PART I.I Weimar Germany 1918-23: Creation and crises D Was the Wei,nar Republic doo,nedfro,n its very beginnings? CHAPTER OVERVIEW Although the Weimar Republic did not collapse until 1933, this chapter begins to investigate the causes of its collapse. One historical interpretation is that the Weimar Republic was doomed to fail from the beginning because of long-term weaknesses. These include a long-established anti-democratic tradition in Germany and the possibility that some of the politicians who created the Republic never meant it to succeed. They were powerful right-wing politicians and generals who hoped the Republic would take the blame for defeat in the First World War. You will need to decide whether you agree that these factors were so important that they undermined the new Republic from the very beginning. The second strand of investigation in this chapter is the constitution of the new Republic. Did it create a sound structure for post-war government or was the constitution another of the long-term causes of the Republic's downfall? Therefore, the subsections of this chapter are: A How strong were the roots of democracy in nineteenth-century Germany? (pp. 8-11) B The 'revolution from above': why was a democratic regime born out of Germany's defeat? (pp. 12-15) C The revolution from below: did the 1918 German Revolution provide a strong basis for democracy? (pp. 16-24) D Did the constitution of the Weimar Republic establish a sound structure for democracy in Germany? (pp. 25-30) E Review: Was the Weimar Republic doomed from its very beginnings? (pp. 31-2) m How strong were the roots of democracy in nineteenth-century Germany? Whenthe democratic Weimar Republicwas set up in 1919 it was not created on virginpolitical territory. Ifwe are to understandthe challenges theRepublic faced, we need to look at thepolitical and cultural traditionsof Germany. On pages 2-3 you saw how German historical traditionshave been interpreted invery different ways. Were theroots of democracy in Germany strong enough to sustainthe regime or did a hostile authoritarian tradition threaten Weimar fromthe outset? 1 ;;i:•1•■L.·•u a•1•• 1::1 9 I As you study pages 9-1 I, complete your own copy of the table below about two trends in German history. Note down any evidence that supports either trend. You could use these subheadings in your table: . Political structure . Economic and social tensions . Nationalism and foreign policy . Democratic aspects of nineteenth- Authoritarian, anti-democratic century Germany tradition in nineteenth-century Germany 2 Which trend appears to be the strongest? The political structure of the Second Reich Germany was a young nation at the turn of the century. Less than 30 years had passed since, between 1864 and 1871, Bismarck had used the economic and military might of Prussia to reorganise the map of central Europe through a series of wars. He expelled Austria, the other main German state, fromthe German Confederation, and set up a North German Confederation which was dominated by Prussia. Finally, in 1871, Prussia defeated France, and brought the south German states into a united Germany. Amidst the glory of this victory, Bismarck proclaimed the Second German Reich in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, just outside Paris. This Second German Empire (which was to last until 1918) was thus a product of brilliant military success. It included all the German states, except Austria, in a new federal state. It had a written constitution and an assembly, the Reichstag, elected by universal male suffrage. ■ I A The political structure of the Second Reich 1871-1918 Kaiser (Emperor) Hereditary monarch (King of Prussia) Appointed/dismissed government Could dissolve the Reichstag Controlled foreign policy and the armed forces Reichstag Members (called deputies) elected by universal male suffrage Government: Chancellor and other ministers Could agree to or reject laws proposed by Kaiser or the government Appointed/dismissed by Kaiser Could not remove the Chancellor or the government Proposed new laws to the Reichstag Not dependent upon support in the Reichstag to stay in office Political parties Conservatives National Liberals (moderate conservatives) Progressives (Liberals) SPD* (socialists) Z* or Centre (representing the interests of Catholics) REICHSRAT (assembly of ambassadors * Parties that carried on into the Weimar Republic from the 26 state governments) Had veto on legislation passed by Reichstag Number of deputies of main political parties in Reichstag Political party 1884 1898 1912 Conservatives 78 56 43 _. Men over 25 voted in Reichstag elections every three years Progressives 67 41 42 Also voted for local state assemblies SPD 24 56 110 Written constitution but no statement of individual rights . ,, ,.,·, "' : ' .. :, .... ,·:'"· "·.' •• �. '\: 1.;_,.i,,.,,,{ <·· ·.-. .t· ... ,.,;;.,.. � .. -· ... ••'l>- ,•...,'r ·�,•• -.• • ,' ...... ,� • .,, t '·' , .. ·,, Although the Second Reich had an elected parliament, the Reichstag, it did 10 not have a parliamentary government (see page 27). The Reichstag did not control the government. The Chancellor and other ministers were not usually members of the Reichstag and they were appointed by the Kaiser. They could not be removed or replaced by the Reichstag. However, the government had to co-operate with the Reichstag because laws had to be agreed by it. It was really a semi-ABSOLUTIST regime, a form of modernised conservative state. The success of the conservative Bismarck in creating a united Germany persuaded many middle-class Liberals to support the new authoritarian nation­ state above their commitment to genuine parliamentary government. This was to have important effects,as it weakened potentialsupport for full democracy in Germany. Economic and social tensions The newly unified Germany soon dominated central Europe. Its economy grew ■ The creator of a united Germany rapidly during the late nineteenth century, and this caused increasing social ■ Became Chancellor of Pmssia in and political problems. The rapidly expanding industrial and urban working 1862, then or Germany 1871-90 class - the PROLETARIAT - increasingly supported the Socialist Party (the SPD). ■ A realistic conservative, be was SPD supporters wanted political reform to accompany Germany's economic prepared to accept some changes to growth. Bismarck sought to restrict SPD support by repression, then by strengthen the existing political introducing social reforms to win theworking class from socialism. Both system policies were unsuccessful and the SPD continued to grow. This reinforced ■ Led Prnssia/Germanyto victory in conservative tendencies within the middle class. Utree wars l864-7 l, then declared The conservative elitewhich had created the Second Reich was hostile to Germany a satisfied state, and reform. Real power remained with the Kaiser and Prussian landowners, the worked to keep peace in Em-ope JUNKERS. The Junkers were traditionalistaristocrats, who owned large estates in ■ Argued that German interests lay in East Prussia, but they also dominated thenew German state by holding most of · Europe and Uiat overseas colonies the key positionsas army officers,diplomats, top civil servants and senior judges. were not important They scorned 'politics' and resented the Reichstag, whose members voiced the views of reformers. They were also fearfulof revolutionled by Socialists. Kaiser Wilhelm n Nationalism and foreign policy Germany had a proud cultural tradition that had produced a stream of great thinkers, writers and composers. Its people were one of the most educated in Europe. However, by the 189Os some Germans were being influencedby the theory of social Darwinism. This was the application of Charles Darwin's theory of the survival of the fittestin nature to society and states. A strongstate would prosper; a weak one would die! Some Germans became concerned about what they saw as the biological degeneration (decline) of the nation. This was linked to the growth of anti-semitism, both amongst the ruling elite, including Wilhelm II, and amongst the middle and lower classes. This feeling was especially strong amongst those who felt threatened by the influxfrom Russia of the so-called Ost-Juden, mainly orthodox Jews fleeing from Tsarist persecution. German nationalism was therefore both increasing and fearful for the future. This led to nationalism sometimes taking an aggressive form, with demands for Germany to expand. The German ruling class also saw an aggressive foreign ■ policy as a way to win over working-class support and so reduce the threat of ■ Born in Berlin in 1859 revolution. From the 189Os, Kaiser Wilhelm II and his ministers pursued an King of Pmssia (HOIIENZOLLEIIN ambitious foreign policy of developing an overseas empire. This policy was dynasty) and Emperor of Germany, called Weltpolitik, world policy. 1888-1918 ■ Believed in the DIV[NE RIGHT OF KINGS ■ A.n unstabl.e, impulsive character ■ Had an inferiority complex, but was determined Lo assert boU1 himself and German power ■ Supported a more assertive ■ Weltpolililc ■ Abdicated in 1.918 'The roots of democracy in Germany were weak.' Explain whether you think this Died in Holland in 1941 statement is true or not. ■ 1B Germany at the the beginning of the twentieth century 11 Geography Prussia • Germany had no clear natural boundaries Prussia was originally a small kingdom in eastern • No major mountain ranges Germany but formed the basis of the Second Reich. • Rivers (Rhine, Ruhr, Elbe, Oder) cut through Containing