Why Do Consumers Cross-Shop Between Different Types of Food Retail Outlets?

Brenda J. Cude and Michelle A. Morganosky

This research analyzed consumer cross-shopping between supermarkets and nontraditional food retail outlets and examined reasons for cross-shopping. Focus groups were conducted in two major metropolitan markets and one medium-size market. Participants indicated they add nontraditional retail formats to the existing mix of stores at which they shop. Despite the increased number of types of food retail outlets they patronized, focus group participants said they didn't feel they spent more time grocery shopping at multiple formats compared to shopping in a traditional supermarket.

In recent years, consumers' options for buying supercenters, which combine food and general food have greatly expanded. Traditional discount merchandise categories, as providing serious com- retailers such as Kmart and Wal-Mart now build petitive challenges to traditional supermarkets. supercenters that include not only the full line of Capps and Griffin (1998) examined sales data and goods sold in their traditional discount store for- concluded that the introduction of a Super Wal-Mart mat but also complete supermarkets. Today's con- in the rural area surrounding Dallas/Fort Worth re- sumers can also find in many supermarkets large duced sales of a conventional retail grocery store package-size items that were once available only in the same area by 21 percent. Woo et al. (2001) in warehouse clubs. And the supermarket has found that in the 1 1-week period after a Super Wal- changed in other ways, often offering many non- Mart opened in Athens, Georgia food prices were food related services such as banking and dry clean- 20 to 50 cents per pound lower at Super Wal-Mart ing as well as take-out and other prepared foods than at six supermarkets in town. (Lisanti 1996). In 1997,31 percent of consumers in a national How have consumers responded to this blur- study reported they now shop more often at ring of food channels? That question is the focus supercenters for their food purchases than in the of this article. Specifically the goals are to analyze previous year (Liebmann 1998). In the same study, consumer cross-shopping for food between super- 28 percent of respondents said they shopped more markets and nontraditional food retail outlets and often at warehouse clubs for food than previously to explore how and why consumers choose to pa- (Liebmann 1998). tronize multiple retail outlets when buying food. Consumers have not, however, abandoned the traditional supermarket. Surveys indicate that con- Recent Changes In Food Retailing sumers continue to be relatively well-satisfied with supermarkets. In a 1997 national survey consum- While U.S. grocery sales typically average ers gave supermarkets a 6.6 on a scale of 1 to 10 yearly gains of about 5 percent, most of this growth where 10 is "extremely satisfied" (Weinstein 1998). is attributed to nontraditional channels such as Many also said they enjoy shopping in supermar- supercenters and warehouse clubs, rather than con- kets (6.5 on a scale of 1 to 10 where 10 is "most ventional supermarkets (Food Institute 1998). Jones enjoyable") (Weinstein 1998). (1996) and Binkley and Conner (1998) suggest that Traditional supermarkets have responded to the the emergence of new retail formats and consum- growing demand for convenience by offering items ers' patronage of these formats have been the most such as pre-washed, pre-cut produce; ready-to-eat notable change in food retailing in recent years. packaged salads; and even fully cooked take-out Kinsey and Senauer (1996) single out meals (Kinsey and Senauer 1996). Kinsey and Senauer (1996) note store responses to at least two Brenda J. Cude is professor and Chair, Department of Housing other aspects of convenience that food shoppers and Consumer Economics, University of Georgia. Michelle increasingly expect. By expanding their product A. Morganosky is a professor, Department of Agricultural and assortments and adding a variety of services such Consumer Economics, University of Illinois. Cude, Brenda J. and Michelle A. Morganosky Why Do Consumers Cross-Shop Between Food Outlets? 15 as banking, floral services, video rental, and dry as relatively low. Specifically, the total cost TCh cleaning, supermarkets have improved their one- (s) for household h to shop store s and retail for- stop shopping appeal. Supermarkets are also chang- mat i on day d is ing their layouts to allow more direct access to fre- quently visited departments and looking for ways (2) TCh(s.) = Fh(s.) + Vh(s) to increase efficiencies in checkout (Weaver 1998). Consumers may also choose to patronize dif- Literature Review ferent stores (as well as a variety of retail formats) over time. Bell, Ho, and Tang (1998) related the How do consumers decide which store or stores concept of "basket size" (number of items pur- to patronize given this new mix of retail formats chased per visit) to shopping costs and a consumer's available to them? Bell, Ho, and Tang (1998) criti- choice of a food retail outlet. Retailers might offer cized the conventional view that location explains small-basket shoppers the lowest fixed shopping most of the variance in a consumer's choice of a costs but higher variable costs, while offering large- food retailer. In their study of 520 households they basket shoppers the lowest variable costs but higher showed that the average number of trips to a par- fixed costs. For example, a convenience store may ticular food store by a given segment is not neces- charge higher prices but have parking spaces close sarily correlated with distance. They suggested that to the door and no wait at the checkout. In contrast, store choice is explained better by analyzing con- a warehouse club's prices may be lower but the sumer response to shopping costs, in which store is located in a secondary rather than a pri- locational differences are captured as part of the mary retail location. Thus, a consumer whose pur- fixed cost. Specifically, the researchers represent pose is a major shopping trip to stock up on a number the total cost TCh(s) for household h to shop at store of grocery items may select a different store or a dif- s on day d as ferent retail format than when the purpose is to pick up a few forgotten items or specialty products. (1) TCh(s) = Ft(s) + Vt(s) Carsky, Dickenson, and Smith (1995) devel- oped a shopping model that relates a consumer's where Fh (s) is the fixed cost for household h to choice of store to prices and locations. In their shop at store s on day d and Vh(s) is the variable model, consumers identify an acceptable set of cost. stores that household members would routinely pass Their basic premise is that shoppers are more in their daily travel. The researchers assumed con- likely to visit the store that imposes the lowest to- sumers will be familiar with the prices for their set tal shopping cost per trip. They concluded that a of acceptable brands so they will recognize a "price store that reduces fixed costs (through improved trigger"-a designated low price that triggers a service, better parking, higher quality, etc.) will purchase. The authors suggested consumers can increase patronage from consumers who currently adopt this model to use "marketplace mechanisms shop at competitors' stores, at no revenue loss from and competitive environments to their advantage" current customers. However, a reduction in con- (p. 453). Carsky, Dickinson, and Smith-who did sumers' variable costs (through lower prices, re- not test their model-noted that little is known ward programs, etc.) will increase patronage but about consumer travel patterns as they relate to reduce revenue from current customers, since they search behaviors. will pay lower prices. Dellaert et al. (1998) developed a very differ- This reasoning can be expanded to model the ent theoretical model to explain how consumers consumer decision to shop multiple retail formats. combine multiple purposes and destinations in plan- The consumer will shop the mix of retail formats ning their shopping trips. They defined a "trip that imposes the lowest total shopping costs. Some chain" as a shopping trip that includes visits to formats may appear in the mix because they have multiple locations to buy products of multiple "or- relatively low fixed costs, others because they have ders"; order is the term the researchers used to de- relatively low variable costs, and still others be- scribe the frequency with which a product is pur- cause consumers view both fixed and variable costs chased. For example, durable products are higher- 16 July 2001 Journal of Food DistributionResearch order products (since they are purchased less fre- choose to grocery shop at several major supermar- quently) and fresh food items, which are purchased kets, supercenters, warehouse clubs, and online. more frequently, are lower-order products. They Champaign-Urbana has a smaller population assumed the utility of a trip chain consists of a (100,000) but also offers a wide variety of retail weighted sum of the utility of the stores visited to options. At the time of data collection there were purchase products of different order and the 11 supermarkets representing four different retail disutility of travel to the stores. However, the re- chains, two supercenters, and one warehouse club searchers specifically assumed that consumers do in Champaign-Urbana. Shortly after the focus not plan multi-stop trips for products of the same groups were conducted, online grocery shopping order; i.e., they do not plan to visit more than one also became available. retail store per trip to buy fresh food items. Consumers selected to participate in a focus Dellaert et al. (2000) concluded that consum- group were those who indicated in prescreening that ers prefer to combine purchases of multiple types they do their grocery shopping at supermarkets and of products in their trips to reduce their overall at least one other format (e.g., supercenters or ware- travel. They also concluded that consumers tend to house clubs). A paid facilitator made initial con- give less frequently purchased items priority over tacts by telephone with individuals based on the more frequently purchased items such as food when above criteria and then, using the snowball tech- planning multipurpose, multi-destination trips. nique (Templeton 1994), asked those contacts for As Dellaert et al. (2000) note, current research the names and telephone numbers of others who fit approaches typically assume that consumers visit the criteria. The participants were chosen to pro- only one store in each shopping trip. For example, vide a mix of men and women, a range of ages from in their research on consumer grocery shopping young adults through retirement age, individuals strategies, Pologato and Zaichkowsky (1999), representing racial and ethnic minorities, and dif- Avery (1996), Kolidinsky (1990), and Crowell and ferent family types including singles and couples Bowers (1977) each assumed that consumers se- with and without children. lect one store from which to buy groceries. None The paid facilitator conducted the focus group of the researchers identified any retail options for interviews in hotel conference rooms in the evening. grocery shopping other than a supermarket. When The facilitator worked from a discussion guide pre- researchers do acknowledge that consumers gro- pared by the researchers. Participants received $25 cery shop at multiple stores, they assume it is for each at the end of the session. Focus group discus- the specific purpose of getting the best value (see, sions were recorded and later transcribed in their for example, Hermann and Warland 1990). Thus, entirety. a notable void exists in the literature concerning The 31 individuals who participated in the three how and why consumers routinely food shop at focus groups completed a brief survey at the end of more than one store and how and why they cross- each session. The demographics of the participants shop between traditional and nontraditional food (Table 1) indicated that there was diversity among retail outlets. Therefore, in this paper we analyze the individuals in age, income, and employment. cross-shopping for food between traditional and However, the majority (61 percent) of the partici- nontraditional outlets, examining why consumers pants were college graduates and all but five were choose to cross-shop and the management strate- female. All of the participants patronized at least gies they use when cross-shopping. one retail format in addition to traditional super- markets for their grocery purchases. Warehouse Data Collection: Focus Group Interviews clubs (67 percent), limited-line discount stores (58 percent), and supercenters (55 percent) were the Focus groups were conducted in March 1998 retail formats most often combined with supermar- with consumers in three different markets: Chicago, kets. However, focus group participants also de- Illinois; St. Louis, Missouri; and Champaign-Ur- scribed shopping for food at ethnic markets; spe- bana, Illinois. Each market offers a variety of food cialty stores including meat markets and drug stores, retail formats to consumers. farmers' markets, school fund-raisers such as Mar- In both Chicago and St. Louis, consumers can ket Days, home-delivered food shopping services Cude, Brenda J. and Michelle A. Morganosky Why Do Consumers Cross-Shop Between Food Outlets? 17

Table 1. Profile of Focus Group Participants shopping. While one shopped every day, others (N=31) shopped as seldom as once every six weeks. Some Demographic Variables Percent of Total shopped late at night (even at midnight on the day that a sale started) or early in the morning (before Age 7 a.m.) while others didn't have a specific time pref- Less than 35 years 26% erence. Some said they didn't specifically sched- 35 to 55 years 45% ule their grocery shopping. As one participant said, Less than 55 years 29% "My shopping's usually scheduled in with whatever Gender else I have to do.... Usually it's stopping on the way Male 16% here or the way there." Others planned their gro- Female 84% cery shopping trips very carefully. For example, a participant said, "Ispend a lot of time getting ready Annual Household Income to go grocery shopping. I go through every ad on Less than $30,000 23% Sundays. I write down every grocery store that has $30,000-$49,999 19% a bunch of things, and then I go through my cou- $50,000-$69,999 29% pon book and try and match coupons with what I $70,000 or more 29% have on my list." Others did little pre-planning, Employment Status saying "Ijust go" or "I don 'tplan ahead." Full-time 42% Some indicated they devote very limited time Part-time 23% to grocery shopping, with two saying they spend Retired 23% an hour, including travel time. At the other extreme, Homemaker or 13% a participant in the same market area said she spends Not Employed two and a half to three hours. However, most Education Level weren't specific about how much time they spent High school or less 10% on grocery shopping each week. Some college 29% Several participants were quite suspicious of College graduate 61% food retailers and their practices. Participants re- ferred to stores as "competing to see who can have the highestprices"and "doublingpricesafter they such as Schwann's, and by mail order for meats. remodeled a store." Another fairly common belief None of the participants shopped for food online. was that posted prices in stores did not match scanned prices. One participant said, "I almost de- Results liberately now get behind somebody that has afull cart, so that I have time to get my stuff up on the Individuals in the focus groups represented a conveyer belt because if I'm putting it up at the variety of attitudes about and approaches to gro- same time that they 're checking it out, I can guar- cery shopping and food retailers. Attitudes about antee you that they're going to do something grocery shopping varied; some participants said wrong. they didn't like to grocery shop or saw it as a "nec- essary evi'l or a "waste of time," while others en- Cross-ShoppingBetween Food Retail Channels joyed it. Specifically some participants described it as "... time awayfrom the kids," or "afun activ- When discussing how often they bought food ity to try to save money," or ".. . the time I'm away from retailers other than supermarkets, some fo- by myself" As one participant said, "I don't like cus groups participants were quite vague ("some- getting to the store. I don 't like having to put away times") while others were very specific ("twice a all the stuff. I hate all that. But I love my actual month on Fridays.") As noted earlier, the partici- experience in the store. " pants described combining a variety of retail food Focus group participants also varied in their store formats with traditional supermarkets. frequency of grocery shopping as well as when they A primary objective of the focus group inter- shopped and the time spent preparing as well as views was to learn how consumers decide where to 18 July 2001 Journalof Food DistributionResearch shop for food. The focus group participants identi- shop each week) is totally relatedto the number of fied a number of criteria that influenced their store stores that have a special deal. " choice regardless of the type of retail format. Convenience also encouraged cross-shopping. Among the criteria mentioned were store location For example: (including proximity to other stores they also pa- * "It (grocery shopping at a supercenter) tronize), selection (including stocking well-known seems to save me a trip or two. " brands and the quality and variety of produce), help- · "I go there (the supercenter) when I'm ful salespeople, convenience (including convenient shoppingfor clothes or anything because hours of operation and ability to get in and out of that has the clothes and everything. " the store quickly), being locally operated, having a * "But Ifind myself going to SupercenterA discount card program, and accepting the form of most of the time any more simply because payment the consumer wants to use (check, credit of the variety, also convenience . . . I'll card, debit card). swing through the rest of the store and buy Consumers were just as articulate about fac- quarts of oil or something I want, and go tors that discouraged them from shopping at a store. do grocery shopping and do it all at once The focus group participants mentioned salespeople rather than having to shop two or three (not enough, not knowledgeable), inconveniences different times." (store inconveniently located, having to pay cash, Store location also influenced cross-shopping, having to bring your own bags, having to bag your although as Bell, Ho, and Tang (1998) suggest, an own groceries, rearranging the location of items inconvenient location was not necessarily a deter- within the store), prices (posted price different from rent. As one participant said, "I usually will look to scanned price, prices higher than other stores in see if it (the store) is on the route of anything that town, prices not on the shelf, prices on the shelf I'll do, like either work or my husband's work, or tags but too small to read), stores not mailing out you know is it a route that I'll take once or twice a flyers, limited variety, and stores not being clean. month or even every six weeks and then use it that When discussing why they cross-shop, some way. participants said they shop at a mix of retail for- Also as suggested by Bell, Ho, and Tang (1998), mats because they can't find everything they want some focus group participants recognized that their under one roof. For example, one said, "I have to choice of formats depended on the type of grocery go to different stores because they don't all carry shopping they were doing. For example, a partici- the same thing. " In fact, some participants described pant said, "If I'm going for big grocery shopping shopping a variety of formats as routine. For ex- and I've got lots of time, I could care less because ample, "Isplitmy shopping up 50-50 between Ware- I've got time. But if I'm going for something spe- house Club A andSupermarketA. From time to time cific, and I need to pick it up and get home I want I'll run into Supermarket D. " Others made their de- to go to a store that I know where it is, and I can cision about where to shop based on a single item. run in and get it quick. " The trigger varied across focus group participants Several factors deterred consumers from shop- and included variety in meats and produce, high- ping at either supercenters or warehouse clubs or quality meats and produce, a specific brand of ce- both. Discussions focused on inconveniences as- real, sales on soft drinks, and the price of diapers. sociated with shopping in larger stores, the belief Some shopped at a particular format only to they spent more per trip, and reluctance to buy food get certain items. For example, participants said: and nonfood items in the same trip. * "We always get certain things at the In each of the focus groups, grocery shopping warehouse. Ourpaper products, big at supercenters generated a fair amount of discus- toiletpaper that lastsfor six months." sion and the size of supercenters was always dis- * "Well, usually I buy meat... at Ware- cussed. Typical comments from those who patron- house Club A. " ized supercenters were: An influence on the decision to cross-shop ap- * "... I don 't really like big, big stores. But peared to be price and/or sales. For example, one now that I know it really well, then it's participant said, "The number of times I grocery okay." Cude, Brend'a J. and Michelle A. Morganosky Why Do Consumers Cross-Shop Between Food Outlets? 19

* "The square footage of a store doesn't tually get the same thing (somewhere else) matter ifI know where things are." and not have so much extra. You can fill Consumers who patronized supercenters indi- up your trunk and spend $200, and you cated they now have a different perception of that come home and you 've got cereal and format. As one said, "I think of (Supercenter B) crackers and one other thing. " now as a grocery store and a regular store." Some participants' reluctance to buy food and In contrast, consumers who did not grocery non-food items on the same shopping trip prevented shop at supercenters often saw the size of the store them from grocery shopping at either warehouse as a deterrent. One participant said, "Supercenter clubs or supercenters. Illustrative comments were: A for me, too big. The first time I was in there I * "Ijust couldn 't make myself buyfood there thought I was going to the produce and ended up (at a supercenter).. . Ijustfelt reallyfunny in the car battery section ... I was having prob- about buyingfood with my other items. " lems finding the front door." * "I like the idea that Igo to a grocery store Some participants also complained of longer to get groceries." waits in supercenters: "I have never seen all (of Some of those who shopped at warehouse clubs the checkout lanes in a supercenter) open, so why or supercenters had developed a strategy for buy- did they build that many?" ing food and nonfood items on the same trip. For Other factors mentioned as deterrents to example, one participant said, "IfIdopick up some- supercenter patronage included a greater tempta- thing at Supercenter C, ifIpick up apiece of cloth- tion to make impulse buys ("I think it causes more ing, I keep it in the cart. I really do because (the impulse buying because you have it all around"), conveyer belt) is wet, there's wet spots. People have crowds ("Ifyou go out there [SupercenterA] at the just had their groceries there in front ofyou. Then wrong time, it's so crowdedyou can 't even move "), I'll hand it to (the clerk).... " a greater likelihood that the scanned price will be Focus group participants also mentioned other different from the posted price ("Every time (at strategies they used to shop larger retailer formats. SupercenterA) there's been a problem with what Several mentioned pre-planning their trip. For ex- the price is supposed to be and what the price re- ample, "Well, I'm an avid ad readerso I read the ally is "), distance to the store ("I would shop at a grocery ad then I read their regular ad which is supercenter on a regular basis but it's so far theirnonfood things. And so when Igo I always get away. "), and limited help from salespeople ("Istill something on both lists. " spend time looking for people [to help me find Participants described the specific routine they things]"). follow once in the store. For example: Some shoppers were reluctant to shop at either * "I'llget the couple of things that I need in warehouse stores or supercenters because they were the general, nonfood items, get those, and unwilling to change their current shopping styles. then I'll just do my grocery shopping and For example, a participant said, "It takes me an I'll be done. I don't bounce back and hour (in a supermarket) because I'll go down ev- forth." ery aisle and see what's on sale, what specials they * "The food section is separate from the have. So, to do that in a supercenterwould take me clothing section. If I'm going to go, I'll shop forever." aroundthe food section first, and then I'll Another deterrent common to both supercenters go into the other sections where the clothes and warehouse stores was the participants' belief are. I don 'tjump back andforth. that they spend more per trip than in a supermar- ket. For example: How Do Consumers Manage Cross-Shopping? * "It is easierto come outspending more than you thought because once you get there, Focus group participants indicated that as new you're like, right, I need a pair of tennis retail options have become available, they have shoes." added these formats to the existing mix of stores *"You think it looks like a really good deal from which they shop. For example, participants (at Warehouse Club A), but you could ac- said: 20 July 2001 Journal of Food DistributionResearch

* "Well, we added them and then they be- * I've got to know my store in order to know came a more importantpart of our shop- where I'm going." ping. " * "It took a while to know where things were * "I'm not going to pass up on those good (in a supercenter), so that I can (shop) deals. So I'll still go to all those stores." fairly quickly." * "So I'm one ofthosepeople, as long as it's In each of the groups, participants indicated not a real big inconvenience, I'll go two they still valued having the option to shop a store places to get a better deal if it's worthwhile format that involved low time costs. They usually ratherthan get everything at one store. " described low time costs as a store that doesn't re- As noted earlier, all of the participants continue quire "too" long a wait in the checkout line, and/or to shop at supermarkets. Despite the increased num- isn't "too" large, "too" distant, or in a location with ber of types of food retail outlets they shop, the "too" much traffic. Two participants' comments are consensus among focus group participants was that illustrative: they don't feel they spend more time grocery shop- * "I think it's important to plan though be- ping now than before. That perception may be re- cause time is money. If I'm going to a store lated to their grocery shopping patterns. Participants that 'sfar away, I need to get several items usually indicated they do not go to each type of or I 'm losing money byjust getting one item format that is part of their shopping mix each time on sale." they shop for groceries. For example, a participant * "If it (the supercenter) were closer by said, "I won't hit all the stores on the same day so home, Iprobably would shop it regularly." I don't think I'm spending any more time. " In summary, the focus group interviews indi- Participants described incorporating grocery cated that with the introduction of nontraditional shopping with other trips such as going to and from food retail formats, the way consumers shop for work or shopping for other products. Illustrative groceries has changed rather dramatically. Instead comments include: of replacing the supermarket with a newer format, * "Sometimes on the way to work, I would consumers are increasing the number of retail chan- pick up things that could stay in my car all nels they shop but leaving the supermarket in the day." mix. Grocery shoppers who patronize multiple for- * "Now (the supercenter)is on my husband's mats appear not to make the once-a-week major way home (from work), so I'll send him shopping trip that we think of as traditional. In- there (if I think of it) for the food section stead, they fit grocery shopping in among other er- basically." rands. * "I think I do my shopping most between doing other errands, so if I happen to be Discussion going down the street and am passing Warehouse Club A, I'll run in. " Our research provides insights into the shop- * "I look at the ads every week... and then ping behaviors of consumers who are willing to just kind of as I'm out (I shop) at whatever grocery shop across multiple formats. The focus store I happen to drive by. " group interviews support the idea that when con- However, for the most part, participants de- sumers select a retail format or a mix of formats scribed grocery shopping trips as purposeful, not they consider the fixed cost of shopping (costs such impulsive. For example, a participant said, "Imake as travel time that are independent of the specific a list and then I separate it into stores and my cou- items being purchased). In fact, in each of the three pons and match those with theflyers.... So Igo to focus groups, consumers mentioned fixed costs as all of my different stores with my coupons .... I frequently as variable costs (the cost of the items probably spend two-and-a-halfto three hours. " purchased) when discussing their decisions about Focus group participants also seemed very con- which types of retail stores they shop. Focus group scious of the time spent in a store. They recognized participants referred to both economic costs such that shopping at an unfamiliar store requires more as prices or travel time and psychic costs such as time until one learns the layout. Participants said: the confusion large store formats create for some Cude, BrendaJ. and Michelle A. Morganosky Why Do Consumers Cross-Shop Between Food Outlets? 21 consumers. Sometimes relatively high fixed costs the same store. Participants mentioned shopping were the reason consumers chose not to shop at a when their time was constrained or that they had particular store ("where Supermarket C is located expectations about the maximum amount of time it's hard to get in and out") or didn't patronize a they should spend in a store. format ("(supercenters) very confusing, very large, very.... I'm sorry, I don't even try"). Other con- Conclusions and Implications sumers mentioned relatively low fixed costs as pri- mary reasons for shopping at a store ("I want to go Generalizations to regional or national levels to a store (where) I know where (the specific item) are not recommended, because of the small sample is ") or a format ("(can) do it all at once ratherthan size and the limited scope of the study. Also, the having to shop two or three different times "). One qualitative approach does not provide insight about focus group participant mentioned that he manipu- how widespread practices or beliefs are, even in lated fixed costs by using one supermarket "as the study markets. though it were a convenience store." He said that Although exploratory, this research suggests he had never "shopped"' at that supermarket but that consumers who choose a complex pattern of "just ran in andpicked things up." grocery shopping behaviors involving multiple re- One of the most interesting observations from tail channels may not perceive this as being more the focus group interviews is the perception of many time-consuming or negative in other ways. Perhaps participants that although they have increased the they have adopted the approach suggested by number of food retail formats they patronize their Carsky, Dickinson, and Smith (1995). If so, they total shopping time has not increased. While we identify an acceptable set of stores that household cannot know how their perceptions relate to the members would routinely pass in their daily travel reality, they may reflect a societal shift in the way and buy when a designated low price triggers a we view time. Combining several tasks and/or er- purchase. A typical comment that reflects this ap- rands as our shoppers reported they did is not an proach is "(The number of times I grocery shop uncommon practice for consumers in either their each week) is totally relatedto the number ofstores personal or professional lives (Kaufman, Lane, and that have a special deal. " Lindquist 1991). Robinson and Godbey (1997) re- However, focus group participants' comments fer to this phenomenon as "time deepening." As more often seemed to reflect the reasoning that is they explain the concept, increased productivity in the basis of the Dellaert et al. (1998) model. Con- the workplace causes consumers to seek to balance sumers frequently described multipurpose, multi- work and non-work time by becoming more pro- destination trips that combined grocery shopping ductive in their non-work hours. They identify four with stops for other types of products and services. ways in which Americans might choose to do this: However, they also described single-destination, * speeding up a given activity, multipurpose trips and multi-destination, single- * substituting an activity that can be done purpose trips. Obviously, even more complex mod- more quickly for one that takes longer, els are needed to explain these consumer behav- * doing more than one activity at once, and iors. These models should incorporate online gro- undertaking an activity with more precise cery shopping, an option in some markets. regard for time. Food retailers can take advantage of consumer Focus group participants mentioned each of interest in multi-destination, multipurpose shopping these strategies in relation to grocery shopping. trips by locating near other types of retailers and/ Several mentioned they speed up their shopping by or adopting the supercenter format, combining food going to a smaller store or one with which they are and nonfood items under one roof. However, in more familiar. While some shoppers buy items in many communities, zoning restrictions are used to bulk and repackage them individually at home, oth- limit the expansion of store-based retailers to cer- ers have given up that activity and now buy smaller tain locations and/or perimeter areas of a commu- quantities. Shoppers referred to doing more than nity. While some public-policy makers would ar- one activity at once; many combined food and non- gue they are only protecting their constituents from food purchases in the same trip and even within "unsightly retail sprawl," consumers may be dis- 22 July 2001 Journalof Food DistributionResearch

advantaged in other ways by having to drive longer visited departments. For example, to increase cus- distances to stores in less convenient locations. In tomer convenience a retailer might locate a single contrast, tax incentives can be used to encourage refrigerator case near the front of the store and stock retail development in a way that is well-suited to it with a limited selection of milk, eggs, butter, and community needs considering both the costs and similar items. However, food retailers who believe benefits of such development. that sales suffer when shopping patterns do not Further research is needed to learn how many traverse the store may be reluctant to adopt this consumers and which consumers have adopted food approach. On the other hand, the increasingly popu- shopping behaviors involving multiple retail out- lar self-scan checkout lanes and other technologies lets. If a complex pattern of grocery shopping be- that speed customers through checkout may appeal haviors involving multiple retail channels is com- not only to customers who want to get in and out of mon among consumers, there are implications for a large-format store quickly but also to food retail- antitrust policy. In the past two decades there has ers looking for greater efficiencies. been extensive merger-and-acquisition activity within all major sectors of the food industry, in- References cluding retailing (Adams, Love, & Capps 1997). For example, in 1998 the Kroger Company merged Adams, W. L., H. A. Love, and 0. Capps, Jr. 1997. with Fred Meyer, Inc. to create the nation's largest "Structural Analysis of Mergers and Acquisi- supermarket company (Kroger 1998). When anti- tions in the Food Industry." Journal of Food trust regulators review proposed mergers and ac- DistributionResearch 28(2): 1-13. quisition, it may be appropriate for them to con- Avery, R. J. 1996. "Determinants of Search for sider the market to consist of a wide variety of food Nondurable Goods: An Empirical Assessment retail channels. The impact on a community of a of the Economics of Information Theory." The merger of two supermarket companies is likely to Journalof Consumer Affairs 30(2): 390-420. be less if consumers see the nontraditional food Bell, D. R., T. Ho, and C. S. Tang. 1998. "Deter- retailers in that community as acceptable alterna- mining Where to Shop: Fixed and Variable tives or supplements to supermarkets. Costs of Shopping." Journalof Marketing Re- Finally, this research has implications for food search 35(August): 352-369. retailers. To appeal to a broader range of consum- Binkley, J. K. and J. M. Connor. 1998. "Grocery ers, supercenters should look for ways to make their Market Pricing and the New Competitive En- store format less intimidating. Prominent, accurate vironment." Journalof Retailing 74(2): 273- store maps posted throughout the store and/or on 294. shopping carts combined with large, easy-to-read Capps, Jr., 0. and J. M. Griffin. 1998. "Effect of a signage throughout the store is one approach that Mass Merchandiser on a Traditional Food Re- might reduce consumer concern about store size. tailer." JournalofFood DistributionResearch Infrequently moving merchandise to another loca- 29(February): 1-7. tion in the store and posting signs about the new Carsky, M. L., R. Dickinson, and M. F. Smith. 1995. location when merchandise is moved would address "Toward Consumer Efficiency: A Model for consumer concerns about investing time to learn a Improved Buymanship." The Journalof Con- store layout only to have it change. sumer Affairs 9(2): 442-459. Food retailers should also consider changes in Crowell, P. M. and J. S. Bowers. 1977. "Impacts of the store layout to accommodate shoppers who se- Time and Transportation Costs on Food Shop- lect a store type based on the basket size they are ping." The Journalof ConsumerAffairs 11(1): buying on that particular shopping trip. Focus group 102-109. participants all seemed to value a format where they Dellaert, B. G. C., T. A. Arentze, M. Bierlaire, A. can quickly get in and out of a store to pick up a W. J. Borgers, and H. J. P. Timmermans. 1998. few specific items. One way that supermarkets, "Investigating Consumers' Tendency to Com- supercenters, and other large format stores can ac- bine Multiple Shopping Purposes and Desti- commodate that interest is by changing the store nations." Journal of Marketing Research layout to allow more direct access to frequently May: 177-188. Cude, Brenda J. andMichelle A. Morganosky Why Do Consumers Cross-Shop Between Food Outlets? 23

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