the Wei,nar Republic doo,nedfro,n its very beginnings?
CHAPTER OVERVIEW Although the Weimar Republic did not collapse until 1933, this chapter begins to investigate the causes of its collapse. One historical interpretation is that the Weimar Republic was doomed to fail from the beginning because of long-term weaknesses. These include a long-established anti-democratic tradition in Germany and the possibility that some of the politicians who created the Republic never meant it to succeed. They were powerful right-wing politicians and generals who hoped the Republic would take the blame for defeat in the First World War. You will need to decide whether you agree that these factors were so important that they undermined the new Republic from the very beginning. The second strand of investigation in this chapter is the constitution of the new Republic. Did it create a sound structure for post-war government or was the constitution another of the long-term causes of the Republic's downfall? Therefore, the subsections of this chapter are: A How strong were the roots of democracy in nineteenth-century Germany? (pp. 8-11) B The 'revolution from above': why was a democratic regime born out of Germany's defeat? (pp. 12-15) C The revolution from below: did the 1918 German Revolution provide a strong basis for democracy? (pp. 16-24) D Did the constitution of the Weimar Republic establish a sound structure for democracy in Germany? (pp. 25-30) E Review: Was the Weimar Republic doomed from its very beginnings? (pp. 31-2) m How strong were the roots of democracy in nineteenth-century Germany? Whenthe democratic Weimar Republicwas set up in 1919 it was not created on virginpolitical territory. Ifwe are to understandthe challenges theRepublic faced, we need to look at thepolitical and cultural traditionsof Germany. On pages 2-3 you saw how German historical traditionshave been interpreted invery different ways. Were theroots of democracy in Germany strong enough to sustainthe regime or did a hostile authoritarian tradition threaten Weimar fromthe outset? 1 ;;i:•1•■L.·•u a•1•• 1::1 9 I As you study pages 9-1 I, complete your own copy of the table below about two trends in German history. Note down any evidence that supports either trend. You could use these subheadings in your table: . Political structure . Economic and social tensions . Nationalism and foreign policy .
Democratic aspects of nineteenth- Authoritarian, anti-democratic century Germany tradition in nineteenth-century Germany
2 Which trend appears to be the strongest?
The political structure of the Second Reich Germany was a young nation at the turn of the century. Less than 30 years had passed since, between 1864 and 1871, Bismarck had used the economic and military might of Prussia to reorganise the map of central Europe through a series of wars. He expelled Austria, the other main German state, fromthe German Confederation, and set up a North German Confederation which was dominated by Prussia. Finally, in 1871, Prussia defeated France, and brought the south German states into a united Germany. Amidst the glory of this victory, Bismarck proclaimed the Second German Reich in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, just outside Paris. This Second German Empire (which was to last until 1918) was thus a product of brilliant military success. It included all the German states, except Austria, in a new federal state. It had a written constitution and an assembly, the Reichstag, elected by universal male suffrage. ■ I A The political structure of the Second Reich 1871-1918
Kaiser (Emperor) Hereditary monarch (King of Prussia) Appointed/dismissed government Could dissolve the Reichstag Controlled foreign policy and the armed forces
Reichstag
Members (called deputies) elected by universal male suffrage Government: Chancellor and other ministers Could agree to or reject laws proposed by Kaiser or the government Appointed/dismissed by Kaiser Could not remove the Chancellor or the government Proposed new laws to the Reichstag Not dependent upon support in the Reichstag to stay in office Political parties Conservatives National Liberals (moderate conservatives) Progressives (Liberals) SPD* (socialists)
Z* or Centre (representing the interests of Catholics) REICHSRAT (assembly of ambassadors * Parties that carried on into the Weimar Republic from the 26 state governments) Had veto on legislation passed by Reichstag Number of deputies of main political parties in Reichstag
Political party 1884 1898 1912 Conservatives 78 56 43 _. Men over 25 voted in Reichstag elections every three years Progressives 67 41 42 Also voted for local state assemblies SPD 24 56 110 Written constitution but no statement of individual rights
. . . . .
,, ,.,·, "' : ' .. :, ....,·:'"· "·.' •• �. '\: 1.;_,.i,,.,,,{ <·· ·.-. .t· ... ,.,;;.,.. . � .. -· ... ••'l>- ,•...,'r ••·�, -.• • ,' ...... ,� • .,, t '·' , ..·,, Although the Second Reich had an elected parliament, the Reichstag, it did 10 not have a parliamentary government (see page 27). The Reichstag did not control the government. The Chancellor and other ministers were not usually members of the Reichstag and they were appointed by the Kaiser. They could not be removed or replaced by the Reichstag. However, the government had to co-operate with the Reichstag because laws had to be agreed by it. It was really a semi-ABSOLUTIST regime, a form of modernised conservative state. The success of the conservative Bismarck in creating a united Germany persuaded many middle-class Liberals to support the new authoritarian nation state above their commitment to genuine parliamentary government. This was to have important effects,as it weakened potentialsupport for full democracy in Germany.
Economic and social tensions The newly unified Germany soon dominated central Europe. Its economy grew ■ The creator of a united Germany rapidly during the late nineteenth century, and this caused increasing social ■ Became Chancellor of Pmssia in and political problems. The rapidly expanding industrial and urban working 1862, then or Germany 1871-90 class - the PROLETARIAT - increasingly supported the Socialist Party (the SPD). ■ A realistic conservative, be was SPD supporters wanted political reform to accompany Germany's economic prepared to accept some changes to growth. Bismarck sought to restrict SPD support by repression, then by strengthen the existing political introducing social reforms to win theworking class from socialism. Both system policies were unsuccessful and the SPD continued to grow. This reinforced ■ Led Prnssia/Germanyto victory in conservative tendencies within the middle class. Utree wars l864-7 l, then declared The conservative elitewhich had created the Second Reich was hostile to Germany a satisfied state, and reform. Real power remained with the Kaiser and Prussian landowners, the worked to keep peace in Em-ope JUNKERS. The Junkers were traditionalistaristocrats, who owned large estates in ■ Argued that German interests lay in East Prussia, but they also dominated thenew German state by holding most of · Europe and Uiat overseas colonies the key positionsas army officers,diplomats, top civil servants and senior judges. were not important They scorned 'politics' and resented the Reichstag, whose members voiced the views of reformers. They were also fearfulof revolutionled by Socialists. Kaiser Wilhelm n Nationalism and foreign policy Germany had a proud cultural tradition that had produced a stream of great thinkers, writers and composers. Its people were one of the most educated in Europe. However, by the 189Os some Germans were being influencedby the theory of social Darwinism. This was the application of Charles Darwin's theory of the survival of the fittestin nature to society and states. A strongstate would prosper; a weak one would die! Some Germans became concerned about what they saw as the biological degeneration (decline) of the nation. This was linked to the growth of anti-semitism, both amongst the ruling elite, including Wilhelm II, and amongst the middle and lower classes. This feeling was especially strong amongst those who felt threatened by the influxfrom Russia of the so-called Ost-Juden, mainly orthodox Jews fleeing from Tsarist persecution. German nationalism was therefore both increasing and fearful for the future. This led to nationalism sometimes taking an aggressive form, with demands for Germany to expand. The German ruling class also saw an aggressive foreign ■ policy as a way to win over working-class support and so reduce the threat of ■ Born in Berlin in 1859 revolution. From the 189Os, Kaiser Wilhelm II and his ministers pursued an King of Pmssia (HOIIENZOLLEIIN ambitious foreign policy of developing an overseas empire. This policy was dynasty) and Emperor of Germany, called Weltpolitik, world policy. 1888-1918 ■ Believed in the DIV[NE RIGHT OF KINGS ■ A.n unstabl.e, impulsive character ■ Had an inferiority complex, but was determined Lo assert boU1 himself and German power ■ Supported a more assertive ■ Weltpolililc ■ Abdicated in 1.918 'The roots of democracy in Germany were weak.' Explain whether you think this Died in Holland in 1941 statement is true or not. ■ 1B Germany at the the beginning of the twentieth century 11 Geography Prussia • Germany had no clear natural boundaries Prussia was originally a small kingdom in eastern • No major mountain ranges Germany but formed the basis of the Second Reich. • Rivers (Rhine, Ruhr, Elbe, Oder) cut through Containing two-thirds of the area of Germany, it German territory was dominated by a powerful conservative Junker class, which controlled both the army and the state
Economy • Fertile land G • Expanding population • Extensive mineral resources, especially coal in Areas of mixed Ruhr, Saar, Silesia; population (G) iron ore in Many Germans, Alsace-Lorraine, especially traders Ruhr; potash in and Alsace-Lorraine administrators, • Massive industrial had moved to development (8 surrounding N per cent per areas, so there annum 1890- were large 1914) of old German industries (iron, minorities coal) and new elsewhere (steel, chemicals, 0 t 200 (taken from electrical) France I 871) G • Sophisticated km banking system; close links with FRANCE G Key industry SWITZERLAND e CARTELS C = Coal I = Iron-ore • Advanced communications, P = Potash especially rail 12:l= Prussia -= Border of German Empire G = areas where German minorities existed
Bavaria The third major German state. It kept its own monarch when it German culture: joined the German Empire in 1871. 'the land of poets It was a strongly Catholic area, and and thinkers' remained proud of its own identity Austria • Great composers For hundreds of years Austria's rulers, the Habsburgs, had - Beethoven ruled over German-speaking Austria, and lands in Italy and -Wagner central Europe. Between 1859 and I 867, Austria was - Richard Strauss expelled from Italy and Germany. In 1867 it reorganised • Great writers itself into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate state - Goethe from the new unified Germany -Heine - Schiller • Great thinkers Society - Hegel • Most urbanised state in Europe with 60 per cent of people living in towns -Marx • Best elementary education system in world - Kant • Good technical higher education -Nietzsche • Growing number of white-collar workers, civil servants (lower middle class) • Declining ARTISANS; looking back to golden age • Poor agricultural population • Industrial workers with rising wages but poor conditions 12 I] The 'revolution from above': why Using these questions as a guideline, make notes on pages 12-15. was a democratic regime born out How did the German people and of Germany's defeat? government react to the outbreak of war? In June 1914 the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire was assassinated at 2 How did these reactions change Sarajevo by a Slav nationalist.This event, seemingly irrelevant to life in Germany, during the war? France,Britain and Russia, released the tensions that had already threatened on 3 What were Germany's chances of several occasions to engulf Europe in war. Within a week of the assassinationthe victory in First World War had begun. This is not the place to deal with the causes or events a) March 1918 of the war, as they are not directly relevant to the themeof this chapter. Instead, b) September 1918? this subsection analyses how the German people's reactions to the war and the 4 Why did Ludendorff propose the experience of unexpected defeat led to the creationof the Weimar Republic. setting up of a new democratic government? Reactions to war When war was declared in 1914, the overwhelming majority of Germans rallied to their nation. A Burgfrieden(peace in the fortress) was declared. Even the MARXIST SPD abandoned its INTERNATIONALISM to support the war effort. An SPD newspaper editorial proclaimed in July 1914: 'We Social Democrats in this 12 11.76 solemn hour are at one with the whole German nation, without distinction of 10 party or creed, in accepting the fight forced upon us by Russian barbarism, and 8 we are ready to fight till the last drop of blood for Germany's national "' C: independence, fameand greatness.' In return, the government acknowledged J 6 f that trade unions and working-class leaders had an important part to play in 4 helping the war effort. It also promised great rewards, when the war was won, 1.86 2 to the German people in return fortheir efforts. 0.04 The German High Command's military plans for a quick victory failed in 0 L-..L---L___JL._=�----'-L---'----' 1913 1915 1917 1914. Therefore, Germany had to fight a prolonged war on two fronts, a struggle forwhich it was economically and militarily unprepared. Worse still, the Allies SOURCE 1.1 Working days lost through maintained a naval blockade which, by 1917, was causing severe shortages of strikes foodand vital raw materials. By 1917 the Burgfriedenwas breaking down, as the German people became divided over the war. Many, especially Socialists, questionedwhy Germany was still fighting. They had initially seen the war as a defensive war, not a war of I 91 8 The last months of the war conquest. In April 1917 RADICALS, opposed to the war, broke with the SPD to June German western offensive halted Aug Allies advance form the Independent Socialist Party (USPD). In July the Reichstag voted 212 to Sept Germany's allies request an 126 for a peace resolution: 'a peace of understanding and permanent armistice reconciliation of peoples. Forced territorial gains and political, economic and 28 Sept Hindenburg line (major German financial oppressions are irreconcilable with such a peace.' fortifications in Belgium) breached Others had differentaims. Duringthe war the German government had become 29 Sept German generals support the idea of a new civilian government to increasingly dominated by generals. From1916 General Ludendorffand Field seek an armistice. Reichstag calls Marshal Hindenburg exercised a virtual military dictatorship. They dominated not for a government that has its just military but political and economic decisions, and blocked several confidence opportunitiesfor a compromise peace. AssertiveGerman nationalists demandeda 3 Oct Prince Max of Baden becomes Siegfriede,a peace throughvictory, withGermany making major land gains in the Chancellor with support of the Reichstag west, the east and overseas. In September 1917 the Fatherland Party was founded 4 Oct German government opens by Admiral Tirpitz and a right-wing journalist,Wolfgang Kapp, to rally support for negotiations with President Wilson an ANNEXATIONIST war. By 1918 their party had over 1 million members. 9 Nov The Socialist Friedrich Ebert becomes Chancellor Military defeat German Republic proclaimed By the autumn of 1917, Germany faceda growing economic and military crisis. Kaiser abdicates and flees to Holland Starvation was near and military supplies were critically short. Worse still, in April 1917 the United States had entered the war against Germany and large numbers of American troops were soon expected in Europe. Then Germany was offereda lifeline when theCommunists seized power in Russia and sought During the war, the government peace terms. In March 1918 Russia accepted the humiliating Treaty ofBrest frequently told the people that they Litovsk where Germany made major gains of territory. Germany also imposed could 'be sure of the thanks of the a harsh peace on Romania in the Treaty ofBucharest. Fatherland'. How might this cause At last, Germany was fightingon just the WesternFront General Ludendorff problems after the war for the new could have used the troopstransferred from the Russian Front to buttresshis Weimar Republic? defences and wait for the war-weary Allies to make peace. Instead, he gambled on Paul von Hindenburg, 1847-1954 a new offensive,telling his soldiers thatwithin months they would have victory. In ■ Recalled from retirement at the March 1918 the German attack nearly broke through the Allied lines. Only the 15 outbreak of the First World War arrival of large numbers of American troops stopped theGerman advance. and became Commander-in-Chief By August 1918 the tideof war had clearly been reversed. The USA had in the east poured in nearly 2 million freshtroops to reinforce the Allies. Germany's allies, ■ Won battle orTannenberg over Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary, were on the verge of collapse and Russia in 1914, establisb.inghis seeking peace. The German generals realised it was only a matter of time before reputation Germany was defeated. Their troopsbegan a gradual retreat towards the ■ Promoted to fieldmarshal German frontier.At home there was growing unrest as economic crisis and war ■ Put in overall command or German weariness sapped the commitment of many Germans to the war. Civilian and, in forces in 1916 places, military morale was disintegratingand there was a danger of revolution. ■ Helped restore morale, but unable to break trench system in the west ■ IC The effects of the First World War on Germany
despite ordering massive assaults Economy/finance ■ [n August 1918 he realised the war • Between 1913 and 1918 the mark lost 75 The cost of war Germany was about to be lost, and advised per cent of its value an armistice • Industry made vast profits, which were Killed (millions) 2 increasingly resented by ordinary Germans Retired again fromthe army after 6.3 ■ • Agricultural production fell Wounded (millions) the war • December 1916 Auxiliary Labour Law gave Cost (£ million) 8,394 ■ Elected President in 1925 (see page government harsh powers over labour 69 • War financed by printing money and ) borrowing: led to inflation • Expectations of booty from victory Living conditions • Only 16 per cent of cost of war met from taxation • Real earnings fell 20-30 per cent • Meat consumption fell to 12 per cent of pre-war level • 1917 winter called 'turnip winter' - the only food to eat Political developments during war • Major food and fuel shortages 1914 Most Germans rallied to nation; but by 19 17 • Disease (thousands dying each day unity breaking down from major fiu epidemic), starvation 1916 Increasing military control of government; • Deaths from starvation and hypo growing criticism of the war thermia 1917 April Radicals opposed to war formed the USPD 1916: 121,000 Field Marshal Hindenburg, Wilhelm II and (Independent Socialist Party) 1918:293,000 General Ludendorff July Reichstag voted for peace Sept Fatherland Party founded by nationalists who wanted Germany to make a 'peace of victory' Ea·ich von Ludendorff, t865-t957 with land conquests in west, east and overseas ■ Hindenburg's subordinate Terms of the Arm1st1ce commander at the battle of • The new German N government signed a Tannenberg ,-,_,-,_,,-,' HOLLAND - , 30-day armistice on I I lo 1916 promoted to Quartermaster , ■ UK and ._ - " November 1918 , ., General and in control of Belgium, \ ,- ·; • Key terms: � / BELGIUM ,: Germany's war policy Sept - Alsace-Lorraine and Y ,' p 't:=?s ·· .. ,·· , t 100 invaded lands would be ■ Virtual milita1·y dictator; hostiJe to r!! ,~ . g--,, ./ evacuated by Germany th.e Reicbstag km - West bank of Rhine to ■ UK�· ',. ( __ Firm supporter of unrestricted March. ·-... be occupied by Allies; c:;ih S ept , ·. . German troops to submarine warfare �, 1..- .....�\ GERMANY c,_ FRANCE \� evacuate east bank ■ Victorious in Russia and dictated � ·,: .... , - Most of the German fieet, many armaments the terms or the Treaty or Brest March ,:·�·:·,-,.:' ' ;===, and transport equipment Litovsk ··•. . '. ', LUXEMBOURG � M to be handed over ■ In chal'ge or 1918 spring offensive - Germany (but not the ■ Dismissed on 26 October 1918 by �� Fr�--=- Allies) to hand over Aug §�g�l�heims - . ·-.��<. .:'_- . prisoners of war the new civilian government �·' • '·-·--{l--.-:-- ... French Ver� n - Treaties of Brest-Litovsk lnvolved in Kapp Putsch (see pages � USA • .� ■ Aug and Bucharest to be Sept French9··. .... 42-5) ·--;::;u '0French . renounced Aug,: \)·.::·:- J USA Aug \./ '·, - Allied naval blockade to ■ Invo.lved in Hitle1 s Munich Putsch French ·, Aug . remain (see pages 55-4) and USA \ Aug l ■ From 1924 to 1928 sat as a Nazi I.
Reichstag deputy Key ■ lo 1925 be was the Nazi candidate -·- -Front line, March 1918 <:::i German offensive § Area captured by Germans for presidency; be won l pel' cent of · . . . . § in spring offensive 1918 the vote ...... Front line, Nov 1918 CJ Allied offensive ■ Learning trouble spot The creation of a democracy 14, As Germany facedthe threat of invasion and defeat in September 1918 the 'The stab in the back.' Who was supreme commander, General Ludendorff, made an extraordinary decision. responsible for Germany's He persuaded the Kaiser to transform the Second Reich into a virtual defeat? parliamentary democracy by handing over power to a civilian government Origins that had the support of the Reichstag. He also urged an immediate armistice. In the bitter atmosphere in Germany Ludendorff had two motives. Firstly, he hoped this new civilian government after the defeat, a simple explanation would be able to get better peace terms from the Allies. Secondly, he for it quickly spread. It was claimed cynically hoped the new civilian government would be blamed for that the German army had been Germany's defeat because it would have to end the war. This in turn would 'stabbed in the back' by unpatrioticand mask the responsibility of the generals forGermany's defeat, preserve their weak politicians. According to this view reputationsand so help them maintain their positions in the post-war world. the German army had been a As he said to his military staff: 'I have advised His Majesty to bring those formidablefighting forceuntil the end groups into government whom we have in the main to thank forthe fact that of the war and could have won. we have reached this mess. We will now thereforesee these gentlemen Germany had not been defeated on the move into the ministries. Let them now conclude the peace that has to be battlefieldbut by pacifists and Socialists negotiated. Let them eat the broth they have prepared for us.' who had undermined the war effort. Ludendorfl's manoeuvre, the development of the myth of the 'stab in the Firstly, anti-war agitators had fomented back' and the shock of defeat created the background to the birth of unrest amongst civilians and weakened democracy in Germany. It was not a promising beginning. the morale of the troops. Then the new civilian government fromOctober 1918 failed to support the military. Unrest had then spread throughout Germany. In the 1920s, right-wing critics of the Weimar Republic made great play of what This culminated in the revolution of they called 'the stab in the back' to explain Germany's military defeat. Explain November 1918 when these same a) the origins of the myth of 'the stab in the back' unpatriotic elements, the 'November b) its validity criminals', seized power and declared a c) its significance. republic. The new government arranged an unnecessary armistice and then accepted the humiliating Was the story of the 'stab in the back' valid? Versailles peace terms. ACTIVITY Significance This belief that Germany's brave, Referring to events on the eastern and western fronts in spring 1918, and the position of German troops at the time of the Armistice (see map in undefeated army had been 'stabbed in } the back' by unpatriotic Socialists was Chart IC , explain why Germany's surrender came as a surprise to many Germans in November 1918. quickly used to criticise the democratic 2 Study Sources 1.2-9 to assess the validity of the 'stab in the back' theory. Weimar Republic. Weimar became a) Whom do Ludendorffand Hindenburg (Sources 1.2 and 1.3) blame for associated with Germany's apparently Germany's defeat? undeserved defeat and the humiliation b) What do Sources 1.3 and 1.4 suggest about why the idea of the 'stab in of the peace treaty. This association the back' became so widely held? weakened the prospects forWeimar c) What evidence do Sources 1.5-8 provide of Germany's military position democracy. in autumn 1918? The evidence suggests that the idea of d) Do Ludendorff's views on the state of the German army (Sources 1.2 and a 'stab in the back' was a very distorted 1.6) seem consistent? What explanation for this could be given? view of the reasons forGermany's e) Whom do Ebert and Scheidemann (Sources 1.8 and 1.9) blame for the defeat. However, it was widely believed losses of the war? and reinforcedthe hostilityof many -f) How valuable are these sources for explaining why Germany lost the war? Germans to the new Weimar Republic. In explaining the history of the Weimar Republic the real reasons why Germany SOURCE 1.2 The historian J. Wheeler-Bennett, Hindenburg, 'The Wooden Titan', lost the war are less important than 1936, p.238 what many people believed were the [Ludendorffwas complaining that] the High Command had always suffered reasons. History is made by people who fromlack of support fromthe civilian Governmentand [that] the Revolution act partly in response to their beliefs. had betrayed the army . .. General Malcolm asked him: 'Do you mean, Even if later historians show those General, that you were stabbed in the back?' Ludendorff's eyes lit up and he beliefs to have been unjustified, it is still leapt upon the phrase like a dog on a bone. 'Stabbed in the back?' he repeated. those beliefs that help explain events. 'Yes, that's it, exactly. We were stabbed in the back.' SOURCE 1.3 Hindenburg's evidence in a report to a SOURCE 1.4 A conservative DNVP election poster from 1924, government commission investigating the defeat, November using the story of 'the stab in the back' 15 1919. On his way to the commission he was greeted as a hero by vast crowds. He refused to reply to questions but instead read a prepared statement that included this section Our repeated requests [to the government} for strict discipline and strict laws were never met. Thus our operations were bound to Jail and the collapse had to come: the revolution was only the last straw. An English general rightly said, 'The German army was stabbed in the back.' No blame is to be attached to the sound core of the army. Its performancescall like that of the officer corps for equal admiration. It is perfectlyplain on whom the blame rests.
SOURCE 1.5 General Ludendorffsevidence to a post-war Reichstag committee The war was now lost . .. Afterthe way in which our troops on the WesternFront had been used up, we had to :QJerli•I Im count on being beaten back again and again. Our fcflu(b boron, bafl unfcr ?Joltunb ?Jalerlanb fo lief h16 Ung(iid finten mu[lle7 :Ocr J)arld[,lrdor situation could only get worse, never better. ber <5oalafbemotrolrn <;J3ater fagl olnoifi ber J\coalulion 1918 in :Dlagbe&urg: ,,®h: lia6en unftre .t:euft, blc an bit Sronl gfngen, 3ur S'alintnffudil �•ronla�I. vit'f.linenffutfiligtn �a6tn 11>fr organ!!Teri, mll fa(ftficn papfmn ousgcflalltf, 11111 SOURCE 1.6 Erich Ludendorff, Ludendorffs Own Story, 1919 0e(b unb unltridinffd•f•n S(ug6(6ffern mftlitn. ®ft �•6•n bfef• .t:culc nadi affe11 tfmmelfrldilungen, �aupffddilfdi Wieber an bk Srour gefdilcff, banlff fl• bfe Whole bodies of our men had surrendered to single Sronffolbaltn 6eor6ell•n uub bit Sronl 1crmilr6en foflleu. :Z>fef•�lien bi, Golbolm 6efflmmf, u6eriulaufen, unb fo �I !Td/ btr ?Jerfalfamn6Wdi, a6erfldier uoff3og,n." soldiers or small patrols. Retreating troops, meeting a lll SOURCE I. 7 Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, Commander of the German army in Flanders, in a report to Chancellor Prince Max of Baden, 18 October 1918 Our troops are exhausted and their numbers have dwindled terribly ... Quantities of machine guns ... and artillery have been lost . .. There is also a lack of ammunition ... The morale of the troops has sufferedseriously . .. They surrender in hordes whenever the enemy attacks. Whatever happens we must obtain peace, before the enemy breaks through into Germany;if he does, woe on us. ACTIVITY SOURCE 1.8 President Ebert's address to the Weimar CONSTITUENT Assembly, February 191 9 List the reasons why the new democratic government was We have lost the war. This fact is not a consequence of the revolution. Ladies and created in October 1918. Gentlemen, it was the Imperial Governmentof Prince Max of Baden which made 2 Explain which of these reasons you arrangements for the armistice which disarmed us. After the collapse of our allies think was the most important. and in view of the militaryand economic situation there was nothing else it could do. The revolution refused to accept the responsibility for the miseryinto which the German people were plunged by the mistaken policyof the old regime and the irresponsible over-confidenceof the militarists [generals]. We opened this book by looking at cwo simplified versions of German history. SOURCE 1.9 Philipp Scheidemann, Socialist leader and Chancellor February-July 1919, Does the evidence here on Germany in his Memoirs of o Social Democrat, 1929 during the war prove that Germany was The guilty consciences of those laden with guilt later invented the 'stab in the dominated by aggressive el�ments or back'. The collapse was not the result of revolution; it was the other way about; that there was another, far less aggressiveside to Germany? without the collapse, the revolution that broke out six weeks later would probably not have occurred. 16 m The revolution from below: did the 1918-19 German Revolution provide a strong basis for democracy? The First World War left a dangerous legacy for the new democratic regime. It left aheavy financialburden and continuing inflation. Germany's unexpected defeat was blamed on the new regime and when it was forcedto accept the harsh peace terms at Versailles the prospects for success weakened further. We now examine the limited nature of the German Revolution of 1918-19 that left so much of the traditional elite intact. How would this affectthe prospects for a strong democraticgovernment? i;r:•·-■ 1--,� Study pages 17-24. Then copy and complete the two tables below. Give each cause and change a mark out of 5 to show how far it applied (0 = not at all, 5 = greatly). The causes of the German Revolution In a political revolution, one group of people wanting change take power from the group defending the existing political system. For this to happen there must be some or all of the causes listed in the table below. Note that 1-3 are weaknesses in the status quo; 4-6 are forces likely to bring about change. Causes Degree Evidence for choice present 0-5 I Severe weaknesses in the existing governing system 2 Collapse of law and order 3 A major setback for the government 4 Mass discontent 5 Organised revolutionary groups 6 Determined revolutionary leaders with a clear vision of change The effects of the German Revolution If the revolutionaries succeed in taking power, you might expect the changes shown in the table below. Changes to Degree Evidence for choice occurred 0-5 I Government structure 2 Administrative and judicial machinery 3 Organisation of the army 4 Ownership and organisation of industryand land 5 The lives of the mass of the people From monarchy to democratic republic in six weeks! In October 1918 a new governmentbased on the Reichstag was formed. This was 'a revolution fromabove', as this great change was initiated by the ruling class itself. The new government under Prince Max of Baden passed some reforms, but in these turbulent days they were not sufficient.Economic discontent and war weariness caused growing popular unrest. The German people had been promised, and expected, a great victory. When it was clear that the war was lost, Germany erupted in a wave of unrest, often described as the 'German Revolution' of 1918-19, the 'revolution from below'. Serious trouble began in late October at the naval bases of Kiel and Wilhelmshaven when sailors refused to obey an order to sail out to salvage German honour in a final battle. They stopped the fleetsailing by putting out the fires in the ships' boilers, raised the red flag and took over Kiel. News of the mutiny encouraged the creation of a series of sailors', soldiers' and workers' COUNCILS throughout Germany. These challenged the authority of Ltinder(state) governments. Desperate to prevent a full-scale revolution, Prince Max announced the Kaiser's abdication and handed over the chancellorship to the moderate socialist leader Friedrich Ebert. Moderate and radical Socialists were competing for leadership of the revolution. To outmanoeuvre the radicals, Philipp Scheidemann, a moderate SPD leader, declared a republic to cheering crowds in Berlin. Karl Liebknecht, The proximity of the beginning of the the leader of the communist SPARTACIST movement, declared a soviet republic Republic and the ending of the war was from another balcony. Ebert was furious that a republic had been declared unfortunate for the new Republic. Why illegally but had to accept that the monarchy had collapsed. Two days later, on do you think it was unfortunate? 11 November, the government signed an armistice. ■ I D Key stages in the German Revolution 1918-19 I REVOLUTION FROM ABOVE. 2 REVOLUTION FROM BELOW. 3 LIMITED REVOLUTION: THE CREATION OF A THE CREATION OF A THE DEAL WITH THE ARMY PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHY PARLIAMENTARY REPUBLIC I O Nov The new socialist government 29 Sept Generals recommend a new 31 Oct Kiel sailors mutiny. Unrest spreads. makes an agreement with civilian government and an 9 Nov Prince Max hands over the General Greener to gain the armistice. chancellorship to Socialist support of the army. 3 Oct A new civilian government led by leader Ebert. Prince Max of Baden, based on A republic is declared. The Kaiser Reichstag support and including abdicates and flees to Holland. Liberals and Socialists, is formed. Spartacist supporters defending The German delegation arrive to sign the Armistice, 1918, in a railway their position from behind a General Groener carriage in the Foret de Compiegne barricade of newsprint 4 ARMISTICE 5 REVOLUTION SUPPRESSED 6 FORMAL ESTABLISHMENT 11 Nov The new government signs the 1919 Jan A communist rising by the OF THE NEW REGIME Armistice. Spartacists is suppressed by the 1919 Feb A new elected National Assembly socialist government. (Later, in meets at Weimar to draw up a spring 1919 and spring I 920, new constitution. This is completed further waves of strikes and risings by August 1919. are suppressed.) 18 ■ I E Germany's left-wing ■ Learning trouble spot parties Political terms and Weimar political parties I • KPD/Spartacists Here we provide a very simplified summary of the main political groups in Aims: to sieze power and enact a 1918-19. As you deepen your knowledge of Weimar Germany, you will modify soviet revolution, developing a series of this simplified picture, but at the moment it will clarifysome issues. local and national councils to create a communist state Left and right These terms derive fromthe French Revolution of 1789. In thE • Named after the Roman rebel slave new French parliament, representatives wanting greater change with more Spartacus power for ordinary people sat on seats on the left of the assembly, and those • Formed in 1916 from radical SPD wanting little or no change, preferring greater power for the existing elite and members opposed to the war the monarchy, sat on the right. This seating arrangement has led to • In early 1919 had about 5,000 conservative groups, i.e. those favouring the status quo, being called right wing members and those wanting social and political change being called leftwing. • Led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg Socialism and communism Normally Communists are more radical Socialists. In Weimar Germany there were two parties that called themselves 2. USPD (radical Socialists) Socialists (the moderate SPD and the more radical USPD), and themore Aims: remove enemies of democracy extreme Communists (KPD). All three groups based their ideas on Karl Marx. and create conditions for a secure socialist society Radical This term can also cause confusion. It is usually used to describe • Formed in 1917 from SPD members people on the extremeleft, i.e. those who want great changes. But technically it hostile to the war just means extreme, so you will encounter radical right-wing partiesas well, • In 1919 had about 300,000 members such as the Nazis. (Calling the Nazis a right-wing party is, however, another • Led by Hugo Haase and Karl Kautsky problem. We tackle that one on page 117.) 3. SPD (moderate Socialists) Conservative This name comes from to conserve, to keep things as they are. Aims: establish democratic socialist It usually means the same as right wing. Conservatives generally favour more system by democratic means authoritarian government, i.e. one where much power lies with one leader or a • Formed in 1875 few leaders, rather than a more liberal-democratic government where more • After 1890, the largest party in the power is given to ordinary people. The actual position a conservative holds Reichscag depends on the period and overall context. For example, the British • In 1919 had about I million members Conservative Party supports democracy as this is well-established in Britain. In e Led by Friedrich Ebert and Philipp 1918, German conservativeshoped to maintain the Second Reich, with a strong Scheidemann monarchy. Conservative groups in Weimar Germany remained at best • In Nov-Dec 1918, the SPD formed a suspicious of and usually hostile to democracy. coalition government with the USPD Political Parties Left◄�l------+------t_► Right Parties in the Communist/socialist Liberal/democratic Conservative Weimar Republic KPD USPD SPD DDP DVP DNVP Centre Party (Z) The Centre Party was a party that had been created to protect the interests of the Catholic Church. The political views of its supporters covered a broad range, but most were supporters of the new democratic regime. ,,,,,, I "'- Where their main Ar . J Working class Middle class � Upper class support came from ACTIVITY On 9 November 1918 Friedrich Ebert, the former saddler and leader of the SPD, found himself at the head of the newly proclaimed republican government. The future of Germany would be determined by the decisions he and his colleagues took. You are going to carry out a decision-making exercise to decide what you would have done in Germany in 1918-19. As a class, divide into three groups, then: I Each group should choose one of the socialist parties (KPD, USPD or SPD). Ensure you understand its political position (see Chart I E opposite). 2 Look through Ebert's problems shown on the diagram below. Economic • Hunger/flu epidemic • Inflation • Allied blockade meant shortages of essential goods Political: opposition of the Right • Hostility of the elite Political: opposition of the Left • Powerful generals only tactically and possibly • Radical groups holding strikes and mass I temporarily supporting the new regime demonstrations • FREIKORPS - mainly demobilised soldiers; very EBERT'S ,.;-' • Workers' councils (soviets) PROBLEMS ---� anti-communist and armed • The KPD wanted a communist revolution as . • Nationalise turmoil on eastern and southern in Russia in 1917 which had led to civil war borders I • SEPARATIST movements in Bavaria, Rhineland, Military East Prussia • Bitterness at unexpected defeat • Need for an armistice, then peace treaty • Demobilisation - 1.5 million soldiers had co be returned co society 3 Look through Ebert's options on the fivetopics below. Decide which option your party should support. In each topic, one option is moderate, one more radical and one even more extreme. 4 You should then explain your party's policies to the class. 5 As a class, decide which party's policies you feel are most likely to succeed in securing effective democracy, given the conditions in Germany. 6 Read pages 20-3. How did your decisions compare with what Ebert did? Ebert's options I POLITICAL Elections a) Call an election for a new parliament as soon as possible b) Take revolutionary measures (without calling elections) immediately as the people have given you power c) Delay elections for a new parliament until major measures weakening the position of the elites are taken Councils a) Give workers' councils extensive powers to negotiate improved working and living conditions b) Create a new government structure based on workers' councils c) Allow existing workers' councils to continue only until a newly elected assembly takes over 2 INDUSTRY a) Pass decrees nationalising major industries, and enabling workers' participation in management b) Take over all industry and hand it over to workers' control c) Persuade industrialists to come to agreements with responsible trade union representatives to give workers more say in their working conditions 3 THE CIVIL SERVICE AND JUDICIARY a) Keep the existing experienced personnel in their jobs b) Purge the administration of conservative officials c) Create a new system of elected officials and judges 4 THE ARMY a) Create a new workers' army, modelled on Russia's Red Army b} Try to win the support of the existing army by maintaining its basic structure c) Create workers' militia alongside the existing army, and remove REACTIONARY elements from the military High Command 5 WORKING-CLASS UNREST a} Organise protests demanding a soviet-style revolution giving power to workers' councils b) Use army and volunteers to suppress revolutionary communist elements c) Pass radical reforms benefiting the working class to reduce potential support for a communist rising 20 Ebert's decisions and deals Ebert chose the moderate course. He believed the majority of the German people wanted an end to the war and were for moderate change. Even the majority of members of the councils did not have genuine revolutionary feeling and supported the SPD line. He was determined to defend the new democratic system from what he saw as the horrors of BOLSHEVISM ( communism). The new government was concerned to maintain order and organise elections for a constituentassembly which would draw up a democratic constitution. Ebert believed the new regime needed the support of the traditional elite and was prepared to co-operate with them. He was helped in this policy by the support of many of the elite. They too were terrifiedof a real socialist revolution and were prepared, for the moment, to help the new government. On 10 November General Groener telephoned Ebert and made a secret deal. In return for the government promising to maintain the authority of the existing officers, the army would defend the new government. Ebert also asked the existing civil servants to stay in their positions. ■ IF General Groener and Chancellor Ebert make a deal, I O November 1918 We'll support these You need our support I'd better keep this deal Socialists for the moment, and we need yours. We secret. The radicals will then try to get back to a more both agree we've got to natural order of things. crush Bolshevism. We'll help you do this, as long as you don't interfere with the army. I agree Bolshevism is public enemy number one. We'll need your forces to keep order. Wilhebu Groener, Friedrich Ebert, 1876-(959 t87t-t925 ■ Groener was a career soldier who co-opemled with the SPD during the Firsl World War Lo increase production. ■ He succeeded General Ludendorffas senior ■ Friedrich Ebert was a saddler who rose to become one of Quartermaster General in October 1918, and actually the leaders of the SPD. advised U1e Kaiser to abdicate. ■ In November l918 he became Chancel101·, and in ■ Groener ll'ied to reconcile the differences between army Febmary l9 l9 he was elected by the new assembly to be Lmdition and the new democratic constitution. He held a P1·esident of the republic. series of government posts, and from 1928 to 1952 was ■ Ebe1'l steered the Weimar Republic Lo safety, seeking the Minister of Defence. support of both workers and the elite. However, this ■ He initially made Kurt von Schleicher (see page J55) his conciliatory approach aroused the hostility or ext1·emists protege, but later broke with him. of both the Left: and Right ■ Groener became committed to lbe Weimar regime, and ■ His humble origins and sociaUsl beliefs .meant that was critical of lbe azis, even banning the SA in 1952. despite his position as President he never won the respect ■ His resignation in May 1952 was a particular blow to the of large numbers or Germans. Weimar regime. He took no further part in politics. ■ He died of a heart attack in 1925. Rosa Lm:emburg, 1870-J9t9 FREIKORPS 21 The Freikorps (Free Corps) was a general name for about 200 PARAMILITARY groups, largely recruited from demobilised soldiers and officers. They were dominated by right-wing nationalists. They saw themselves as the protectors of Germany from Bolshevism and as the kernel of a new German army. The Freikorps helped the new government forciblyto suppress left-wing revolts even though many of them were hostile to the Weimar regime. They were similar to the Fascist squads in Italy; many members of the Freikorps later joined Hitler's SA Not all decisions were so conservative. Major industrialists thought it wise to make concessions to trade union representatives to ward off workers' unrest. On 15 November industrialists, led by Hugo Stinnes, and tradeunionists, led by ■ Karl Legien, agreed to create a Zentralarbeitsgemeinschaft (ZAG), or 'central Rosa Lux.emburg was a German working association'. This established the principle of workers' committees, Polish Socialist who bad been trade union negotiating rights with binding ARBITRATION on disputes, and an imprisoned for her oppositiou lo eight-hour day. This was one of the greatest achievements of the German ■ the First ·world War. Revolution. She welcomed the 1917 Bolshevik A new compromise caretaker government, the Council of People's Revolution in Russia, but criticised COMMISSARS, was set up with three members from both the SPD and USPD. Some Leuin's repressive policies. She of the protesters expected the new government to set up a socialist republic, but argued that a true communist it was more moderate than its title suggested. The temporary government revolution must have popular gained the support of representatives fromthe numerous councils throughout ■ support Germany. In December 1918 the National Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' With Karl Liebknechl she founded Councils voted 344 to 98 to reject a government based on the councils, the Spartacist League whicb supporting instead Ebert's preference forelecting a constituent assembly. They became the German Communist did, however, favoursome more radical changes, forexample in the nature of ■ Party. the army and the SOCIALISATION of some industries, than Ebert's governmentwas She thought Germany was not yet prepared to endorse. ready for communism in 1919, but Ebert's moderate line aroused left-wing opposition. In December 1918 the when a workers' revolt broke out in USPD left the government. In January 1919 mass protests at the dismissal of a January she felt she had to side radical officialturned into a largely spontaneous rising which communist ■ with the workers. members of the Spartacist League tried to take over in the hope that it would She was captured by U1e Freikorps, turn into a communist revolution, as in Russia. The SPD government, led by assaulted, then shot Her body was Defence Minister Gustav Noske, ordered the army to suppress the Spartacist dumped in a Berlin canal. Thus rising. The army was supported by the Freikorps, and the Spartacist leaders, ended the brief career of a Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, were shot. Over a hundred workers revolutionary who bas won respect were killed. Thus the German Revolution of 1918 ended in the suppression of for her humane vision ol' radical revolutionaries. communism, but one who was The crucial decisions had been taken. The agreements with the army and the unable to channel the chaotic industrialists were vital in establishing the Republic, but these short-term socialist movement or 1918-19 into measures were destined to have long-term effects on Weimar democracy, as an effective revolution. Chart 1 G shows. ■ I G The effects of Ebert's short-term measures Short-term measure Immediate effect Long-term effect Deal with Greener and army Army support for Military elite in strong government against Left position to undermine democracy later Deal with industrialists Workers rally to reforming Industrialists came to new government, and do not resent power given to challenge private ownership workers, and rejected of industry the Weimar regime Was Ebert's rating with the elite and 22 policy of co-ope crushing the Communists justified? For a long time, the period 1918-19 was not the subject of major historical debate. Most historians in the West accepted that Ebert's actions in suppressin1 the communist threat and making deals with the old order were vital for the creation of democracy. The Cold War atmosphereof the 1950s, with its exaggerated fear of communism, encouraged acceptance of the view ofthe German Communists of 1919 as dangerous and of theconsequent need for repression. The possibilityof other routes to democracy, besides that ofEbert's, was underplayed. In East Germany, on the other hand, communist historians portrayedEbert as the servant of the BOURGEOISIE, saving CAPITALISM fromthe revolutionary threa of the communist-inspired masses. This view was dismissed in the West as mere communist propaganda. It was only in the 1970s, with a more fluidpolitical and academic atmosphen afterthe relaxation of the Cold War, that more thorough reassessments of the various options in 1918-19 were made. The creation of councils fromNovembe1 1918 has been studied more closely and seen as having greater potential. There is now a strong argument that: • the chances of a Soviet-style communist regime were farlower than Ebert and his worried supporters believed; Ebert overestimated the threat to democracy from the Communists and underestimated the threat from the Right. • there was, however, a broader movement, within and outside the councils, that desired more radical transformationof the Second Reich, and which might have led to a more secure democraticregime. This third way (broadly represented by the USPD), between Ebert's relative conservatism and radical Soviet-style communism, was a possible alternative route to democracy, which might havestrengthened the chances forthe Weimar Republic to survive. SOURCE 1.10 'Germany, you have a pig of a problem.' A communist view of Ebert in The Red Truncheon magazine SOURCE 1.11 Arnold Brecht, an SPD member and civil servant during the Weimar Republic Ebert and Scheidemann . .. were convinced opponents of [a communist system], in the interest of both the working classes and their own ideals offreedom, self-determination,justice and culture. By Jar the larger section of the working classes were behind them in this and certainly have no reason to maintain that theywere betrayed by them. A moderate revolution is far more difficultto carrythrough than one which is radical, extremist, and detennined to apply any means. SOURCE 1.12 The historian Sir Lewis Namier assesses the Greener-Ebert telephone deal in 'The Nemesis of Power', The Listener, 19 November 1963, pp. 853-4 In afew sentences a pact was concluded between a defeated army and a tottering semi-revolutionary regime; and the Weimar Republic was doomed at birth . .. When thetroops, like victors, [returned]. .. they were greeted with the words: 'Isalute you, who returnunvanquishedjrom the field of battle.' So saying, [Ebert]unwittingly absolved the General Staffand INDICTED the revolution. The legend of the 'stab-in-the-back' was born. Thus Ebert's unintentional exaggeration of the danger of a Soviet-style revolution and his overreliance on the old elite unwittingly contributed to the 25 eventual failure of the Weimar Republic. Furthermore, the suppression of Communists by a socialist government, helped by conservatives, led to great bitterness on the extreme left. The Communist Party never forgave the SPD. The USPD itself split: some joined the Communists; some rejoined the SPD. The forces of the Left were to remain bitterly divided until they met up in Hitler's concentration camps after 1933! ACTIVITY I What do you think is the message of the cartoon in Source 1.1O? 2 How justified do you consider this view of Ebert? 3 In Source 1.1 I, why do you think Brecht considers a moderate revolution more difficult to carry through than a radical one? 4 Why does Namier in Source 1.12 consider Ebert's greeting to the soldiers unwise? SOURCE 1.13 M. Hughes, Nationalism and Society, 1988, p. 184 There is still dispute among historians as to whether there was a genuine revolution in November 1918. In view of the fact that there was so little real change - the removal of the Kaiser and the other German monarchs was of symbolic rather than real significance - it is more accurate to talk of a potential revolution which ran away into the sand rather than the genuine article. The republic that eventually emerged contained at once too much and too little of the old Germany: powerfulinstitutional centres of the old ruling class remained intact and were not subject to democraticcontrol while many Germans saw the republic as originating in a revolution and thereforeillegitimate. SOURCE 1.14 W. Carr, A History of Germany I 8 I 5-/ 985, 1987, p. 249 The achievements of the revolution were undoubtedly limited ... The reign of parliamentarydemocracy began, but all this had been achieved before the November Revolution which merely confirmed a new political order brought into being by the German High Command ... The Republic was accepted by many Germans not as a superior formof governmentbut a convenient means of filling a void leftby the collapse of monarchy. It was widely - but quite erroneously - believed that the alternativeto a conservative parliamentaryregime was a RED dictatorship which only a tiny minority wanted. The structure of German society was hardly affectedby the revolution. The spirit of Imperial Germany lived on in the unreformed civil service, the judiciary and the officercorps. Nor did the powerfulindustrial barons have much to fear fromthe revolution. Ifone believes, as many socialists did in 1918, that democracyis fatally weakened unless the citadels of power and privilege are stormed and subjected to the general will, then the German revolution was certainly afailure for which the three Socialist parties bear much of the responsibility. Look at your completed tables from the Focus Route on page 16. Using the knowledge you have gained and Sources 1.13 and 1.14, answer the following questions. I What were the major changes resulting from the German Revolution of 1918-19? 2 Which areas of German society were not changed? 3 How might the events of the German Revolution a) help b) hinder the development of a successful democracy? Do you think that the events in Germany in 1918-19 should be called a revolution? The German Revolution 1918-19: sources and soundbites 24 SOURCE 1.15 Chancellor Ebert addressing the leaders of the German states on 25 ACTIVITY November 1918 How does Ebert justify his actions in The entire political leadership has been placed in the hands of the Council of Source I.IS? People's Commissars. This ... consists entirely of representatives of the socialist 2 a) Comment on Groener's use of parties But we had to make sure, once we had taken over political power, that the words 'alliance' and 'secret' ... in Source 1.16. the Reich machine did not break down ... to maintain our food supplies and the b) What did Ebert and Greener economy. We worked with all our strength day and night to prevent collapse and have in common? What might downfall within a few days. The six of us could not do that alone; we needed the divide them? experienced co-operation of experts. Had we removed the experienced heads of the c) What is ominous for the Reich Offices, had we replaced them with people who did not possess the necessary survival of the Weimar regime knowledge and experience, then we should have faced failure within a few days. in Source I. 16? 3 Briefly explain what each of the SOURCE 1.16 General Greener recalls his actions of I O November 1918 soundbites in Chart I H shows about the nature of the 1918 In the evening I telephoned the Reich Chancellery and told Ebert that the army Revolution. put itself at the disposal of the government, that in returnfor this the Field 4 'To describe the events of Marshal and the officercorps expected the support of the government in the November 1918 as a revolution is maintenance of order and discipline in the army. The officercorps expected the very misleading.' What do these governmentto fight against Bolshevismand was ready for the struggle. Ebert sources suggest about the validity of accepted my offerof an alliance. From then on we discussed the measures which this comment? were necessary every evening on a secret telephone line between the Reich Chancelleryand the High Command. The alliance proved successful. We [the High Command] hoped through our actions to gain a share of power in the new state for the army and the officer corps. Jjwesucceeded, then we would have rescued into the new Germany the best and strongest elements of old Prussia, despite the revolution. At first, of course, we had to make concessions, for developments in the army and in the homeland had taken such a turnas to make the vigorous issuing of commands by the High Command impossible for the time being. The task was to contain and render harmless the revolutionary movement. ■ I H Soundbites on the 1918 Revolution That the German working class What they want, it sounds laughable I movement, disorientated during the war, know, is revolution without revolution , .. should have taken over the old state the revolutionaryvocabulary of Marxism apparatus practically unchanged was is maintained with religious fervour; but its grave historical error. its meaning has evaporated. SPD member in exile Clara Zetkin to SPD assembly 1934 about its leadership Comrades! Maintain We have done all we revolutionary discipline, can to keep the Do not walk on the grass! masses on the halter. A shout during a Berlin demonstration, 1918 SPD leader Philipp Scheidemann When the house is burning, you may They would not even storm a have to put out the fire with water railway station unless they'd from a cesspool, even if it stinks a first bought platform tickets, bit afterwards. Lenin on the German revolutionaries Industrialist Bosch 1918 .. . , - . �, , ...... . ' ' ,_ :• • .�l •, ' .. ' • • ;.,, -,•• •�; ..,� l:J Did the constitution of the Weimar 25 Republic establish a sound structure for democracy in Germany? The fledglingdemocracy in Germany facedtwo immediate challenges. One was the signing of a peace treaty, which you will study in Chapter 2. The other was the writingand acceptance of a constitution. This task began in January 1919 when elections were held for the German Constituent Assembly. The elections forthe assembly were held on the basis of universal male and femalesuffrage, and used a proportional representation system similar to the one that would be adopted in the Weimar constitution a few months later. The moderate Socialists, the SPD, hoped to gain a majority but did not. However, three-quarters of voters chose partiescommitted to the new republic. The Assembly met in the city of Weimar and set about drawing up a new constitution. A committee headed by the liberal lawyer Hugo Preuss drew up a constitutionwhich was accepted in August by 262 to 75 votes. Then they chose Ebert as President and Scheidemann as Chancellor of a coalition government. The constitution has been described, ironically, both as the most democratic in the world and as a major reason why democracy failed in Germany. SOURCE 1.17 The Constituent t;i:•1«■ Assembly election results, January 1919 1..-,� Parties committed to democracy I a) Read the explanation of the Weimar system of government and the that later voted forthe Weimar extracts from the constitution, then copy and complete the following table. constitution Aspects British system Second Reich Clause in Weimar % of vote Deputies (see pages 9-10) Weimar SPD 38 163 constitution Z/BYP* 20 91 Head of state and how chosen DDP 19 75 Head of Parties that later voted against the government constitution % of vote Deputies How the head of government is DNVP 10 44 chosen USPD 7.6 22 Law-making body DVP 4.4 19 * In Bavaria, there was a separate Catholic party, the Bavarian People's Party. How assembly chosen Notes: The turnout was 83 per cent. The KPD boycotted the election. Power of assembly over ACTIVITY government Written What was encouraging for the constitution survival of democracy in the election results of January 1919? Constitutional 2 Was this surprising? statement of 3 What do the results suggest about rights the strength of socialism (both moderate and revolutionary) in Germany? b) What do you consider were the most significant differences between the 4 Do they prove that Ebert's fears of constitutions of the Second Reich and the Wei,:nar Republic? radical revolution in 1918 were 2 Assess the strengths and potential weaknesses of the Weimar constitution in unjustified? providing a base for democracy in Germany. 'I The Weimar constitution 26 ACTIVITY "'· Develop a basic understanding of the The Weimar constitution is very important for understanding how the new V) Weimar constitution by answering regime developed, so we have included some major extracts. These cover not 2: these questions based on the extracts just the politicalstructure, but also considerable extracts from Part 2: in Source I. 18. Fundamental Rights and Duties of Germans, which contains over 60 articles. 2: Separate groups of students could LIJ each look at one of the four aspects SOURCE 1.18 Essential articles from the constitution of the Weimar Republic CQ listed below. For the first three, a:: note down how they were chosen Preamble and what powers they had. The German people, united in all their branches, and inspired by determination a) The President to renew and strengthen the Commonwealth in liberty and justice, to preserve !: b) The Chancellor :E peace at home and abroad, and to foster social progress, have adopted the 0 c) The Reichstag following Constitution. a:: d) The relationship between the SectionOne. Federation and States Q national {federal) government and the local states. Art. 1. The German Federation is a republic. Political authorityis derived/ram :E 2 Read Part Two of the constitution 0 the people. 0 about fundamental rights. Divide Art. 5. Political authority is exercised in national affairs by the national Q into three groups. governmentin accordance with the constitution of the Reich, and in state a) One group should try and affairs by the state governmentin accordance with state constitutions. CQ identify rights which were Art. probably not very controversial 13. Federal law overrides state law. LIJ and which most Germans might a:: SectionTwo. The National Assembly a:: accept. Art. b) The second group should 22. The delegates are elected by universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage identifythose rights that might by all men and women over twenty years of age, in accordance with the particularly appeal to German principles of proportional representation. Art. LIJ workers/Socialists, and which 23. The National Assembly is elected/or four years. might worry the conservative Art. 25. The President of the Federation may dissolve the Reichstag, but only V) Right. once for any one reason. The general election shall take place not less than c) The last group should identify 60 days after the dissolution. those rights that might reassure industrialists/the Right, and Section Three. The National Rresidency and National Cabinet might worry Socialists. Art. 41. TheNational President is chosen by the whole German people. 3 How might Article 48 be used to Art. 43. The termof officeof the Reich [National]President is seven years. a) protect Art. 47. The National President has supreme command over all the armed b) threaten forces of the Federation. parliamentary democracy? Art. 48. If any state does not performthe duties imposed on it by the Constitution or the national laws, the National President may hold it to the performancethereof by force of arms. If public safety and order in the Federation is materially disturbed or endangered, the National President may take the necessarymeasures to restore public safety and order. The Reich President is obliged to inform the Reichstag immediately of all measures taken under this article. Ifthe Reichstag demands it, these measures are to be revoked [cancelled]. Art. 53. The National Chancellor and, on his proposals, the National Ministers are appointed and dismissed by the National President. Art. 54. The National Chancellor and the National Ministers require/or the administration of their offices the confidence of the National Assembly. Each of them must resign ifthe National Assembly by formal resolution withdraws its confidence. Art. 5 6. The Chancellor . .. determines the main lines of policy, for which he is responsible to the Reichstag. Art. 60. A Reichsrat is formedto give the German states representation in the law making and administration of the Reich. Art. 73. A referendum shall take place ifone-tenth of those entitled to the FRANCHISE petition/or the submission of a proposed law. Art. 76. The Constitution may be altered by legislation. But decisions of the Reichstag as to such alterations come into effect only iftwo-thirds of the legal total of members be present, and ifat least two-thirds of those present have given their consent. Part Two.Fundamental Rights and Duties of Germans Art. 109. All Germans are equal before the law.Men and women have 27 fundamentally the same rights and duties. Art.114. Personal liberty is inviolable [cannot be taken away]. Art. 117. Every German has the right, within the limit of the general laws, to express his opinions freely, by word, printed matter or picture, or in any other manner ... Censorship is forbidden. Art. 124. All Germans have the right to form unions and societies. Art. 135. All inhabitants of the Reich enjoy fullreligious freedomand freedom of conscience. Art. 1J 7. There is no state church. Art. 142. Art, science and the teaching thereof are free. Art. 151. The organisation of economic life must conform to the principles of justice, with the object of assuring humane conditions for all. Within these limits the economic freedom of the individual must be guaranteed. Art. 153. The right of property is guaranteed by the Constitution. Art. 156. TheFederation may by law ... [with compensation] ... traniferto public ownership private business enterprises adapted to socialisation. Art. 157. Labour is under the special protection of the Federation. Art. 161. The Reich shall organise a comprehensive system of [socialjinsurance. Art. 163. EveryGerman has the moral obligation, his personalfreedom not withstanding, to exercise his mental and physical powers in a manner required by the welfare of all. Every Germanshall be given the opportunity to earnhis living through productive work.Uno suitable opportunity can be found, the means necessary for his livelihood will be provided.Further particulars will be given in subsequent legislation. Art. 164. The independent, agricultural, industrial and commercial middle class shall be fostered by legislation and administration, and shall be protected against oppression and exploitation. Art. 165. Workers and employees are called upon to co-operate, on an equal footing, with employers in the regulation of wages and of the conditions of labour, as well as in the general development of the productive forces. 'A well-balanced statement of rights and duties.' Do you agree with this comment on PartTwo of the constitution? ■ Learning trouble spot What do we mean by a ministers are in charge of the various departments of parliamentary government? state: for example, foreign affairs,finance, etc.Before The head of state is the formalleader of a country. many oftheir decisions can be enacted, a new law has to Originally, most countries had a monarch as head ofstate; be passed by parliament. The cabinet consists of the most now most have an elected president. In Britain, the Queen important members of the government, i.e. heads of has a ceremonial role, above party politics. Technically important departments. Junior ministers are members of she appoints the Prime Minister, but this is just a the government, but not the cabinet. formality, as the leader of the party winning a majority in In Britain, the government consists of elected members Parliament becomes Prime Minister. of the House of Commons and members of the House of A parliament is an assembly elected by the people. This Lords. The governmentis formed fromthe party that has is essential for a democracy. It can have various powers, a majority in the House of Commons. (Our tradition of most notably the power to legislate (make laws). It is thus having two major parties and our first-past-the-post a legislative body. In the British form ofdemocracy, but electoral system normally ensure one party has a clear not in all systems, some ofits members also make up the majority of MPs.) The government has to have the support government. of Parliament. In Britain this is easy as the party in The governmentis the group of people who actually government has a majority of MPs in the House of run the country: that is, make decisions about foreign Commons who will normally pass whatever the policy, taxation, expenditure, etc. The government is the governmentwants. IfParliament passes a vote ofno executive power. It carries out policy. Government confidence in the government, it has to resign. ' - ., - " , � • I ','f jl , ": 1 •• • • r •~ _ � , ,.,• :' '(�"1',J,., 1-.-' ;" ,...�.... , ... a., ;>1.r u'-1.un� o, t:ne Weimar Republic 28 Head of State: President Elected by voters every seven years Power to appoint/dismiss Chancellor Could dissolve Reichstag and arrange for new elections Commanded the army In an emergency, could issue laws by decree and override constitutional rights of the German people Government: Chancellor and ministers Had to have the confidence of the Reichstag Proposed laws to the Reichstag To interpret the constitution Reichstag Elected by all Germans over 20 Deputies elected on the basis of proportional representation Elections scheduled for every four years The German people Everyone over 20 could vote for party lists for the Reichstag every four years; for state assemblies every four years; for President every seven years. They PLEBISCITES could also vote on if arranged Assembly of 67 representatives of the seventeen states Could give advice and reject new laws, but could be overriden by the Reichstag I State Parliaments n The fundamental rights and duties of the German people Liberals had first drawn up a Statement of Fundamental Federal system Rights in 1848. This had not been enacted. In I 919 it was Liinder modernised to include more social rights, e.g. to belong Germany remained a federal state. The existing to a union, and adopted as part of the constitution (local states, e.g. Prussia, Bavaria) were slightly reorganised and reduced to seventeen. All state monarchs, e.g. of Prussia Key and Bavaria, were replaced.The new states were organised along similar lines to the national (or federal) government. They ran the major services in their state, e.g. education, � Elections police, but in an emergency the federal government could ---tllll• Influence on or power over intervene in the states SOURCE 1.19 A ballot paper used in the 1920 How did the new voting system in Germany elections to the Reichstag. In Schleswig-Holstein the 29 voter had a choice of 29 party lists actually work? Germany was divided up into 35 equal electoral districts.There were ReidJstagsroafJ{ 29 million voters Gust under a million in each area). Partiesdrew up a 1Dal)l!rtls lhrliu list of candidates, and voters voted for the party list as a whole. Voters thus chose partiesnot candidates. For every 60,000 votes in each district the party gained one deputy. (Partyofficials then chose their S031a10emo!tal11djel1111tel l)u�lak allocated number of deputies from their party's list of candidates.) If a 2 lrllpin - 'Jwf�1r - 'tlr•� - fllh party did not gain 60,000 votes in any district but won over 30,000 �mmalllftlllfltllarftl J)ratfdli.... votes in some districts,these votes would be added up and translated 3 �1•11•... - t,k, - 1'"1ln - ... into deputies. The number of deputies in the Reichstag was not fixed; it depended upon the total numberof votes cast Dr.c;n,w,1., Deallll!e-In.•'"' 3ellltUliPlllltl -e-m -� 4 The new system of government (but not elections) created in the lltattil!aolloaateliolt&,attd • Weimar Republic was very similar to the one in the UK today. It was a hHnn1 - � - 9ff�I - M 5 parliamentary governmentbecause the Chancellor and his llaOllalerm1nemauo government had to have the support of parliament (unlike under the 5a 'ln•lln - Or. �ldchan Jlllmftrngemeinfdjaftoer lllelarrahler no Second Reich, see pages 9-10). The big difference compared to the Jot alloasgef1tao·a1rn 6a 1Httf - e1,l■IU - � - QUuW British system was that the proportional representation system, lJealfdJe. Dalleplltltl together with Germany's multi-party tradition, meant that no party 1 Or. "l1h.lrr - Dr.�IC,r - !u• ,Oet - DII• ever had a majority in parliament. This was because no party ever lleulidlr!ilaal5patlel gained a majority of votes in elections during the Weimar Republic. 8 Or. e4'ulkr - 1'11,ftu - Dr, 8"rcl -3n• �l't(,. This meant thePresident, who appointed and could dismiss the II�clfllldJ,foJlalerDollJOlea!I <«oaaa,llhtr !lC10rtn1l Chancellor, had a vital role, since there was often no obvious 9 �rhJII - 3n• Ulhl. - flcljc - •..-1f+a, Chancellor; it was a matter of who might be most able to win majority llf!llfdJ·�anaoaetfdjellatlel support in the Reichstag by forming a coalition government. This 9a !0!t1n -Jlnle -,!Dhln - &Uct caused instability.There were frequent changes of Chancellor and of at1�sparfeloes Oeaij(!Jeam1nelllabel �.r.,•-•.. -ect,a:-� government, not just afterelections but between elections. 10 lleatfdJestauo=tt 13 Dr, �•fil -0ttfst DolflimfJt·Uatlfl D.Or.l!Oufftf-... 11- --" - l2ldal -- 14 Gem!Jtl(lfelli-B21lleuaa11-me1pa 9'11itatt'-1&r .... 5oJtal•Repablllaail(llellar!d l)rvlftlJll!l&s 15 1oa,nna-!uaraoa1 Nit'!lttrltlbrl�aa) 11 �,.. - .0-,11 -Dr.-...- .. ..,.. SoJlallllt!lfle'Jlt!Jtllet-Vatlel lltal[cf.llROI ...., ___,-o..a-i.,- _lh-.e...-, 18 Uelellllflt 1whli•lli - f■klt - �r..,m - e-1111 3'tetmlrtftllalllldleilatlet !ltali .lllaUOI(UJ.ll.) 19 l)antllilr !rl(ulrrlr llollllllr111'1N e.,,,, - l&ql,lff -,., - ,11, 21 i!GmjlfgeuJela(tlja[Ibtt 'Ktbdllt11110 !aftll 5 . 9'ilrr - iinql..-r - ,O(fi�" - � Omis·uu b £0RG:Ultlei,a11tl (l!a■D ra, mttlltli■ftmfana) 6 e,.. ,_... - 0-n�rt - !Dhlani· - e.Mf9ft( SOURCE 1.20 A comparison of Weimar election results in 1919 with results 1 from the British election of I 997, showing the differenteffects of proportional 1leallille l!auerapatld (llaHa1al•llrpabUlaatttlit-llR1dl representation and the 'firstpast the post' system 8· eff'■-&lf llaDll11Demolt41llll!tilatltl Germany 1919 UK 1997 «.,t - lr•0riallun - Dr,1),uhlr.-MI -3NII■ e1ufo 9 Party Vote Deputies Party Vote MPs % of total hlt1g1t1rtm111em1111D (examples (%) (%) number of .Sr'-r - �••ii - 6crfffl only) MPs 01nb11mfn:,OauDel- 1111D SOURCE 1.22 Gustav Stresemann, DVP leader, talking to a Geri The ordinarypeople have no affectionfor Ebert. The truth is want a president in a top hat . ..He has to wear a uniform a w medals. Pr SOURCE 1.23 During the debates on the constitution, a USPD d R of possible dangers under Article 48 ... if some henchman of the Hohenzollems [the royal family] were to be at the head of the Reich. SOURCE 1.24 A Nicholls, Weimar and the Rise of Hitler, 1979, p. Whatever problems faced the Weimar Republic they were not democratic nature of the Constitution, which was a brave sta and democratic principles. It p SOURCE 1.2S K. Fischer, Nazi Germany. A New History, 1995, pp . . . . The final document ... was in many ways a mirror image dissonances of [lack of hannonyin] Gennan society. TheWeirru hodge-podge of principles drawnfromSocialist and liberalage; so much confusionin regard to economic objectives and unre; It al that German democracywas stymied [impeded] from the begi [Itwas] one of the most democratic documents in the worla ■ it was doubtfulwhether such a democraticconstitution could ■ of a people that was neither psychologically nor historically p ■ a government. ■ f a SOURCE 1.26 D. Peukert, The Weimar Republic, 1991, p. 50 a ■ Despite its imperfections, the Weimar Reich constitution provi, framework/oran experiment in democracywhich would hav offurther refinement under more favourable circumstances. It groups into the new order; enduringly so in the case of the old Reich' in the Social Democratic labour movement and Cathol1 temporarily so in the case of sections of the middle class. It offi CORPORATISTways of attempting to reconcile basic social divisi, down the foundations for an expansion of the welfare state. Fi This signally succesiful, by internationalstandards, in helping mah For transitionto a peacetime economy. ACTIVITY Read the contemporary accounts in Sources 1.21-3. What problems for the survival of democracy in Germany do suggest? 2 Read the verdicts of historians in Sources 1.24-6. a) What strengths do they identify in the Weimar constitutic b) What weaknesses do they identify? 3 Do they think that the constitution itself was a strong basis for recipe for chaos? Ii Review: Was the Weimar Republic 51 doomed from its very beginnings? You have now studied how parliamentary democracy came to Germany. You have examined its difficultbirth during military defeat, the nature of the revolution that created the Weimar Republic, and thenew democratic constitution. You now need to decide whether the background and the events of 1918-19 doomed the new Republic to failure or whether it still had a chance of establishing democracy in Germany. ■ IJ The Weimar constitution: will it survive? R E A s ___,,.. ,... Defends constitution 0 against its enemies l'J 11�------, s F 0 R H Spirit of Constitution - 0 democratic and progressive p E But Article 48 undermines Reichstag1 I T s s u R V I V A L Burden of the past Authoritarian tradition in Germany New burdens Versailles Diktat Limited nature of 19 I 8-19 Revolution ACTIVITY 52 Copy this table and complete columns 2 and 3 from the two lists below. This activit) will help you grasp the overall theme that the way the Weimar Republic was createc caused problems that reduced its chances of flourishing. Potential problem Details of the problem Significance/possible effects ACTIVITY Legacy of the First World War Study Chart IJ, then list the strengths and weaknesses of the Nature of the German democratic system set up in Revolution Germany in 1918--:19. Refer to: Weimar constitution a) Germany's political tradition b) the nature of the 1918 Revolution Details of the· problems c) the Weimar constitution i) Growth in government debt and inflation d) the overall context of 1918-19, ii) Voting by proportional representation especially Germany's defeat in iii) SPD government's suppression of communist uprising in January 1919 1918. iv) Germany's unexpected defeat and the myth of the 'stab in the back' 2 Reconstruction Minister Walther v) Article 48 Rathenau said in 1919: 'Now we vi) Inclusion of the principles of a welfare state have a Republic, the problem is we vii) Treaty of Versailles have no republicans.' Explain what viii) Ebert's deal with Greener and the 'unrevolutionary revolution', November 1918 you think he meant. 3 Debate: 'Fatally flawed'. Discuss this Significance/possible effects view of Germany's infant democratic a) The Weimar regime printed too much money to meet its expenditure system. requirements, causing continued inflation; groups on fixed incomes became 4 Structured essay. discontented. a) Describe how Germany b) The two main left-wing parties remained bitterly divided. changed from being a semi c) Weimar's 'November criminals', not the army generals, were blamed for absolutist monarchy in 1918 to Germany's defeat. a parliamentary republic in d) The President could bypass the Reichstag. 1919. e) Weimar governments were associated with this national humiliation. b) Explain why the prospects for f) The elites might later turn against the constitution, considering it too radical. the survival of the new g) Influential social groups and institutions, potentially hostile to democracy, were democratic regime were not not removed from their positions of power. great. h) This made coalition governments very likely. KEY POINTS FROM CHAPTER I: Was the Weimar Republic doomed from its very beginnings? I Until 1918 Germany had been a semi-absolutist state dominated by the Prussian AGRARIAN elite. 2 In 1918 Germany came close to military success in the First World War, but then was forced to seek peace to avoid military disaster. 3 Parliamentary government was created in October 1918 in a 'revolution from above', advocated by the generals as a device to blame others formilitary defeat. 4 Late in October a 'revolution from below' began when unrest spread from sailors in Kiel throughout Germany. 5 On 9 November, a Socialist-led republic was declared in Berlin. 6 The 'German Revolution' was very limited. Ebert's government made a deal with the army, and gained the co-operation of the old elites. This would be harmful for the future development of full democracy. 7 On 11 November, the new government accepted an armistice. 8 In January 1919 the socialist government used the Freikorps to crush a communist rising. This led to lasting bitterness between Socialists and Communists. 9 The constitution of the new Weimar Republic was very democratic. It established parliamentary government. The Chancellor was appointed by the President, but had to have the confidence of the Reichstag. I O The system of proportional representation and the President's emergency powers under Article 48 were to create problems forthe survival of democracy.