of the American Falls at Niagara 1I I Preservation and Enhancement of the American Falls at Niagara

Property of t';e Internztio~al J5it-t; Cr?rn:n es-un DO NOT' RECda'dg

Appendix G - Environmental Considerations Final Report to the International Joint Commission by the American Falls International Board June -1974 PRESERVATION AND ENHANCEMENT OF AMERICAN FALLS

APPENDIX. G .ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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CHAPTER G 1 .INTRODUCTION G1

CHAPTER G2 .ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING . NIAGARA RESERVATION AND SURROUNDING REGION GENERAL DESCRIPTION ...... PHYSICAL ELEMENTS ...... GENERAL ...... STRATIGRAPHY ...... SOILS ...... WATER QUALITY ...... CLIMATE INVENTORY ...... CLIMATE ...... AIR QUALITY ...... BIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS ...... TERRESTRIAL VEGETATION ...... TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE ...... AQUATIC FLORA ...... AQUATIC FAUNA ...... ECOLOGICAL ELEMENTS ...... AQUATIC ECOLOGY ...... LAND USE ...... NIAGARA REGION ...... NIAGARA RESERVATION ...... ECONOMICS ,...... NIAGARA REGION ...... NIAGARA RESERVATION ...... CULTURAL ...... HISTORY OF NIAGARA REGION ...... HISTORY OF NIAGARA RESERVATION ...... ARCHAEOLOGIC AND HISTORIC SITES ...... POPULATION ...... RECREATION ...... NIAGARA REGION ...... NIAGARA FALLS VICINITY ...... 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D)

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CHAPTER G3 - ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING - SPECIFIC AREAS ON THE FLANKS OF THE AMERICAN FALLS AND THE GOAT ISLAND FLANK OF THE HORSESHOE FALLS GENERAL DESCRIPTION ...... PHYSICAL ELEMENTS ...... GENERAL ...... SOILS ...... EFFECTS OF ICE ...... HYDROLOGY - WATER QUALITY ...... BIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS ...... TERRESTRIAL VEGETATION ...... TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE ...... AQUATIC FLORA AND FAUNA ...... ECOLOGICAL ELEMENTS ...... TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY ...... AQUATIC ECOLOGY ...... ECONOMICS ...... CULTURAL ...... RECREATION - LAND USE ...... SOUND LEVELS AT THE FLANK AREAS ......

I CHAPTER G4 - POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SAFETY CHOICES G4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... G34 I G4.2 SUMMARY OF THE NINE SAFETY CHOICES ...... G34 G4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT MATRIX ...... G36 BIBLIOGRAPHY FIGURES

Number G1 THE THREE FLANK AREAS OF THE NIAGARA RESERVATION G2 GENERAL SOIL MAP G3 MAJOR MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES DIRECTLY INTO THE NIAGARA RIVER FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION HOURLY AVERAGE WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION MAP SHOWING VEGETATIVE COVER OF.THE NIAGARA RESERVATION NIAGARA REGION GENERALIZED EXISTING LAND USE NIAGARA REGION FUTURE LAND USE EXISTING LAND USE OF NIAGARA RESERVATION ARCHAEOLOGICAL/HISTORIC SITES NIAGARA RESERVATION SOUND LEVEL CONTOURS AT TERRAPIN POINT SOUND LEVEL CONTOURS AT PROSPECT POINT SOUND LEVEL CONTOURS AT GOAT ISLAND FLANK TABLES

Number Subject GI FOSSILS OF THE STRATIFIED ROCK FORMATIONS WHICH OUTCROP AT THE NIAGARA FALLS USE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL ASSOCIATIONS IN NIAGARA COUNTY MAJOR INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES TO THE NIAGARA RIVER MAJOR MUNICIPAL DISCHARGES TO THE NIAGARA RIVER WATER QUALITY DATA FOR THE NIAGARA RIVER AT THE UNION CARBIDE RAW WATER INTAKE FOR THE PERIOD OCTOBER 1,1969, TO SEPTEMBER 30,1972 SUMMARY OF DATA FROM THE SOURCE AND MOUTH OF THE NIAGARA RIVER AVERAGE GROWING SEASON IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION LOCATION OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION RECORDS FOR STATIONS IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION (U.S.) FOR THE YEARS 1941 - 197 1 TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION RECORDS FOR STATIONS IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION (CANADA) FOR THE YEARS 1941 - 197 1 WIND DATA FOR NIAGARA FALLS REGION PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION NIAGARA FALLS AIR QUALITY DATA FLORA OF THE NIAGARA REGION MANAGED SPECIES OF THE NIAGARA RESERVATION UNIQUE NATURAL SPECIES OF THE NIAGARA RESERVATION WATER AND SHORE BIRDS OF THE NIAGARA REGION LAND BIRDS OF THE NIAGARA REGION MAMMALS OF THE NIAGARA REGION REPTILES OF THE NIAGARA REGION AMPHIBIANS OF THE NIAGARA REGION ALGAE OF THE NIAGARA RIVER IN THE NIAGARA RESERVATION AQUATIC MACROPHYTES OF THE NIAGARA RIVER BENTHIC FAUNA OF THE NIAGARA RIVER IN THE NIAGARA RESERVATION FISHES OF THE NIAGARA RIVER TABULATION OF LAND USES INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES OF NIAGARA REGION TOURISM ECONOMICS RETAIL SALES LEVELS TOURIST VISITATION PATTERNS TOURISM SURVEY SUMMER OF 1970 ANNUAL ATTENDANCE AND REVENUES - AMERICAN FALLS NIAGARA FRONTIER STATE PARK AND RECREATION COMMISSION ATTENDANCE AND REVENUES PER PARK FACILITY - COMPARISON TABLES (CONT'D)

Number Subject G34 NIAGARA RESERVATION TOURIST VISITATION SUMMARY G35 POPULATION PROJECTIONS FOR NIAGARA FALLS CITY G36 VEGETATION FOUND ON PROSPECT POINT FLANK G37 VEGETATION FOUND ON GOAT ISLAND FLANK OF AMERICAN FALLS G38 VEGETATION FOUND ON TERRAPIN POINT FLANK G39 SPECIES OF INTEREST G40 WILDLIFE AT TERRAPIN POINT, PROSPECT POINT AND THE GOAT ISLAND FLANK OF THE AMERICAN FALLS AQUATIC FLORA AND FAUNA AT THE AMERICAN FALLS ANNUAL TOURIST VISITATION TO FLANK AREAS UPPER AND LOWER VIEWING AREAS COMMON NOISE LEVELS SOUND LEVELS AT HORSESHOE FALLS AND THE AMERICAN FALLS SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVES CHAPTER G1 INTRODUCTION

This Appendix provides an assessment of the environmental community of the Niagara Falls area, with emphasis on its continuing process of change. This community contains physical, biological, and social elements, each of which undergoes change from pressures exerted by both natural and man-made forces. Specifically, this Appendix defines the structure of the existing environmental community, its interrelationships, and the possible impacts on it may result from the implementation of some of the safety choices considered in this study. These safety choices are discussed in detail in Appendix E, Safety and Appearance Options. The Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District, awarded a contract for an assessment of the environment at Niagara Falls. The information in this Appendix is based largely on the report, Environmental Inventory and Assessment of the Options Considered by the American Falls International Board for Improved Safety at the American Falls, submitted to the Buffalo District by Michael Baker, Jr., Inc., in June 1974. Chapter G2 and G3 describe the existing environmental setting, which has been divided geographically into two areas. Chapter G2 discusses the Niagara Reservation and the surrounding Niagara Region. The Niagara Region has been arbitrarily defined as Niagara County, which is located on the United States side of the Niagara River. The land area of the Niagara Reservation borders the northern and southern flanks of the American Falls and the northern flank of the Horseshoe Falls and is under the jurisdiction of the Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission. Chapter G3 discusses the sites for possible safety improvement. The sites include the Prospect Point and Goat Island flanks of the American Falls and the Terrapin Point flank of the Horseshoe Falls. These flank areas are all located .on the United States side of the Niagara River and are contained within the boundaries of the Niagara Reservation. Figure G1 shows the three flank areas and their locations within the Reservation. Chapter G4 contains a brief summary of the safety choices that were used to formulate safety alternatives and then presents a matrix that identifies the possible environmental impacts on the flank areas that may result from the implementation of the safety choices. CHAPTER G2 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING - NIAGARA RESERVATION AND SURROUNDING REGION

G2.1 General Description

The Niagara River flows 33 miles along the international border between western New York in the eastern United States and the Niagara Peninsula in southern Ontario, Canada. Niagara Falls is located in the Niagara River, 19 miles downstream from Lake Erie. The Niagara River carries the drainage from the upper Great Lakes basins of Superior, Huron, Michigan, and Erie seaward from Lake Erie, mean elevation 570.3, (IGLD, 1955)~to Lake Ontario, mean elevation 244.6 at an average flow of about 202,000 cubic feet per second (cfs). The 326-foot difference in elevation between Lakes Erie and Ontario is mainly attributable to the Niagara Escarpment. The escarpment forms an arc around the western end of Lake Ontario and divides the Lake Erie and Lake Ontario watersheds. The water of the Niagara River originally dropped over the escarpment near the present towns of Queenston, Ontario, and Lewiston, New York, but through the natural process of erosion, the Falls have since retreated approximately seven miles upstream over a period of 12,000 years. To provide navigation between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, the Welland Canal with its system of locks was constructed in Ontario, Canada. The 26-mile man-made waterway is located about seven miles west of Niagara Falls. The Niagara Frontier region, located between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario and through which the Niagara River flows, is rather densely populated with a four-season climate and generally flat terrain with occasional rolling hills, terraces, and escarpments. The counties of Erie and Niagara directly border the United States side of the Niagara River and encompass about 1,600 square miles. The two counties have a combined population of approximately 1,350,000. Metropolitan Buffalo, the second largest metropolitan area in New York State, is located within Erie County. On the Canadian side of the River, the Niagara Peninsula encompasses about 1,200 square miles with a population of about 250,000. Toronto is about 80 miles from Niagara Falls and farther east are Montreal about 450 miles from the Falls, and Ottawa about 350 miles. Roughly half the population of Canada is within a one-day drive of Niagara. The twin cities of Niagara Falls, New York, population about 86,000, and Niagara Falls, Ontario, population about 67,000 are situated on either side of the Niagara River. Goat Island divides the Niagara River into two channels and separates Niagara Falls into the Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, and the American Falls, on the United States side. The area of study for this report includes the American Falls themselves, their flank areas at Prospect Point to the north, and Luna Island and Goat Island to the south, and the Goat Island flank of the Horseshoe Falls, called Terrapin Point. These areas, located within the city limits of Niagara Falls, New York, are part of the Niagara Reservation which is owned and regulated by State of New York. The New York State Niagara Reservation, originally known as the State Reservation at Niagara, became a legal entity in 1883. The State Reservation at Niagara was incorporated into the State Parks System in 1920, under the administration of the Niagara Frontier State Park Commission. Recent reorganization of the State Park System established the Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission in the Office of Parks and Recreation within the Executive Department. The Niagara Reservation occupies 139 acres of mainland and island property. The mainland portion of the Park borders the northern (Prospect Point) flank of the American

' IGLD - International Great Lakes Datum - 1955 Falls and extends along the Rapids above the American Falls. Goat Island, the largest of several islands within the River, is the southern flank of the American Falls and separates the American Falls from the Horseshoe Falls. Luna Island is a small island, located on the crest of the American Falls, and separates a smaller waterfall known as Bridal Veil Falls from the main waterfall.

Physical Elements

G2.2.1 General

This assessment of an environmental setting necessarily must include a discussion of the physical elements in the area. For investigative purposes, physical elements were divided into eight categories: physiography, stratigraphy, geologic structure, seismic considerations, geologic history, soils, hydrology and ground water, and water quality. Comprehensive investigations on the geology and hydrology of the Niagara Falls area were conducted for this study, and the results of those investigations are contained in Appendix C, Geology and Rock Mechanics, and Appendix D, Hydraulics. Thus, a thorough discussion of physiography, geologic structure, seismic considerations, geologic history, can be found in Appendix C; hydrology can be found in Appendix D.; and ground water can be found in both Appendix C and D. The balance of the categories of physical elements are discussed below.

G2.2.2 Stratigraphy

Although stratigraphy is discussed in Appendix C, two facets of the topic not presented there, are discussed below. The Lockport dolomite of the Niagara Region contains many fossils whose distribution is fairly uniform throughout each member. Table G1 is a list of fossils of the stratified rock formations that outcrop at Niagara Falls. However, it must not be assumed that all the mentioned species on the Table will be found at Niagara Fa 1s only that they have been observed elsewhere in the same strata that outcrop at the Falls. I]1 Within the Goat Island Member of the Lockport Formation, there are many minerals, including, calcite, dolomite, sphalerite, galena, sulfur, gypsum, celestite, fluorite, selenite, and others. These specimens are in crystal form and can be found in the strata that outcrop at the ~alls.(~)

G2.2.3 Soils

The soils found in Niagara County are divided into five types. They are lake-laid clays and silts, glacial-till formed soils, lake-laid silts and fine sands, lake-laid sands, and soils formed from gravelly glacial outwash. The soils of Niagara County are dominated by those formed through the deposition of lake-based clays and silts. This type of soil makes up 36 percent of all the soils in Niagara County, as seen in Figure G2. The major association of the laid-laid clays and silts is the Odessa-Lakemont-Ovid association, which comprises 21 percent of the entire county. The soils of this association are deep, poorly-to-very poorly drained, and have a find-textured or moderately fine-textured subsoil that is predominantly reddish. The second largest soil association of the lake-laid clays and silts is the Rhineback-Ovid-Madalin association, which comprises 15 percent of the county. The soils of this association are deep, somewhat poorly-to-very-poorly drained, and have a fine or moderately-fine-textured subsoil that is predominantly brown or olive. The second major type of soils in Niagara County was formed as a result of glacial action or till and comprises 33 percent of the soils. The largest portion of this soil type is the Hilton-Ovid-Ontario association, which comprises 15 percent of the soils of Niagara County. This soil association is deep, moderately-well-to-very-poorly-drained, and has a medium-textured subsoil. The second largest association of the glacial till-formed soils is the Appleton-Hilton-Sun association. This association makes up 14 percent of the Niagara County soils and is deep, moderately-well-to-poorly-drained, and has a medium-textured subsoil. The third largest association that makes up the glacial till-formed soils, the Lockport-Ovid association, comprises four percent of the Niagara County soils and is moderately-fine-textured subsoil. The third major soil type in Niagara County was formed from lake-laid silts and very fine sands and comprises 17 percent of the soils of Niagara County. The largest association within this major type is the Canandaigua-Raynham-Rhineback association. This association makes up 1 1 percent of the soils of the county, is deep, poorly-to-very-poorly-drained, and has a predominantly medium-to-fine-textured subsoil. The other association of soils formed from lake-laid silts and sands, the Niagara Collamer association, makes up six percent of the soils of the county. The soil is deep, poorly-to-moderately-well drained, and has a medium-to-moderately-fine textured subsoil. The fourth major type of soils in Niagara County was formed from lake-laid sands and makes up eight percent of the county's soils. The two soil associations that make up this major type are equally represented throughout the county, together comprising eight percent of the soils. The Minoa-Galen-Elnora association is deep, poorly-to-moderately- well-drained, and has a medium-to-moderately-coarse or coarse-textured subsoil over fine and very fine sand. The other soil association is the ClaverackCosad-Elnora, which is deep, moderately-well and somewhat poorly-drained, with a coarse-textured subsoil over clay and fine sand. The fifth and last major soil type in Niagara County was formed from gravelly glacial outwash or in beach and bar deposits. The two associations that make up this soil type comprise the last six percent of the soils in Niagara County. The first of the associations, the Otisville-Altmar-Fredon-Stafford, makes up four 'percent of the county's soils, is deep, excessively-drained-to-poorly-drained, and is predominantly medium-to-coarse-textured subsoil over gravel and sand. The other association, the Howard-Arkport-Phelps, comprises two percent of the county's soils. These soils are deep, excessively-to-moderately-well- drained, and have a medium-to-moderately-coarse-textured subsoil over gravel and sand. The use characteristics for the soil associations of Niagara County are listed in Table G2.

(32.2.4 Water Quality

The water quality of the Niagara River is similar to that of the eastern basin of Lake Erie and is influenced by waste discharges from the municipal-industrial complex along the River. A unique situation exists at the upstream limit of the Niagara River. At this point, the River is fed by two separate current systems from Lake Erie. The littoral drift currents, along the southern shore of the Lake, enter the Niagara River and hug the American shore. This water receives municipal and industrial discharges from the developments along the Lake Erie shoreline prior to entering the River, as well as from municipal-industrial complexes along the east bank of the River. Water from the central Lake Erie current system enters the Niagara River and flows along the Canadian shore. This water does not receive effluent discharges and is of higher quality than the water originating from the littoral drift currents. The two current systems maintain their integrity for two-to-three miles downstream, at which point the two water masses mix. Approximately six miles downstream from Lake Erie, Grand Island divides the Niagara River into an East Channel on the United States side and a West Channel on the Canadian side. The West Channel is used for recreational purposes, and its shoreline is free of industrial developments. The East Channel serves as an industrial and commercial waterway and receives numerous effluent discharges from the municipal-industrial complex along the shoreline. Because of the availability of large quantities of water and hydro-electric power, the Niagara River historical1 has attracted heavy industries. The Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board&) has identified the major industrial and municipal outfalls along the Niagara River. The data are shown in Tables G3 and G4. The pollution sources are clustered in three major areas: (1) along the Buffalo shoreline north to the South Grand Island Bridge, (2) at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek, and (3) along the shoreline of the city of Niagara Falls, New York (see Figure G3). Discharges into tributary streams are not included in this report. Municipal waste treatment plant effluents contribute sewage foam, biological oxygen demand (BOD) and high concentrations of coliform bacteria to the Niagara River. Sewage foam results from chemical wastes and detergents in municipal discharges and creates visual and odor problems in some areas of the River. The foam at the base of Niagara Falls often reaches a height of two feet and generally collects around the Maid-of-the-Mist boat dock. BOD is the result of decomposition of organic matter by bacteria. This process requires / oxygen and can considerably deplete the oxygen supply in a body of water, making it difficult for many types of organisms to survive. Biological oxygen demand does not pose a serious problem in the Niagara River at this time. Severe oxygen depletion occurs only in the immediate vicinity of discharges and in quiet areas where the flushing action of the River is somewhat diminished. Coliform bacteria are indicative of the presence of domestic wastes, which in sufficient quantities can constitute a health hazard. The New York Department of Environmental Conservation has set a maximum of 1,000 coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters (ml) of water as the saf standard. The International Joint Commission Lake Erie-Lake Ontario Advisory Board (f)reported a median value greater than 1,000 coliforms per 100 ml on the United States side of the upper Niagara River, while coliform concentrations on the Canadian side averaged a few hundred bacteria per ml, never exceeding 1,000 per 100 ml. In the lower Niagara River from Lewist n tc the mouth, the median concentration ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 bacteria/100 ml. (3, The International Joint Commission stated that the source of these coliforms includes the residual contamination coming from above the Falls and the discharge from the city of Niagara Falls, New York, stewage treatment plant. The major types of pollutants originating from industrial discharges to the Niagara River include oils, mercury, clorides, phenolic compounds and suspended solids.(3) Oils do not present the problem they once did on the Niagara River. Industries along the River have initiated abatement procedures to minimize their oil losses, and there has been a general decrease in oil discharges into the River. One result of t is is a decline in the incidence of waterfowl found with oil or grease spots on their feathers.($1 Mercury levels are similar throughout the length of the Niagara River. Data furnished by the United States Environmental Protection Agency indicate a mean mercury concentration of 0.53 micrograms per liter (16 samples) over a three-year period ending in September 1973. Mercury can become concentrated in the flesh of fish and presents a health hazard when those fish are consumed. Abatement procedures are underway to eliminate the discharge of mercury into the Great Lakes and the Niagara ~iver.(~) Sources of chloride to the Niagara River are industrial discharges road de-icing salts, and municipal waste treatment plant effluents. Sibley and Stewart (6 reported chloride concentrations of 25.7 mg/l at the upstream end of the River and 26.9 mg/l at the mouth of the River. This represents an increase in chloride concentration over the course of the River; however, the International Joint Commission Advisory Board (4) has stated that chloride concentrations in the Niagara River are not critical. The levels of phenolic compounds on the United States side of the upper River frequent exceed the New York State water quality criterion of five micrograms/liter (ug/l).('YAccording to the Lake Erie-Lake Ontario Advisory ~oard,(~)the Canadian waters of the upper Niagara River are essentially free of phenolic compounds. Below Niagara Falls, the mean concentration of phenolic compounds is about two ug/l. Phenolic compounds impart a disa reeable taste and odor to the flesh of fish making it generally unfit for consumption. (5) The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has instituted a stream classification system for waters in New York State. Water quality criteria have been established for each stream, based upon its usage classification. The Niagara River has been designated as Class A-Special, because it is an international boundary water. The water quality criteria for the River are those established by the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation regularly monitors the water quality of the Niagara River at several points. Table G5 shows data supplied by this agency for a site located three miles above the Falls. The table indicates that only a small percentage of the samples taken over a three-year period met the water quality standards established for phenol and suspended solids, while all samples met the requirements for pH, dissolved oxygen, and ammonia nitrogen. A summary of the data of Sibley and ~tewart(~)is shown in Table G6. Because of its large volume and high velocities, the Niagara River has a rapid dilution effect on effluent discharges, and severe conditions are found only locally near discharge sources and in quiet areas where the current and flushing action is diminished. The water quality of the Niagara River has shown recent improvement as a result of pollution abatement procedures initiated by industries and municipalities along the ~iver.(~) Potable water is supplied to the Niagara Reservation by the city of Niagara Falls, New York municipal system. The water is conveyed to Goat Island by a four-inch main attached to the Goat Island Bridge. The Park Commission knows of no existing wells on the Island. Domestic wastes are treated at the Niagara Falls sewage treatment plant. Septic tanks are not employed on the Niagara Reservation.

G2.3 Climate Inventory

G2.3.1 Climate

According to Koppens Classical System, the general climate of this region is characterized as cool snow forest with regular precipitation and warm summers. The Great Lakes exert a modifying influence on the local climate, the winters are milder and the summers cooler than other inland regions at the same latitude. In the fall, the water in the lakes is warmer than the air, and in the spring, the water is cooler than the air. Thus, the moderating effects of the Lakes tend to prolong the fall and retard the onset of spring. This node rating effect and a longer growing season (Table G7) provide a suitable habitat for more varied flora. The Niagara fruit. belt, which is located on the plains of lower elevation adjacent to Lake Ontario, benefits from the moderating influence of the lakes. Temperature and rainfall data from meteorological stations in the Niagara Falls region are available at the National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina, and are, summarized in Tables G8, G9, and G10. The data Tor Canadian stations are available from Atmospheric Environment Service, Department of the Environment, Downsview, Ontario, Canada. Wind data for the Niagara Falls region are available from the Buffalo International Airport and coast guard stations in Youngstown, and Buffalo, New York. Data collected in the past by Air Weather Service personnel at the Niagara Falls International Airport are summarized in Table GI1 and Figure G4. Local climatological data for ~iagaraFalls are summarized in Table G 12. The mean annual temperature is about 50 degrees F and the mean annual precipitation about 35 inches. The prevailing wind direction is southwest, with an average wind speed in summer of seven mph and an average wind speed in winter of 11 mph. Fog in Niagara Falls, New York, is common and is observed on about half the days in a year. The areas adjacent to the Falls have a unique microclimate. Water spray and evaporation decrease air temperatures in the immediate vicinity. On hot days the air temperature in the immediate vicinity of the Falls is considerably lower than in the surrounding cities of Niagara Falls, New York, and Ontario. Water spray often causes rainbows which can be seen from viewing area on sunny days when the angle to the sun is , correct. One end of the rainbow frequently falls at the base of either the American or the Horseshoe Falls, depending on the origin of the mist. The availability of moisture supports the growth of lush vegetation in the vicinity of the Falls.

G2.3.2 Air Quality

Air quality is influenced by the industrial development along either side of the United States-Canadian border. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has continuous air monitoring stations in Niagara Falls and Buffalo. A list of the pollutants and meteorological variables monitored is given below:

Pollutants Meterological Variables so2 Wind directionlspeed Atmospheric pressure Temperature CO Relative Humidity Suspended Particulates Rainfall

-. .

Air quality data are available for the period 1970 to 1973. The annual mean values for various pollutants are listed in Table G13. During 1973, the annual mean value of SO2 exceeded the national primary ambient air quality standard for SO2 (0.03 ppm) at both Niagara Falls and Buffalo locations. The hourly mean values of SO2 exceeded 0.25 ppm a number of times, and the daily mean values exceeded 0.14 ppm on a few occasions. The carbon monoxide concentrations never exceeded the one hour maximum (35 ppm), but the eight-hour maximum (nine ppm) was exceeded on a few occasions. Except for a continuous air monitoring station in Hamilton,' Ontario, most of the monitoring for gaseous air pollutants in Canada is done near the major sources of pollution (SO2 fluorides). Dustfall and "hivol" (high-volume sampling procedures used for suspended particulate matter) measurements are also being made and a cooperative program between New York State and Ontario for air monitoring in the vicinity of Niagara Falls has been initiated.

G2.4 Biological Elements

The terrestrial flora and fauna of the Niagara Region, which includes Niagara County, the Niagara Reservation and the Niagara River is discussed in this section. Species listings are included where such data are available.

G2.4.1 Terrestrial Flora

(a) Niagara Region

About one-half of the county is in farm land. The most dominant agricultural activities are dairying and fruit growing. Principal crops include hay, corn, small grains and a variety of fruits and vegetables. Generally, the growing of fruits and vegetables is confined to the Ontario Plain north of the Niagara Escarpment where the moderating influence of Lake Ontario is most effective. The Huron Plain, to the south of the Escarpment, is used primarily for the cultivation of hay and grain crops with dairying and beef cattle production typical. Only 17 percent of the county is wooded. The woodlands are typically confined to such areas as farm woodlots, preserved natural areas, or the narrow floodplain areas associated with streams and creeks throughout the county. Most of these wooded areas consist of beech, white ash, oak, basswood, tulip poplar, hickory, red maple, and elm. According to figures prepared by the United States Soil Conservation Service, acreages of commercial woodland types in the county are as follows: white pine - red pine, 1,100 acres; softwoods, 2,800 acres; oak, 2,700 acres; elm - ash - red maple, 25,200 acres; maple - beech - birch, 23,900 acres; aspen - birch, 2,300 acres. A listing of the typical flora indigenous to Niagara County is presented in Table G14. This table does not include every species which inhabits the Niagara Region, but rather indicates the more commonly identified species.

(b) Niagara Reservation

A list of plant species occuring naturally within the Niagara Reservation is presented in Table G 16. Floristic species' which have been planted as a part of the landscape management scheme for the Reservation are given in Table G15.

G2.4.2 Terrestrial Wildlife

(a) Niagara Region

The Niagara Region, due to its intermediate latitude (neigher too hot nor too cold), supports an abundance of wildlife. The environmental characteristics of the Region are augmented by the large amount of surface and ground water. Species whose normal geographical ranges are more northern or southern inhabit the Niagara Region. Tables G17 through G2 1 list Water and Shore Birds, Land Birds, Mammals, Reptiles, and Amphibians of the Niagara Region and denlonostrate the diversity of species. The Niagara Region contains many species of birds. Suitable habitat is available for water. shore, and land birds. Nearly every species whose range includes the Niagara Region has had a recorded sighting within the Region. Water, shore, and land bird species found in the Niagara Region are listed in Tables GI7 and G18. Rare and endangered species, according to the "Official List of Rare and Endangered Native Fish and Wildlife, as amended May 19, 1972," published by the United States Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife are noted. The relative abundance and resident status indicated on the tables are based on an annotated checklist of birds in the Niagara Region By Beardsley and itche ell.(?^) The seven clasifications of abundance have been aggregated to form three basic categories. Classifications of very common, common, and fairly common are summarized to form one category, Common. Uncommon, rare, and very rare are combined to form one category, Rare. All summer and winter visitants, transient visitants, and visitants are aggregated to form one category, Visitant. Those birds which are game birds as defined by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation are also identified on the tables. The consultant's study did not include the collection of data necessary to compile a list of birds of the Niagara Reservation. There is a rather diverse assemblage of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians in the Niagara Region. Tables G19, G20, and G21 list species whose ranges have been defined as including the Niagara Region. Rare and endangered species according to the "Official List of Rare and Endangered Native Fish and Wildlife, as amended May 19, 1972," are noted. Reference is also provided to indicate whether a species is a game animal, as defined by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Specific list of mammals, amphibians, or reptiles of the Niagara Reservation was not compiled. Only three species of birds observed in the Niagara Region are considered to be rare and endangered by the United States Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. They are the Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), the Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). The Brown Pelican is considered an accidental visitant to the Niagara Region. The only confirmed sightings were between June 20 and July 2, 1950. The Bald Eagle is considered to be a visitant. The Peregrine Falcon is considered to be a rare, transient visitant to the Niagara Region. The islands above the Horseshoe Falls urovide one of the few sites in the Niaaara L. Region used by the Black-crowned Night ~eron(Nycticorax nycticorax) for its nesting and breeding activities. This Heron is known to nest in the trees on the small islands upstream of the Horseshoe Falls. The original nesting sites were located on Goat Island, but due to visitor influx, the Herons have moved to the smaller islands nearby. An average of 25 pairs of Herons have been nesting yearly in the area of Goat Island, but the numbers are decreasing. The Indiana Bat, a visitant which is of interest because of its decreasing numbers, ranges throughout most of eastern United States from Missouri northeast to Vermont.

G2.4.3 Aquatic Flora

Aquatic plant life is generally of two types, algae and macrophytes (rooted aquatic plants). Aquatic macrophytes inhabit areas of little or no current where light penetrates to the bottom. Algae are found as free-floating phytoplankton or as aufwuchs attached to the stems of rooted aquatics, rocks, and other suitable surfaces. It is difficult to give a complete description of the aquatic flora of the Niagara Reservation because few studies have been done in this area. The only recent study is that of ~eet0n.O~)This study included a survey of the biota in the Niagara River during September 1968, as well as a more intensive examination of aquatic flora and fauna during the five-day period immediately following the dewatering of the American Falls in June 1969. It must be noted that Beeton's investigation was not a comprehensive survey. The preliminary study in 1968 involved the sampling of only the areas easily accessible from shore, and no attempt was made to examine all aquatip microhabitats. In addition, the main portion of the study was carried out during dewatered conditions, which may have permitted the temporary establishment of different flora and fauna community relationships. The dominant vegetation of the Niagara River in the vicinity of the Falls is the branching filamentous alga, Cladopho~_rg,glomerata.This alga is found growing on almost all places where it can become attached.(") C. glomerata is a common species in Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. ~ackson,(~~)and Niel and reported this species as C. fracta; however, Storr and ~weene~(~~)have stated that this is a morphological form of glomerata. A discussion of the factors affecting the abundance of Cladophora is included in Section G2.5 Ecological Elements. Diatoms are abundant in the Niagara River. These single-celled algae are free floating and can also be found attached to rocks and other suitable surfaces. Some species occur in association with ~lado~hora.(~~) he diatom species identified by ~eeton(~~)in the Niagara Reservation are listed in Table G22. The ,most comprehensive compilation of the aquatic macrophytes of the Niagara River was done by zenkert(15) in 1934. The species found at that time are listed in Table G23. The species list indicates a rather diverse rooted a u tic flora in the Niagara River. However, many of Zenkert's identifications are questionable91% because the field of plant systematics has undergone considerable revision since the time of Zenkert's work, and thus the scientific names of many plants have changed.(13) Any inconsistencies of this listing with modern taxonomic nomenclature can be rectified by consulting ~assett's(~~)manual of aquatic plants. More recently, ~eeton(~~)has identified Myriophyllum verticillatum (water milfoil), Potamogeton angustifolius and P. pectinatus (pond weeds), Sagittaria latifolia (broad-leaved arrowhead), and Vallisneria americana (eelgrass) in the Niagara River. These species were found in a large pool immediately upstream of Luna Island and in quiet areas near shore.

G2.4.4 Aquatic Fauna

There are three major types of animal life found in rivers. Zooplankton, the counterpart of phytoplankton, are free-floating microscopic animals. The most common members of the zooplankton assemblage are crustaceans (relatives of the crayfish) and rotifers. The second major type is benthos, which live on the rocks and bottom sediments. The most frequently encountered benthic fauna are worms and insect larvae. The third major type is nekton, which are swimming organisms (fish, frogs, and others) able to navigate at will. The zooplankton of the Niagara River have not been studied extensively, and it is not possible to give a complete listing of species. however, investigated the rotifers of the Niagara River and listed Keratella, Polyarthra, Trichoceica, Brachionus, and Synchaela as the dominant genera. For 48 samples taken from the Niagara River at Buffalo New York over a two-year period (semi-monthly during 1961 and 1962), ' 1 reported a mean of 106.3 rotifers/liter. This is not indicative of a large population of rotifers. The only genus in the vicinity of Niagara Falls identified by ~eeton(~~)was Keratella. Somewhat better data are available on the benthos of the Niagara River. In the Niagara Reservation, Beeton (26) identified a variety of aquatic worms and insect larvae, as well as clams, snails, and crayfish. The area supporting the most diverse assemblage of benthos is above the Falls in the vicinity of Luna, Bird, and Robinson Islands. These and numerous smaller islands create pockets of slower current where benthic organisms can exist. The River bottom in this area is mainly rock and gr v 1, a favorable type of habitat for benthos. A listing of benthic organisms found by Beeton (%t) in the vicinity of the American Falls can be found in Table G24. The nekton sampling efforts of the New York Department of Environmental Conservation during the period 1964 to 1972, indicate that the Niagara River supports a wide variety of fishes (see Table G25). The River provides a good sport fishery for small- and large-mouth bass, walleye, northern pike, and muskellunge.(32) The upper River in the vicinity of Grand Island receives most of the fishing pressure, since the weed beds and quiet pools in this area offer prime fish habitat. In contrast, the lower River dowmstream of the Falls is a poor sport fishery due to the accumulated effect of industrial discharges.(3 2) The species mentioned above are game fishes since they are partially protected by closed seasons, and size and number limits. The Niagara River also offers good sport fishing for nongame fishes, such as yellow perch and sunfish. Although the blue pike (Stizostedion vitreum glaucum) does not appear in the 1964 to 1972 records, the Niagara River at one time was included in its range. The blue pike is listed as a threatened species by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and its present distribution is confined to the deeper waters of Lakes Erie and ~ntario.(~O)Themain reason for the decline of the blue pike in the Great Lakes is severe oxygen depletion in their spawning areas.(20) Other thre tened spe ies of this region are the lake sturgeon, shortnose sturgeon, and longiaw cisco.(1° and 3 ) There are no recent records indicating the occurrences of these species in the Niagara River.

(22.5 ' . Ecological Elements

The Niagara Escarpment, which is about 250 feet high, trends in roughly an east-west direction and divides the Niagara County into two distinct plains; the Ontario Plain to the north, and the Huron Plain to the south. The Ontario Plain drains northward into Lake Ontario. The Huron Plain drains southward into Tonawanda Creek, which flows westward into the Niagara River. The difference in altitude between the Lake Ontario Plain and the Alleghany Plateau, about 40 miles to the south, is about 2,000 feet. The lower elevations of Niagara County combined with the moderating influences of Lakes Erie and Ontario create a milder climate and a correspondingly longer growing season that in the Alleghany Plateau. There are areas within the county where limestone outcrops or underlying bedrock have influenced the character of the soil. Where limestone is prevalent, soils are generally basic exhibiting a high pH. These alkaline soil conditions are responsible for the presence of vegetative species which are usually found much further south, such as oak, chestnut, walnut, and hickory. Conversely, acidic soils also found in the region are favored by plant species typically found further north, such as beech, birch, maple and hemlock. Within the Niagara Reservation, factors such as wind, humidity, temperature, waterflow, and groundwater availability combined with a rapid change in elevation and the moderating influence of Lakes Erie and Ontario interact to produce a distinct microclimate. The microclimate has, in part, permitted the establishment of a diversified vegetative community significantly different than plant communities not under such an influence. Periodically, vegetation which is damaged or lost is replaced by Park personnel. The replacement plan generally involves the planting of 50 to 100 trees or shrubs per year. These plantings are of a hardy nature, indigenous to the general area or suited to the climate, and able to withstand ice loading, wind, and human intrusion. Typical species utilized for this purpose are presented in Table G15. The areas of vegetative cover both managed and natural with the Reservation are shown in Figure G5. Factors such as climate, topography, and habitat which influence vegetation are also responsible for a diverse wildlife population. Wildlife species whose normal ranges are geographically north of the Niagara Region, such as the snowshoe hare and the snowy owl, and wildlife species whose normal ranges are geographically south of the Region, such as the eastern cottontail and Carolina wren are typically found in the Niagara Region. Some areas in the immediate vicinity of the Falls provide unique habitats. The gorge walls provide roosting and nesting sites for herring gulls, rock doves, and other species. The hydroelectric power plant outfall on the Canadian side of the River, immediately below the Horseshoe Falls, provides a feeding area for gulls and other species of waterbirds. Similar areas include two coves above the Maid-of-the-Mist boat dock.

G2.5 Aquatic Ecology

The modern approach to aquatic community structure is based upon trophic, or feeding levels. The initial component of trophic dynamics is the primary producer, that is, plants. Plants convert solar energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis, thereby supplying the energy input into the ecosystem. Herbivores are organisms which consume plants, and are, in turn, consumed by carnivores. In this manner, energy flows through an ecosystem. Cladophora, at present is the dominant algae of the Niagara River. The distribution of Cladophora appears to be directly related to nutrient availability, with luxuriant growths appearing in bodies of water receiving artificial enrichment in the form of municipal discharges and agricultural runoff. ~Gdophorarequires a firm, stable substrate for attachment, with growth occurring most abundantly on coarse gravel, boulders, and bedrock in areas where. continuous water movement prevents the accumulation of sediments. Since most aquatic plants flourish only in areas of sediment accumulation, Cladophora occupies a niche in which little competition exists with rooted aquatic plants. Competition for nutritive elements, however, undoubtedly exists between Cladophora and species of planktonic algae. While some species of aquatic fauna, particularly Gammarus and other isopods, are often found in abundance on Cladophora strands, no animal forms are known to utilize Cladophora directly for food. The swift currents, rich nutrient load, and water-scoured bottom of the Niagara River in the vicinity of Niagara Falls provide an excellent habitat for Cladophora, both in the River and in the spray zone surrounding the Falls. Rooted aquatic plants grow in sediments. In areas of swift current, there is seldom accumulation of sediment, and root plants cannot exist. In the Niagara River, aquatic plants are most abundant where there are pools of quiet water. In the vicinitv of Grand Island. some distance uustream of the Falls. dense beds of Vallisneria and ~otako~eton,as well 'as several other genera, occur in quiet areas at the northern and souther ends of the Islands. Suitable conditions for the growth of aquatic plants also exist in the quiety 'pools of the American Channel above Luna island. Aquatic macrophytes bear an important relationship to waterfowl. They constitute the prime food source of most species of ducks, consequently, waterfowl on the Niagara River are most often found in areas of aquatic vegetation. The Niagara River supports several aquatic plant species that are very important in the diets of waterfowl. Some of these prime components are Sagittaria, Elodea, Potamogeton, and Myriophyllum. (35) Rooted aquatic plants provide good cover for fish and support a myriad of aquatic insects and other organisms important in the diet of fish. Most of the fishing pressure in the Niagara River is cenetered in the vicinity of Grand Island because the weed beds in this area offer prime fish habitat. Benthic organisms show a varied distribution in the Niagara River. The United St tes side of the upper river is dominated by sludge worms and pollution-tolerant snails,(4) a situation probably brought about by the discharge of wastes into the River by municipalities and industries along the United States shoreline. In contrast, the Canadian side of the upper River supports a more diverse assemblage of benthic fauna, reflecting the higher quality of water in the West Channel. According to the International Joint omm mission,(^) this area supports population of a large variety of clean water species, including pollution-sensitive mayflies, caddisflies, midges, and amphipods. The effects of pollution below the Falls in the lower Niagara River are indicated by the absence of mayflies, the scarcity of caddisflies, and the restricted variety of species of sludgeworms and midgeflies.(4) This situation can be attributed to waste materials from the upper River and those entering the River between the Falls and Lake Ontario. During the dewatered period, Beeton identified a variety of aquatic worms and insect larvae, as well as clams, snails, and crayfish, in the Niagara Reservation. The area supporting the most diverse assemblage of benthos is that above the Falls in the vicinity of Luna, Bird, and Robinson Islands. Those and numerous smaller islands create pockets of slower current where benthic organisms exist. The River bottom in this area is mainly rock and gravel.

G2.6 Land Use G2.6.1 Niagara Region Figure G8 depicts the existing land use setting of the Niagara Region. Immediately adjacent to the Reservation, the regional setting is characterized by urban development declining in population density from the city of Niagara Falls north to the town of Lewiston and south to the city of North Tonawanda. To the north of the city of Niagara Falls is the Robert Moses Niagara Plant complex, including a large pump storage reservoir. To the east of the power complex is the Tuscarora Indian Reservation. To the north of the power complex is a series of smaller residential communities, ranging in population from 7,000 to 18,000 people. The area to the northeast of this urban concentration is characterized by a series of small residential communities and strip commercial and industrial development along the major arterial roadways. The city of Lockport with a population of 25,399 people, is the only area of concentrated urban development in the eastern portion of Niagara County. The characteristically rural eastern portion of the county is dominated by agricultural and wooded lands. Recreational facilities, which are dispersed throughout the county and operated and maintained by various public and private agencies, are a major feature of the regional'setting. A specific enumeration of the various recreational facilities is found in Section 2.10, Recreation. Nearly every type of recreational facility can be found within the regional setting of the Niagara Reservation. Concentrated industrial activities occur primarily along the Niagara River within the city of Niagara Falls. The principal economic and social center of the city of Niagara Falls is the central business district, adjacent to the Reservation. A secondary center, located on Main Street in the northwestern sector of the city, includes a concentration of the local government facilities. Hyde Park, a major public facility, is located near the geographical center of the city. The northeast quadrant of the city is primarily an industrial area. Beyond this industrial area is the Niagara International Airport. A second industrial area is located along a portion of the city's southern boundary between the Niagara River and Buffalo Avenue. There is a basic pattern of single-family housing, with a high percentage of home ownership in the city of Niagara Falls. An apparent pride of ownership has resulted in an attractive community. However, areas of blight can be found adjacent to some industrial sections and near abandoned railroad yards. The more critical areas are being treated or are programmed for future renewal action. Table G26 contains data for Niagara County and the city of Niagara Falls that enumerates in square miles the area devoted to each land use category and also lists percentage of area devoted to each land use category. The predominant land uses in the county are active agriculture, woodlands, and nonproductive land. Eighty percent of all land area is devoted to these uses. Land used for outdoor recreation comprises 7.23 square miles or 1.3 percent of the total land area in the Region. The major land use in the city of Niagara Falls is residential, which comprises 5.77 square miles or 30.3 percent of the total city area. A total of 1.41 square miles or 7.4 percent of the total city area is devoted to outdoor recreation. The future land use concept for the regional setting and the city of Niagara Falls as presented by the Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board is depicted in Figure G8. Commercial and residential development is expected to occur to the north and east of the city of Niagara Falls, along the shoreline of Lake Ontario, and in a linear pattern south of the city of Lockport. Industrial development will primarily occur in the city of Niagara Falls, the northwest section of the county, and in the city of Lockport. The rural nature of the eastern portion of the county is to be preserved, with a network of open-space and recreational areas. A transportation network is proposed to connect major corridors of development and is an extension of a loop system circling the city of Buffalo. Future land use patterns and the appearance of Niagara Falls, New York, have been changing in the last decade as a result of a massive Urban Renewal Project. The Niagara Falls Urban Renewal Agency is charged with the administration of three Urban Renewal projects within the city. The Allen MacKenna Avenue Project and the Highland-Hyde Park Industrial Project involved clearance and rehabilitation of portions of the city and have been completed. The third and largest project, the Rainbow Center, was launched in June 1969 after the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development authorized a loan and grant contract. Since that time, the Niagara Falls Urban Renewal Agency, the State of New York Urban Development Corporation, the Rainbow Center Development Corporation, and the Niagara Falls Gateway to America Corporation have joined forces to redevelop the 82-acre Rainbow Center downtown project. The $30 million Convention Center was completed in January 1974, and a $200 million commercial area with hotel and tourist-oriented facilities is scheduled for completion in 1976. These facilities are expected to add numerous new jobs, providing goods and services for the increased volume of shoppers and convention visitors. Commercial development within the 82-acre project area is to flank a landscaped Pedestrian Mall, scheduled for completion in early 1976. The mall will begin at the edge of the Niagara Reservation and end at the Rainbow Convention Center, 1,800 feet from the American Falls. Major developments in the project include corporate headquarters for the Carborundum Company, a Ceramics Museum, approximately 2,000 new hotel rooms, and numerous tourist attractions. Some of these facilities are already completed. Other new facilities within Niagara Falls, New York, include the Earl W. Brydges Public Library, a $10 million school-library complex opened in October 1972, and a comprehensive domestic and industrial wastewater treatment facility, now under construction. .~2.6.2Niagara Reservation

The location and components of the Niagara Reservation, occupies 139 acres of mainland and island property which were described in Section G2.1. Within the Reservation, two stone-arch bridges built in the early 1900's provide pedestrian access to Goat Island, and the American Rapids Bridge provides vehicular and pedestrian access to the Island. The Park operates tractor-drawn, open coaches called Viewmobiles, which carry tourists from Prospect Point, across the stone-arch bridges, around Goat Island, and back to Prospect Point. For the convenience of the touring public, three parking lots are available in the vicinity of the Falls. One is on the mainland adjacent to Prospect Point, and two are on Goat Island, one at the east end and one at the west end of the Island. Entirely recreational in character, the activities and facilities within the Reservation are primarily for the passive recreational user. Figure G8 depicts the facilities and land uses in the Reservation. As mentioned previously, the Viewmobile enables Park visitors to circle the entire Reservation with scheduled stops at four scenic viewing areas. Footpaths traverse the entire Reservation, providing access to the flank areas and to such tourist attractions as Luna Island, the Cave-of-the-Winds walkway at the base of Bridal Veil Falls, and lower Prospect Point. A helicopter ride is also available. The loading area for the helicopter ride is on the eastern end of Goat Island. Other forms of passive recreation include the Observation Tower on Prospect Point, which also provides access to the lower viewing area at the Prospect Point flank of the American Falls and the Maid-of-the-Mist Boat ride. Structural facilities within the Reservation include concession and souvenir stands on the northern portion of Goat Island and on Prospect Point, comfort facilities throughout the Reservation, a maintenance building on Goat Island, a restaurant on Goat Island, and the Park Information Center and Police Building on the mainland portion. These structures are all service or commercial facilities for the tourist. Structures which are in direct association with the passive recreational use of the Reservation, include the Prospect Point Observation Tower, the Cave-of-the-Winds tour buildings, and the Maid-of-the-Mist docks. The remaining land area in the Reservation is primarily woodlands and open-space grassland. There are a number of major transportation routes providing access to the Niagara Reservation. Interstate 90, the Mohawk Valley section of the New York Thruway, is the Reservation's primary tie to New York State, New England, and the New York Metropolitan area. Accessibility from the New York Metropolitan Area has been increased with the completion of Interstate Route 81. Farther south, the northeast extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike provides an access route for travelers from Philadelphia and the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan complex to the Reservation. Residents of the urban centers along the shores of the Great Lakes can reach the Reservation directly by way of the Ohio Turnpike and the New York State Thruway. Interstate 79 and Interstate 80 also link the population of western Pennsylvania and upper Ohio with the Niagara Falls area. Canadians living along the north shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario have easy access to the Reservation via the Queen Elizabeth Highway. The Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission has not adopted or promulgated a future land-use scheme for the Niagara Reservation. The present uses of the Reservation, with respect to facilities and activities, is expected to remain the same in the future. Economics

G2.7.1 Niagara Region

The Niagara Region (Niagara County, New York) has a heavily industrialized economic base with major industrial sites concentrated along the Niagara River. The composition of this industrial base reflects the diversification of industries particular to the region (Table G27). The most significant fact concerning the mix of regional industrial facilities is that the bulk (42.7 percent) of total employment is related to manufacturing industries. Although figures for revenues generated by these industries are not available, it is apparent by viewing employment levels that the manufacturing industries (durable and nondurable goods) are the primary revenue generators. While industrial activity is not as intense today as it once was, it is still the most important contributor to employment and incomes of the labor force. Projections of economic growth trends made by the Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board, however, indicate major increases in employment will occur in the nonmanufacturing sector of the Niagara County and Niagara Falls, New York, economies, with only minor increases in employment in manufacturing industries.(35) These findings are consistent with national economic projections prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Significant to these projections for economic growth is the potential for increased leisure time activities (tourist/recreation) and the impact that it could create on the local and regional economy. The regional economic characteristics of these leisure-time activities are indicated in Table G28. Tourism and related activities play a significant role in the regional economy. Although data regarding total spin-off revenues from hotels, motels, restaurants, gift shops, and other facilities attributable to tourism alone are not available, the impact of tourism is evident as can be noted in Table G28. Seasonally oriented facilities supporting tourism are extensive. Receipts from these facilities are highest in the months from June through August and coincide with peak tourist visitation levels. As the demand for tourist facilities has steadily grown, the Niagara Falls, New York economy has responded by creating an industry out of this tourist demand. Since World War 11, tourism has become a major source of income and employment. Factors such as vacations, highway accessibility, and leisure time make it more and more feasible to visit the Niagara Region for both long- and short-term visitations. Niagara Falls has continued to draw increasing numbers f tourists. Park attendance has grown from 2,310,000 in 1945 to over 5,000,000 in 1 970.(g7) As a result of growing numbers of tourists, tourism/recreation revenues have had parallel growth. As a result, spin-off economic benefits to the local and regional economics have also resulted (employment, revenues and general economic development). Estimates projecting tourism growth, assuming no major alteration in existing attractions or facilities, show tourism in the Niagara area to continue at its present rate of increase. Under favorable conditions, the number of visitors to the Falls area will reach over 1 1,000,000 annually by 1 975.(37) In terms of local impact on the Niagara Falls economy, recent trends in the retail activity reflect the relative impact of tourism. Sales in selected retail establishments have risen steadily over the past 20-year period. This reflects an increased flow of tourist dollars into the local economy. Absolute dollar increases in selected retail sales indicate an increase of $1 1.1 million in annual retail sales from base year 1954 figures. Retail sales for the region and the city are shown in Table G29. Service establishments directly and indirectly oriented toward tourism activities I include hotels, motels, private camp grounds, and amusement and recreation services. These establishments and services have increased continuously through the period from 1954 to the present. In particular, receipts in hotels, motels, and camp grounds increased more than I three-fold during this period. These tourism-related sectors of the local economy clearly have increased their sales substantially more than the average for service establishments generally. From a county standpoint, these activities play a lesser role than on the local I economy of Niagara Falls, New York. Locally (Niagara Falls, New York, and Niagara Falls, Canada), there is an estimated $1 50 million in sales volume per year related to tourist activities. Of this $150 million, approximately $70 million or 46.6 percent is spent in the Niagara Falls, New York, area I while Nia ra Falls, Canada, receives the greater share of $80 million or 53.4 percent annually.(5% 1 A specific breakdown of derivations of the U.S. share of tourist revenues is not possible, as there is no method available to distinguish local tourist spending from I non-tourist consumer spending. The majority (53 percent) of all visitors to the Falls arrive and depart the same day. The remaining 47 percent will remain in the Falls area typically for two to five days. On the average a toruist spends about $20.00 per day. Tables G30 and G3 1 provide statistics on I tourist visitation.

G2.7.2 Niagara Reservation

Tourist attractions associated with the American Falls area provide a vareity of sightseeing opportunities. Annual visitation to these attractions are summarized by I attendance rates and revenues for each attraction in Table G32. In terms of park revenues, the Niagara Reservation receives over $750,000 annually from the foregoing sources. In terms of the number of tourists attracted and tourists dollars spent, the most significant revenue generators, in order of relative contribution to total revenue are the I Maid-of-the-Mist Boat Tour, the Observation Tower, and the Niagara Viewmobile. These three attractions provide the Reservation with nearly 60 percent of total revenue generated by all attractions and parking fees within the confines of the Niagara Reservation. I In 1972 net receipts for all parks under the jurisdiction of the Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission totaled over $1,I 80,000. The Niagara Reservation net receipts of over $800,000 were about 72 percent of total revenues generated by all parks I under the Commission's jurisdiction. According to figures released by the Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission the Niagara Reservation has the highest level of tourist visitations annually and is the focal point of the tourist economic base for the Commission (see Table G33). I A visitation summary for the Niagara Reservation is shown in Table G34. As evidence on the table, the tourist flow is seasonal with 60 to 70 percent of visitations to the Falls I area concentrated in the summer months of July and August. G2.8 Cultural

G2.8.1 History of Niagara Region

Long before Europeans came to America, native Indian tribes appreciated the wonders of Niagara. These people, most notably the Seneca Indians, held the cataract area in such I esteem that it served as a summit or focal point for peace talks, trading, and religious communion. After the arrival of the first western Europeans in the late 1600's. the Niagara Region was engaged in a myriad of functions and often served as a trading center and meeting place. The region, because of its strategic location, was the site of military forts and the scene of many battles (English versus French versus Indian). As the city of Niagara Falls, New York developed it became the crux of the Niagara Region. Due to the picturesque beauty of the natural surroundings of the Falls and the natural source of power, the city of Niagara Falls and the corresponding region of Niagara County, inevitably grew and prospered. As early as the 1700's, a permanent settlement was made by the western Europeans, who recognized the importance of the location. In 1760 John, Phillip, and William Stedman decided to inhabit a large house, used earlier by traders, located near the Falls. The brothers cleared the site adjacent to the house and a riverbank site across from Iris Island. They planted approximately one hundred and fifty apple trees and one brother, John Stedman, cleared a ten-acre plot on the island, specifically for a goat pasture. Because of that clearing, the island came to be known as "Goat Island." The Stedman family remained in this first homestead until 1795. The city of Niagara Falls, New York, was founded in 1806 by Augustus Porter, a manufacturer from Great Britain, who recognized the area's potential for industry. At that time, Porter and his family purchased large tracts of land continguous to the upper sector of the Niagara River and the cataracts and developed the first village on the frontier. The Porters realized that the area would grow because of the natural resources vital to industrial use. They named the newly-founded city "Manchester," after the industrialized city in Great Britain. By 1808, Porter had built a home near the upper rapids area on the riverbank. During the early nineteenth century, developers considered constructing a canal in the area and plans were discussed for a new industrial city. As early as 1810, the Governor of the State of New York wrote that Manchester (Niagara Falls) was, without challenge, the most significant locale for hydraulic works in the United States. The growth potential for the city and surrounding region seemed unlimited until the War of 1812. During the War of 1812, the Niagara Frontier was the scene of continuous battles. Even though the majority of the battles occurred on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, the city became desolate and almost completely void of population. After the war ended in 1814, a rebuilding of the ravaged Niagara Region began, and the population increased rapidly. In 18 16, Augustus Porter purchased Goat Island and initiated improvements on the land. A bridge was built to connect the island with the mainland, and Goat Island immediately became a favorite tourist attraction in the Niagara Region. During the period between 18 16 and 1 8 18, taverns and large hotels, such as the Eagle Hotel and the Cataract House, were built, and the city became a tourist center. To further expand the business of tourism, a stairway was built in 18 18, to enable visitors to walk from the upper flank area of Prospect Point to the lower flank area at the water's edge. Provisions were also made to allow tourists to descend to the base of the American Falls and to board a ferry boat that traveled between the United States and Canada. By the early nineteenth century era, mass transportation was considered, and in 1836 the Lockport and Niagara Falls Railroad was built. The route constructed primarily for tourists was located along the cliff route above the river and stopped on Main Street in front of the Cataract House. Because this tourist railroad line was so successful, another new railroad line, the Buffalo and Niagara Falls Railroad, was constructed. On both lines, the railroad cars were filled to capacity on the majority of runs, carrying tourists into the city to view the Falls. The Cataract and Eagle Hotels, plus three other hotels, accommodated tourists. Growth of the city was rapid and continuous, and in 1848 the village of Niagara Falls was incorporated. In order to create a continuous and high volume of tourist traffic between the United States and Canada it had become apparent that a suspension bridge would have to be constructed. In 1847 the International Suspension Bridge Company was organized, and in March of 1855, John A. Roebling completed the world's first successful railroad suspension bridge, located in the Village of Bellevue, two miles downstream of the Falls. The bridge spanned 820 feet and weighed 1,000 tons. A railroad track was located on the upper deck, and a highway and pedestrian walkway were constructed on the lower deck. The community of Bellevue grew and became incorporated in 1854 as "Niagara City." The central business district of the city centered around the approaches to the bridges and became the center of tourist trade at the Falls. Finally, in the 1850's the city became incorporated and known as "Suspension Bridge." While Suspension Bridge became the legal port of entry into Canada, the sister village of Niagara Falls was rapidly becoming an industrial center. In January 1869, another bridge was built one-eighth mile below the Falls. Six years later the Hydraulic Canal went into operation and was used for industrial purposes. In the late 1 87OYs,the canal was purchased and became the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company. As a result of this reorganization, the Falls were illuminated in 1879 by electricity generated from the Niagara River. In 1881, the Schoellkopf Plant began to generate electricity for large scale commercial purposes. Due to the electrical supply from the Niagara Falls Power Company, which was formed in 1889, large industrial, commercial, and business concerns began settling in the area. In 1891, a charter was drawn for the city of Niagara Falls, and the city's western boundary was delineated at Evershed Avenue, presently 36th Street. The charter joined the villages of Niagara and Suspension Bridge and the unincorporated hamlet of Clarksville into the new city of Niagara Falls, with a population of approximately 12,000. In March of 1892, Niagara Falls became an incorporated city. At the present time, Niagara Falls, New York, with a population of approximately 86,000, is governed under a mayor-council-manager plan. The city extends approximately six miles upstream of the Falls along the Niagara River, four miles downstream along the Niagara Gorge and includes the Niagara Reservation.

G2.8.2 History of Niagara Reservation

As early as 1831, concern was expressed for the destruction of many natural assets of the Niagara region caused by the increase of mills and power houses. Not until well after the Civil War was any real action taken to preserve the beauty of Niagara. The men most responsible for legislative action to protect the Falls were Lord Dufferin,'the Governor General of Canada, and Governor Lucius Robinson of New York State. Governor Robinson in his last annual message to the New York State Legislature referred to the Falls as the property of the world and called for its protection. In March of 1880, a report was submitted by a New York State sanctioned survey commission stating that the Falls was in serious trouble and that "development around the Falls was out of control." The report further stated that Niagara was "greatly injured" and "the destruction was continuous and accelerating." The Commissioners reported that from the head of the rapids of the American Falls, "the shore is already defaced by walls, platforms, and buildings. Not a foot of it retains its natural character." The Commissioners further warned that if this deterioration were not stopped immediately, the cataract and its environs would be ruined. The Commission contented that the State of New York had the right to condemn the offending structures and secure lands through the State's power of eminent domain. A strip of land 100 to 800 feet wide along the River shore was identified for the condemnation and razing of existing structures. Along with razing the structures, a program of replanting the area with native trees and shrubbery was proposed. The aforementioned action constituted the original proposal, and, as an addendum, it was recommended that all islands in the Niagara River be acquired and preserved, particularly Goat Island. The preservationist movement met opposition from a number of individuals including the newly elected governor of New York State, Alonzo B. Cornell. Governor Cornell and some members of the Legislature believed the purchase of the lands by the State for the purpose of scenic preservation would be a burden on all the taxpayers of the State. In addition, businessmen whose properties bordered on Niagara Falls opposed the Park for obvious reasons, as stated in the Commissioners' Report, "Some did a thriving trade fleecing tourists, while others objected to relocating their industries away from such an excellent and inexpensive source of water power." Working in conjunction with a new Governor, Grover Cleveland (1882), the preservationists launched a publicity campaign from 1880 to 1882 and were more successful in their efforts to enhance the Falls environment. To further their ends, preservationists met in New York City January 12, 1885 to form an official organization to lobby at the State level for favorable legislative action regarding the protection and preservation of Niagara. Within months, the New York State Legislature, prompted by local and international pressures, passed a bill to establish a State Reservation at Niagara. The bill cleared both Houses of the Legislature in March and April 1883 and on April 30, Governor Cleveland signed the measure into law. On July 15, 1885, after much litigation over land purchase, formal ceremonies in Prospect Park at Niagara Falls, New York, officially opened the Niagara State Reservation. Originally, the control of the Reservation was, by the Act of Establishment, vested in five Commissioners, all residents of New York State and appointed by the Governor by and with the advice of the Senate for a term of five years. The Commissioners received no financial compensation for their services, other than reimbursement of initial cash outlays. In accordance with the statute, the Commissioners selected a president from their ranks who, in turn, appointed a treasurer and secretary. In 1887, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, landscape architects, were commissioned to develop a plan to improve the appearance of the Niagara Reservation. The report promoted a comprehensive and conservationist approach. Even in this era, the safety of the viewing areas was considered. The authors of the report acknowledged that alternatives for improving the beauty and safety of the Reservation would be debated and that great differences of opinion would prevail. The early Commissioners were in vitrually absolute control of the daily functions and future direction of the Reservation and were answerable only to the Legislature. Their positions afforded them the opportunity "to lay out, manage, and maintain such Reservation and make and enforce ordinances, bylaws, rules, and regulations necessary to effect the purpose thereof, and for the orderly transaction of busines, not inconsistent with the laws of this State; to fix the price to be charged by drivers of public conveyances for carrying persons for hire within the limits of such Reservation; to appoint a Superintendent and employ such other persons as may be needed, one or more of whom, to be designated by the Commissioners shall have the power and may perform the dutis of police constable 'n criminal cases; to fix the compensation of the person appointed or employed by them 44b) Today, the Administration of the Niagara Reservation is handled somewhat differently than in the past. The Niagara Board of Commissioners still exists; however, since 1972, the role of the Commissioners has changed. Presently by statute, there are seven Commissioners who are residents of the State of New York. It is stipulated that two of the Park Commissioners must reside in Niagara County and three in Erie County, while the other two serve at large. The Commissioners are appointed by the Governor to terms of seven years. The Commission no longer is the functionary body governing the Niagara Reservation. Answerable to the Governor, the Commission is a lay body of citizens who serve in a counselor/advisory capacity with input to the Office of the State Commissioner of Parks and Recreation. Functionally, the Reservation is run by a Regional Administration, a Lieutenant of the Director of Parks and Recreation; thus, every employee of the Park is on the State Civil Service payroll. The Reservation is administered by the Regional Administration under the auspices of the State Office of Parks and Recreation with the aid of counsel from the Commissioners. The Reservation, while not large in size (originally about 400 acres, 300 of which were under water), was and is significant in the respect that its establishment marked the first time in the history of the United States that a State had taken official action to preserve its scenic heritage. The protection of Niagara Falls by the State of New York can be regarded as one of the beginning steps in aesthetic conservation in the United States.

G2.8.3 Archaeologic and Historic Sites

Numerous sites of historical significance can be found in the Niagara area. Five sites in Niagara County are listed in the "National Register of Historic Places." The Niagara Reservation and Old Fort Niagara located at the mouth of the River are both historic places and have also been designated as National Historic Landmarks. The third historic place is the "U.S. Custom House," located on Whirlpool Street in Niagara Falls, New York. The remaining two sites, located in Lockport, New York are the "Lowertown Historic District" and the "Benjamin C. Moore Mill." Major historical sites located in the Reservation include the following:

(1) Father Hennepin's Vantage Point - 1678-1679 - A boulder at Prospect Park marks the spot where Father Hennepin, a Recollet Priest, first viewed the Falls. He was the first European to write of what he saw at Niagara. Father Hennepin was a member of an exploration party led by the French explorer LaSalle.

(2) Maid-of-the-Mist (legendary location) - This is the spot where supposedly a "siren" would repeatedly appear to those viewing the Falls.

(3) World's First Alternating Current Power Plant - This is the site where in 1896 the first alternating electric current power plant was erected. The plant no longer exists.

(4) Goat Island - This island divides the two Falls and was a gift to the English from local Indians in 18 13. Point Lookout and the Rock of Ages are located on Goat Island.

(5) Original Terrapin Tower - First tower erected solely for the purpose of viewing the Falls; the original tower was located at Terrapin Point and no longer exists.

(6) Site of Niagara's First Electric Lighting - A Tree-shaped pool and foundation in the center of Prospect Park were lighted in 1879 by the first electrical lights at Niagara. (7) Joncaire's Mill - On this spot in 1757, a Frenchman, Chabert Joncaire, Jr., dug a loop canal for a sawmill.

Historically significant sites and one archaeological site adjacent to the Reservation are shown on Figure G9 and include the following.

(1) Early Indian Village (Seneca) - Location of "Ruins of Seneca Indian Village" dating about 1790.

(2) First structure erected by the western Europeans - Originally a homestead, the foundation of this structure has been a fort, a gristmill and again a homestead.

(3) Major S.M.N. Whitney Mansion - A majestic stone house; the Whitney Mansion was built over a barn and stables (about to be entered into the National Register of Historic Places).

(4) Lovelace House - Home of prominent Niagara Society people, it was a world reknown place for the rich and influencial. General Marquis LaFayette was a frequent guest.

The following historic places are located in Niagara County and are cultural/tourist attractions:

(1) First Railway in America (Tramway). 1764, Lewiston, New York.

(2) Frontier House -'Famous Pioneer Hostelry. 1824, Lewiston, New York.

(3) Site of Hustler Tavern - birthplace of the cocktail which was introduced prior to 1813 by Mrs. Catherine Hustler, the Betty Flanagan character in James Fennimore Cooper's store "The Spy", written here in Lewiston, New York.

(4) Decisive Battle at LaBelle ~amilleled to capture of Fort Niagara by English. 1759, Youngstown, New York.

(5) Model City - planned in 1893, Lewiston, New York, State Route No. 104.

(6) Kienuka Site - Prehistoric, Lewiston, New York, State Route No. 104.

(7) Tuscarora Indian Reservation - located east of Lewiston, New York.

(8) Griffon, first lake vessel built here - site also of first chapel in New York State where Catholic Priests ministered to white man. 1679. Niagara Falls, New < York.

(9) Tonawanda Island - Site of Indian burial mound - and White's mansion home visited frequently by Daniel Webster. North Tonawanda was world's largest lumber mart during late 1890's - North Tonawanda, New York.

(10) Old Erie Canal Port, North Tonawanda, New York. (1 1) Bergholtz German Lutheran Settlement - noted especially for pottery. 1843. St. Johnsburg, New York.

(1 2) First Horse-drawn Railroad - 1836, Pekin, New York.

(1 3) Congregational Church received grant of 100 acres of land from Holland Land Company for organizing the first religious society in Niagara County. 181 7, Cambria Center, New York.

(14) Howell's Tavern - DeWitt Clinton was guest, 1810. General LaFayette stopped here in 1825, southwest of North Ridge, New York.

(15) Molyneux Corners - burial ground of many pioneers. Carriage in which William Morgan was abducted to prevent disclosures of Masonic secrets stopped here, northwest of North Ridge, ~ewYork.

(16) Site of Indian Village and Ossuary - prehistoric, south of North Ridge, New York.

(1 7) LaSalle's sailing vessel, sunk December, 1678. English ship Ontario sunk 1780, north of Somerset, New York, on Lake Ontario.

(1 8) Quaker Settlement - 1816, east of Hartland, New York.

(19) Bugbee - First stone house built in Niagara County, 1815, southeast of Hartland. New York.

(20) Tonawanda Indian Reservation, southeast of Wolcottsville, New ~ork.

(21 ) Settlement of Prussians - 1853, southeast of Dysinger, New York.

(22) Niagara grape produced 1872 - Vine is still bearing fruit, Wrights Corners, New York.

(23) Lockport Cave, Lockport, New York.

(24) Three Miles of Old Erie Canal dug through rock by pick, shovel. and black gun powder by Irish from 1821 to 1825.

G2.9 Population

The Erie-Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board and the New York State Office of Planning Services project a decreasing total population for the city of Niagara Falls, New York. As presented in Table G35, the Erie-Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board projections indicate an average annual decrease in total population of 3.9 percent through 1990. From 1990 to 2000, the population shows a net gain of .04 percent and tends to stabilize. Projections by the New York State Office of Planning Services reveal an average annual decrease in total population of 3.6 percent through the year 2000. Both projections are indicative of the out-migration from the city. Recreation

G2.10.1 Niagara Region

The Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board published a Regional Recreation and Open Space Plan in 1971. The Plan depicts only existing and proposed facilities of over 25 acres in size, or those facilities considered to be of regional significance. A basic aspect of the Plan is to provide for open space corridors to perserve the significant streams and creeks within the two-county area for recreation, flood control, and storm drainage. The main focus of the Plan is to provide adequate recreational facilities for future population needs, a network of open space lands, water reservoirs, and wildlife areas, which would draw significant numbers of people away from the presently overcrowded park facilities along the Niagara River. Recreational facilities are a dominant feature of the regional setting in Niagara County. There are ten State Parks and six County Parks dispersed throughout the Region. The city of Niagara Falls, New York contains one large park and numerous small recreation areas.

G2.10.2 Niagara Falls Vicinity

Two major park facilities, located in the immediate vicinity of the Horseshoe and American Falls, are the Niagara Reservation in Niagara Falls, New York, and Queen Victoria Park in Niagara Falls, Canada.

(a) Queen Victoria Park - In 1885, the Niagara Parks Commission was established, and in 1887 the Ontario Legislature passed the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park Act, which provided 154 acres of land adjacent to the cataracts to restore and preserve the natural surroundings of Niagara Falls for public enjoyment. The preservation of this area was further insured in the 1890's by the acquisition of 2,846 acres of additional land. This additional land, acquired for public benefit, includes the Chain Reserve which extends thirty-five miles along the Niagara River from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. Queen Victoria Park enables the visitor to view the Falls, the Gorge, and the Niagara River under aesthetically Cttractive environment, while providing enjoyable recreational activities. A walkway along the top edge of the Gorge, provides panoramic views of all facets of the Niagara Reservation's natural sites, the Gorge, Rapids and both the American and Horseshoe Falls. One tourist attraction, the Table Rock Scenic Tunnels, allows for the tourist to descent 150 feet within the Gorge wall behind the Horseshoe Falls and to walk through a series of tunnels which lead to three viewing portals behind the Falls or to an outer viewing area at the base of the Falls. Another available recreational activity is the Maid-of-the-Mist Scenic Boat Tour with docks in Canada and the United States. Raincoat-clad passengers, are transported around the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool at the base of the Horseshoe and American Falls. In Niagara Falls, Canada, six additional viewing areas and two cultural attractions for tourist recreational activities exist and are listed below.

Viewing Areas

(1) Niagara Parks Incline Railway: Transports visitors from the escarpment adjacent to Queen Victoria Park to the land area of the Park adjacent to the brink of the Horseshoe Falls. (2) Heritage Tower: Observation tower for Falls, includes gift shops and restaurant.

(3) Skylon Observatory: Observation tower for Falls, includes gift shops and restaurant

(4) Space Tower: Observation Tower.

(5) Oneida Tower: Observation tower.

(6) Table Rock House: Gothic-style observation deck with gift shop, In the Spring of 1974, the Parks Commission expanded Table Rock House to relieve congestion and to provide, among other things, an enlarged restaurant and improved washroom facilities.

Cultural Attractions

(1) Oak Hall Museum: English Gothic museum displaying colonial furnishings and paintings.

(2) Niagara Parks Greenhouse: Greenhouse used to grow and exhibit plants.

(b) Niagara Reservation - The New York Niagara Reservation was incorporated into the State Parks System in 1920. The Reservation is presently under the Administration of the Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission in the Office of Parks and Recreation under the Executive Department. The Reservation, consisting of 139 land acres in addition to underwater lands was established as a recreational area for visitors to observe the Falls in a natural environment. The activities and facilities available to visitors'in the Reservation provide a passive type of recreation and enhance the visitor's aesthetic experience of the Falls. The location of the primary viewing areas and the tourist attractions within the Reservation are depicted in Figure G8. The seven primary vantage points for viewing the Falls and Reservation are described in Chapter G3.1. In addition to the seven primary vantage points, the Reservation.contains the following tourist attractions:

(I ) Helicopter Flight: Provides aerial view of the Falls (seasonal).

(2) Observation Tower (Prospect Point): Provides multi-level views of American Falls as well as access to lower flank areas of Prospect Point.

(3) Maid-of-the-Mist Boat Tour: Boats depart from the base of Prospect Point and provide views of American Falls and Horseshoe Falls from the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool (seasonal).

(4) Niagara Viewmobile: Provides an easy and fairly rapid tour of the Niagara Reservation. including Prospect Park and Goat Island (seasonal).

(5) Two souvenir shops. a restaurant, and snack bar are available to visitors on the Niagara Reservation. In addition to those recreational activities available in the immediate Reservation area, other tourist attractions that contribute to the total recreational scheme of the Niagara Falls area include the following:

(1) Niagara Falls Gallery: Contains a collection of unique international art; in addition, provides a view of the upper rapids.

(2) Aquarium: The world's first inland oceanarium with regularly scheduled. performances by select aquatic mammals.

(3) Geological Museum: Located near the Gorge, presents dramatic presentation of the origin of the Falls. CHAPTER G3 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING - SPECIFIC AREAS ON THE FLANKS OF THE AMERICAN FALLS AND THE GOAT ISLAND FLANK OF THE HORSESHOE FALLS

G3.1 General Description

This study has considered seven specific vantage points for viewing the Falls. Two areas are located on the mainland portion at Prospect Point, one on Luna Island, and four on Goat Island. Upper Prospect Point has the same elevation as the crest of the American Falls and provides a close-up view of the crest. An Observation Tower provides access from upper Prospect ' Point to lower Prospect Point at the talus level below; two glass-enclosed elevators within this 282-foot tower provide continuous viewing of the face of the American Falls from the talus level to about 80 feet above the crest. From the foot of the tower, a pathway and stone steps allow viewers to approach the talus at the base of the American Falls. Luna Island, located on the crest of the American Falls, provides a unique viewing area at the very edge of the cliff, allowing the tourist to look down onto the talus, as well as across the crest of the American Falls. Steps from the Goat Island overlook provide access to Luna Island. Of the four viewing areas on Goat Island, two flank the American Falls and two flank the Horseshoe Falls. The Goat Island overlook, on the southern edge of the American Falls, is about 40 to 50 feet above the level of the American Falls. This overlook provides a panoramic view of the Rapids, the small islands within the Rapids, and the entire crest of the American Falls, including the Bridal Veil Falls and Luna Island. The second viewing area on the Goat Island flank of the American Falls is the Cave-of-the-Winds Walk. This is a series of wooden catwalks constructed on the talus below the Bridal Veil Falls. Visitors are provided with waterproof garments to protect themselves from the mist and spray. An elevator and a tunnel within the cliff provide access to the base of the cliff, and a short path through the rocks leads to the wooden structures. Terrapin Point overlook and Terrapin Point are the two viewing areas on the Goat Island flank of the Horseshoe Falls. The overlook is about 50 feet above and 400 feet back from the crest of the Horseshoe Falls and provides a panoramic view of the Casfcades and the entire crest of the Horseshoe Falls. Terrapin Point, accessible by steps which descend from the higher overlook, is a large viewing area at the level of the Falls crest that allows the public to approach the very brink of the Falls. However, recent geologic investigations have revealed potentially dangerous rock conditions which have necessitated the viewing area being moved back about 100 feet from the brink. The viewing areas are somewhat limited during the winter due to ice and snow accumulations. All parking lots remain open, but the viewmobile, the Cave-of-the-Winds Scenic Tour, and the Helicopter Service, located on Goat Island, do not remain in operation. All areas that provide closeup viewing of the ice bridge that forms across the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and the ice buildup on the talus at the American Falls and on Terrapin Point .remain open. These areas include upper and lower Prospect Point, the Observation Tower, Goat Island overlook, and Terrapin Point overlook. Physical Elements

G3.2.1 General

The four basic physical elements of the flank areas are geology, soils, effects of ice, and hydrology and ground water. A detailed description of the geology of the flank areas is contained in Appendix C, and a discussion is not repeated in this appendix. Discussions of soils, the effects of ice, and hydrology and water quality are presented below.

G3.2.2 Soils

The Prospect Point and Goat Island flanks of the American Falls have been landscaped and reshaped. The Terrapin Point viewing area at the flank of the Horseshoe Falls consists of an artificially filled lookout area constructed in the Niagara River during the mid 1950's. The basic soils of the Prospect Point flank are Cayuga or Cazenovia. These soils are three to six feet deep, contain a relatively high clay content of 35 percent, and have a parent material of reddish silt and clay overlaying a moderately fine - textured glacial till. Prospect Point was mapped in 1939, but not extensively. Data available from the Soil Conservation Service indicates that it is a disturbed area. The basic soils of the Prospect Point flank are Cayuga or Camenouia. These soils are three to six feet deep, contain a relatively high clay content of 35 percent, and have a parent material of reddish silt and clay overlaying a moderately fine -- textured glacial till. Prospect Point was mapped in 1939, but not extensively. Data available from the Soil Conservation Service indicates that it is a disturbed area. The stability and suitability of the soils in the flank areas has not been quantified because of their disturbed condition or, in the case of Terrapin Point, because it is an artificial fill area.

G3.2.3 Effects of Ice

Ice buildups occur at Terrapin and Prospect Points. The mist is carried by the prevailing southwesterly winds, freezes in these flank areas and builds up as much as five feet. This ice buildup annually damages vegetation. Some trees have had limbs and bark ripped from them, and others have been lowered to the ground under the weight. In the past, due to excessive ice buildup in the gorge, visitors have been banned form the lower observation areas which are in close proximity to the Falls. Luna Island is also closed to visitors during the ice season. The Island receives spray from both the Bridal Veil Falls and the main American Falls, resulting in a large ice buildup at the viewing area. The ice buildup starts to form in November-December and lasts until May-June. At one time, the ice in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool was sufficient to destroy the Maid-of-the-Mist Boat dock. In 1964, an ice boom was placed at the head of the Niagara River on Lake Erie. This boom has been installed annually since that time to assist in establishing and retaining the natural ice arch at the outlet to Lake Erie. The boom also curtails heavy ice runs from Lake Erie into the Niagara River. This decreases the probability of large-scale ice blockages at the intakes of both Canadian and United States generating plants elsewhere in the River and reduces damage to docks and other shore structures along the River. The boom also reduces ice accumulation in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. (33.2.4 Hydrology - Water Quality

The mist created by the Falls settles on the vertical walls of the flank areas, creating a "spray zone" of varying size, depending upon the volume of water flowing over the Falls and the velocity and direction of the wind. The spray zone generally extends five to seven meters laterally from the flowing water. The cascades and the Falls aerate the River water. Sibley and steward6) reported that. the Niagara River was usually less than 100 percent saturated with oxygen at its source, while the water at the mouth always showed greater than 100 percent saturation. The cascading effect of the Falls prevents an oxygen depletion in the water and may encourage breakdown of organic pollutants.

G3.3 Biological Elements

G3.3.1 Terrestrial Vegetation

The flank areas have been 'divided into three areas: the upper area, the gorge wall, and the lower area. The lower flank areas have a cooler, more moist climate due to their close proximity to the Falls and the constant presence of mist and ground water springs which issue from the gorge walls. The gorge walls and upper areas are somewhat warmer and dryer, since their exposure to mist is intermittent, depending upon wind conditions. Tables G36, G37, and G38, contain lists of vegetative species found during on-site investigations of the flank areas made October 8 and 9, 1973 and April 8 and 9, 1974. Vegetation within the Reservation was observed to be in good condition in spite of the harsh effect of ice and wind. This may be partly due to the Park's management program which includes the regular replacement of damaged or dying flora in the Reservation. Flora situated in the gorge near the water's edge, are reduced to a shrub-like form due to repeated ice damage and high winds and are not maintained as a part of the Park's management program. The natural species present in the flank areas because of the unique ecological factors related to the Falls are listed in Table G39.

G3.3.2 Terrestrial Wildlife

A comprehensive survey of the terrestrial wildlife present in the flank areas was not made due to safety hazards and lack of access. Table G40 has been compiled to represent those species than can find suitable habitat in the flank areas.

G3.3.3 Aquatic Flora and Fauna

The aquatic biota of the flank areas has been categorized in terms of the following: (I) the crest of the American Falls, (2) the face of the Falls, (3) the pools at the base of the Falls, (4) the talus at the base of the Falls, and (5) the spray zone. A discussion of the habitat and associated biota of the five areas mentioned above is included in the following section, Ecological Elements. Due to physical difficulties inherent in sampling those areas, no comprehensive survey of the aquatic flora and fauna was performed. Characterization of the biota is based on Beeton's observations during the dewatered period of 1969. The aquatic flora and fauna identified by Beeton in the flank areas are listed in Table G41. G3.4 Ecological Elements

G3.3.1 Terrestrial Ecology

The Goat Island flank of the Horseshoe Falls and the Goat Island and Prospect Point flanks of the American Falls have characteristics which are similar to the Niagara River, the Rapids and the Falls. Due to the velocity and volume of the water which flows over the Falls, mist and spray continually cover the lower flank areas creating an environment suitable for habitation by aquatic organisms. At the upper gorge areas, mist from the Falls lowers the air temperature by evaporation during the warmer periods of the year. These areas generally support northern tree species, such as eastern larch and black spruce. During the winter season, the flank areas are covered with ice, which at times accumulates to a thickness of five feet. The ice has a detrimental but controlling effect on the vegetative communities. The gorge walls within the spray zones offer little suitable habitat for rooted terrestrial plant species; however, some ferns and liverworts, such as maidenhair fern, rock polypody, and scented liverwort are found in this area because of the mist, spray, ground water seepage, and cooler temperatures. The talus at the base of the gorge provides a diverse environment extending from the lower areas adjacent to the Falls that are wet most of the time to the lower areas that are dry most of the time. In these areas as in the upper areas, the mist and its associated cooling effects provide suitable habitat for many plant species. Trees such as cottonwood, big toofh aspen, and paper birch inhabit the dryer, cooler sites of the lower flanks, while moist areas provide habitat for herbaceous plants, such as the white and painted trilium and white trout lily.

G3.4.2 Aquatic Ecology

The biota of the River is determined, in part, by velocity of water flow and bottom type. Extremely fast currents make it difficult for organisms to avoid being swept away, while a low velocity of flow allows deposition of sediments over a period of time, creating an unsuitable environment for attached organisms. In general, the majority of stream inhabitants live in riffles or on the underside of rocks and gravel, where they are sheltered from the faster currents.(42) The aquatic habitat and the associated biota in the flank area were observed by ~eeton(?~)and are discussed below. Immediately above the crest of the American Falls, the Niagara River is characterized by fast flowing water and a bottom composed mostly of smooth rock with some rubble. A variety of organisms such as snails and insect larvae are found in cracks in the bedrock and behind rocks. Cladophora grows wherever an irregularity occurs in the rock, along with several species of diatoms which also exist on the rocks (see Table G41). The benthic fauna is dominated by several species of snails and caddisfly larvae. The vertical walls flanking the Falls provide the most unique and interesting environment. The rock face does not receive any flow of the Falls, but is kept moist by spray and seepage. thus the name "spray zone". Cladophora has colonized this area and is found in great abundance in strands four feet to five feet long, forming a dense mat. The Cladophora strands are capable of retaining soil on the face of the cliff, thereby creating a physical environment suitable for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Beeton found animal life to be quite abundant in the Cladophora mat with insect larvae dominant. This collection of aquatic insects shows moderate diversity and is comprised chiefly of dipterans (see Table G4 1 ). The face of the Falls offers an extremely rigorous environment and is difficult to examine; consequently, Beeton made few observations there. The flow of water over the Falls continually scours the rock face. Nonetheless scattered mats of Cladophora grow in this area. The plunge area at the base of the American Falls is a harsh environment. Constant turbulence and scouring restrict the density of biota. There are, however, habitable zones at the edges of the plunge area and in isolated protected pockets. Three species of snails and two species of crayfish were identified by Beeton lso, three species of fish (carp, bluegill, and white bass) were observed in the plunge area. (4 The talus at the base of the Falls is an accumulation of rocks and boulders, created from rockfalls. Inhabitable sites include the surface of the rocks, as well as quiet pools of water. Cladophora is found here, along with another filamentous alga, Spiro~yra.A moderately-diverse collection of insect larvae live on the rocks. Beeton identified two species of caddisfly larvae and two species of dipterans in this locale (Table G41).

G3.5 Economics

Based on data from 1972 and 1973 attendance figures, as supplied by the Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission, approximately 1,680,000 of the total annual visitors to the American Falls gained access to the flank areas above and below by footpaths and attractions, such as the Observation Tower and Cave-of-the-Winds. During the peak visitation months, approximately 1,260,000 visitors gain access to the flank areas; 69 1,770 to areas below the Falls. The flank area visitation rate is approximately 49 percent of the total visitation to the Niagara Reservation. Tourist access, directly or indirectly, to the flank areas provides nearly $750,000 annually to the Park Commission nearly 90 percent of total Park revenues. Further indication of tourist visitation and access to the flank areas is shown on Table G42. Specific counts of those actually viewing from the flank areas (other than for the Observation Tower at Prospect Point) are not available, since no specific means of measuring attendance levels at these flank areas are available, the only method that indicates degree of visitation to all flank areas is user-rates for binoculars. This, however, is misleading since not all visitors to the flank areas use the binoculars. In addition, binocular revenues and user rates for each binocular station are not recorded and, therefore, provide no accurate visitation count for the individual flank area. The primary revenue generating points in the flank areas are the Observation Tower and lower flank area at Prospect Point, the Maid-of-the-Mist Boat Tour, and Cave-of-the-Winds tour on lower Goat Island. These attractions are the most frequented and provide varying degrees of both active and passive activities.

(33.6 Cultural

Discussion of the cultural characteristics of the specific flank areas includes historical and archaeological considerations. The flank areas do not contain any archaeologically significant sites; however, Prospect Point and Terrapin Point do contain historically significant sites. These historical sites located on Prospect Point include, "Father Hennepin's Vantage Point - 1678 - 1679"and the "Maid-of-the-Mist" (Legendary Location). The historical site of the "Original Terrapin Tower" is located on Terrapin Point. The three historical sites are shown on Figure G9. G3.7 Recreation - Land Use

The specific locations within the Reservation that are being assessed in this Appendix are entirely recreational in land use. A description of land use and the recreational activities at those locations follows. Terrapin Point contains no structural recreational facilities other than railings that provide protection to the tourists. The land is used primarily as a scenic viewing area for the Horseshoe Falls and consists of a network of footpaths and steps that lead to various elevations, providing many view of the Horseshoe Falls. Terrapin Point overlook area contains a restaurant and a souvenir shop and is primarily an open-space area. Land use and recreational activities in the area of the Goat Island flank of the American Falls are more diversified than at Terrapin Point. The dominant recreational structures are the Cave-of-the-Winds Tour Buildings. One building contains the dressing room for the Cave-of-the-Winds tour, various concession and souvenir stands, and a restaurant. The second structure contains the elevator providing access to the lower flank area. A bituminous and wooden footpath leads from the elevator to the Bridal Veil Falls viewing area on the lower flank. Primarily an open-space area, the landscape on the upper flank is characterized by a series of footpaths, trees, grass, and shrubbery. One footpath extends in a northern direction to a series of steps and a footbridge to Luna Island. Luna Island contains a combination of paved and natural areas, allowing the tourist closer to the American Falls. Prospect Point is located on the mainland portion of the Reservation The upper area adjacent to the American channel above the Falls is an open-space area with a series of footpaths and is attractively landscaped with trees and shrubbery. Comfort facilities also exist in this area of Prospect Point. The dominant recreational structure is the Observation Tower. This structure provides a scenic view of the American Falls as well as elevator-access to the lower flank area. The lower flank area contains a souvenir and concession stand and footpaths that lead to the American Falls viewing area and the Maid-of-the-Mist boat dock. Tables G32 and G42 summarize visitor useage of recreational facilities during the 1972 tourist season and part of the 1973 season. Data on total tourist attendance in the upper viewing areas is not available. Revenues from binoculars in the upper flank areas indicate a combined annual attendance of 1,300,000 persons. Since not all tourists use the binoculars, this is not an accurate measure of the total annual visitations to those areas. Attendance in the lower areas can be determined by revenues from the Cave-of-the-Winds and the 0 b se rvation Tower. Annually, about 20,000 to 30,000 persons visited the Cave-of-the-Winds. Approximately 400,000 persons used the paths at the base of Prospect Point each season. In summary, all areas under consideration for the various alternatives are designed and used for passive recreation. Recreational land uses are designed and oriented for the viewing and observation of the Falls; consequently, open-space areas dominate the land use pattern in these study areas.

Sound Levels at the Flank Areas - - An integral part of a visitor's experience of the Falls is the sound produced by the two waterfalls. Sound levels were studied because some of the safety choices developed in this study would restrict persons from areas presently open to tourists. A brief discussion of the properties of sound and the sound levels in the specific flank areas is presented below. Sound is energy transmitted by longitudinal pressure waves in the air or any other elastic medium and is measured in units called decibels. Decibels (dB) are logarithmic units of 1 pressure change. A scale of 0-140dB denotes the range of sound levels from the threshold of hearing to the threshold of pain, respectively, for a person of normal hearing capabilities. Loudness and sound pressure levels, while different, can be compared. To the average listener, a doubling of the loudness is nearly equal to a lOdB increase in sound pressure level. An increase of 20dB approximates a four-fold increase of the loudness. Several different weighing scales may be used to measure the existing sound environment. The A-weighing scale (dBA) is commonly used because it closely approximates the response of the human ear. Various noise sources and their associated noise levels are depicted in Table G43. In order to assess the existing sound environment at the Falls area, sound levels were measured at various locations on the upper flank viewing areas of the American Falls and the Goat Island flank of the Horseshoe Falls. Sound levels at Terrapin Point, the Goat Island flank, and Prospect Point were measured on April 1, 1974. A sampling run of 2.5 minutes, with five-second reading intervals, was made at each site. A sufficient number of readings was taken to ensure that the variability of the high and low meter readings was accounted for during each sampling run. The data were then statistically analzyed to determine the median sound level at each of the selected sampling sites, which is the level that is exceeded fifty percent of the time for the period under consideration. It should be noted that at each of the measurement sites, sound levels did not vary more than four decibels. The sound levels and the parameters under which they were measured are shown on Table G44. Contours of the sound levels at each of the upper flank areas are shown in Figures G 10, G 1 1, G 12. At the Terrapin Point, there are three major sources of sound. On the south bank of Terrapin Point, above Horseshoe Falls, the major source of sound is the rapids. This is shown by the 75dBA, 73dBa, and 72dBA contours running almost parallel to the bank of the River. At the western point of Terrapin Point, closest to Horseshoe Falls, the major source of sound is the Falls themselves. At the Goat Island flank, there is only one major sound source - the American Falls. At the southwestern side of the Goat Island flank, the Ontario Power Plant has a small but noticeable effect, shown by the 62dBA contour line bending toward the power plant. The horseshoe effect of the 62dBa and 63dBA contour lines is caused by sound reflecting off of the Cave-of-the-Winds Tour building. At Prospect Point, there are two major sources of sound. At the southern bank of Prospect Point, the major source of sound is the rapids. At the western and southwestern banks of Prospect Point, the major source is the American Falls. The horseshoe effect of the 60dBA, 58dBA, 57dBA, and 56dBA contour lines is caused by a shadow zone created by the rest rooms building at the left of the Observation Tower, and the Observation Tower itself. CHAPTER G4 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SAFETY CHOICES

G4.1 Introduction

The Board was instructed to investigate what measures are feasible and desirable for the removal of talus and to retard or prevent future erosion. Further, the Board was instructed to investigate other measures which may be desirable to preserve or enhance the beauty of the American Falls. In response to those instructions, the Board considered choices to change the appearance of the American Falls. Those choices included (a) removal of talus, (b) restoration of the level of the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, and (c) increasing the flow over the American Falls. The Board concluded that before any decision concerning change in the appearance can be made, the appearance of the American Falls has to be viewed as part of the larger scene that includes the adjacent parks and the back-drop of city buildings and commercial displays. No alternative plans were formulated for effecting change in the appearance of the American Falls, since the Board concluded that changes to the appearance of the American Falls should be considered only after a comprehensive study of the overall environment at the Falls has been made. In response to the safety question posed in the 1970 Reference, the Board found that risks arise from two general types of hazard, i.e., from major rockfalls and from surface failures of rock and soil. These hazards affect each area to some degree and their occurrence cannot be reliably predicted. The Board studied four fundamental choices for reducing or eliminating risks from major rockfalls: instrumentation, relocation of railings, installation of structurally supported viewing areas; and mass rock stabilization. The Board also studied three fundamental choices for reducing or eliminating the hazards from surface failures: surface stabilization; alterations to the lower viewing areas; and closing of lower viewing areas. A surveillance program which could accompany any of the above-mentioned choices was also considered. The Board formulated eight alternative plans for improved safety. Those alternatives were developed from one or a combination of two or more of the possible choices for reducing or eliminating danger. The specific alternative plans are listed in Table G45. The assessments in this appendix deals with potential environmental impacts associated with only the nine safety choices that were used to formulate the eight safety alternatives. These nine safety choices are summarized in Section G4.2. Thus, the potential environmental impacts associated with the balance of the safety choices and with the alternatives themselves have not been assessed. A detailed discussion of both safety and appearance choices is provided in Appendix E, Safety and Appearance Options. A matrix has been used to present the potential environmental impacts of each of the nine safety choices. A description of the matrix format and the matrices themselves are presented in Section G4.3.

G4.2 Summary of the Nine Safety Choices

( 1 ) Existing Instrumentation

A system for monitoring movement within the rock mass and for providing forewarning of impending danger from large-size rockfalls at the flanks of the American Falls and at Terrapin Point was installed during the course of this study. Boreholes were instrumented with devices for measuring rock movement at each of the three flanks. (2) Expanded Instrumentation

Additional instrumentation installed into boreholes in the rock would increase the capability of the existing system by monitoring a greater area of rock. t

(3) Railing Alignment "A"

Three railing relocations were developed to provide differing degrees of safety from major rockfalls at the upper flank areas. The Board incorporated only two of the three railing choices, i.e., railing alignment "A" and "C", in the formulation of alternatives. Railing alignment "A" would establish setbacks of approximately 150 feet at Prospect Point, 235 feet at Goat Island, and 250 feet at Terrapin Point and would eliminate the danger from all major rockfalls, including those generated by earthquakes, at the upper areas. To provide a comparable degree of safety at the lower areas, this safety choice includes the closing of the lower areas.

(4) Railing Alignment "C"

Railing limits along alignment "C" were developed to maintain close-up viewing while increasing safety to various degrees, especially from small and some moderate-sized rockfalls at upper Prospect Point and Goat Island. The "C" alignment at Luna Island is identical to the present railing. The "C" alignment at Terrapin Point has been adjusted to avoid critically hazardous conditions in the rock. Thus, viewing of the Horseshoe'Falls, equivalent to that afforded at the present permanent railings, would not be attainable at Terrapin Point.

(5) Structurally Supported Viewing Areas

The American Falls International Board used only the cantilevered platforms in the formulation of alternatives. The access walkway and the platform, built of light-weight materials such as aluminum, would be supported by steel girders anchored into sound rock beyond the limit of possible rockfall. The actual dimensions of the cantilever were not determined in this study. Hazardous areas in the vicinity of the platform would be fenced off along the limits of railing alignment "A".

(6) Mass Rock Stabilization

The general concepts of mass rock stabilization are the provision of drainage within a fractured and potentially unstable section of rock, to relieve hydrostatic pressures, and a structural system for tying the rock together with anchors and tendons. A combination of drainage and tendons would be required to ensure a stable condition. The American Falls International Board considered a stabilization scheme only on the dry flank areas.

(7) Surface Stabilization

Surface stabilization would include actions to "scale" the gorge wall, remove unstable fractured rock and overhangs, install short rock bolts, establish stable soil slopes, and relocate sections of railing in the upper viewing areas. (8) Alterations to the Lower Viewing Areas

This safety choice involves rearranging talus to provide natural-looking barriers between the gorge wall and the paths and viewing areas, to provide an increase in safety by keeping the tourist farther from the Gorge.

(9) Closing off Lower Viewing Areas

This safety choice prevents access to the lower areas and is the only measure that would eliminate all danger at those areas.

G4.3 Environmental Assessment Ma trices

Matrices have been prepared to present the possible environmental impacts of the safety choices. An individual matrix was developed for each of the nine safety choices. Each choice is evaluated according to its potential environmental impact upon twelve criteria on both a short-term and long-term basis and also at three separate divisions of the flank areas, i.e., above the Falls, along the Gorge wall, and below the Falls at the base of the Gorge walls. Initially, geology and climate were two criteria considered; however, in the course of matrix development, it became evident that the impact of the safety choices on those two criteria were either negligible for inconsequential and are, thus, not shown on the matrix. The nine matricies are presented on the following pages. MATRIX GI POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF EXISTING INSTRUMENTATION

This no-action alternative relies on monitoring devices installed on the flanks of the Falls during the Board's study to detect and forewarn of major rock failures.

------Above the Falls Along the Gorge Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Tern Long-Term Soils I None None I None None I None None Hvdroloay I None None I None None I None None Terrestrial Flora I None None I Bone None I None one Terrestrial Fauna None None I None None I None None Aquatic Flora I None None 1 None None 1 None None Aquatic Fauna I None None I None None I None None Ecological 1 None None I None None I None None Land Use None None None None None None Economic Mone None None None None None Cultural None None None None None None Recreation None None None None None None Aesthetic None None None None None None MATRIX G2 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF EXPANDED INSTRUMENTATION

Installation of additional rock instrumentation augmented by periodic, precision surveys of the cliff areas to ensure greater probability of detection of all major and most moderate mass rock movements. Above the Falls Along the Gorae Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term

Soils Soil exposed in None None None None None immediate vicin- ity of instru- ment locations. Hydrology None None None None None None ~errestrialFlora Localized dis- None None None None None turbance of some individual plant species resulting from construction related acti- vities. Terrestrial Fauna Displacement None Disruption of None None None of resident birds during wildlife to installation areas outside of reflectors the construc- for survey re- tion noise lated purposes. perimeter.

Aquati ' Flora None None None None None None Aquatic Fauna None None None None None None

Ecolouical Temporary, lo- None Temporary, local- None lone None calized dis- ized disturbance turbance of of terrestrial terrestrial ecosystem. ecosystem.

Land Use Limited recrea- None None None None None tionaL use of the land during installation and maintenance periods. Economics Some loss of None None None None None revenue from binoculars. Cultural None None None None None None Recreation Limited tourist None None Mone Limited tourist None access during access during installation installation and maintenance and maintenance periods. periods. Aesthetic Minor construc- None Reflectors may None Minor construc- Reflectors may tion activities be visible from tion activities be visible from would be visible. lower areas. would be visible. lower areas. ' MATRIX G3 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF RAILING RELOCATION "A"

Establishes safety setbacks from the flank areas of the Falls to provide against earthquake induced rock falls and includes the closure of the lower viewing areas and Luna Island.

Above the Falls Along the Gorge Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Tern Lonq-Term Short-Term Long Term I Soils Soil would be None I None None I None None exposed in vicinity of railing footings . Hydrology Possible None None None None None increase in sediment load of Niagara River due to exposure of base soils during construc- tion period. Terrestrial Flora Localized dis- None None None None None turbance of some individual plant species resulting from construction related activi- ties. Terrestrial Fauna Displacement of None None None None None resident wild- life to areas outside con- struction noise perimeter.

Aquatic Flora None None Mone None None None < , Aquatic Fauna None None None Mone None None Ecological Localized, None None None None None transitory dis- turbance of I terrestrial ecosystem.

Land Use Limited recrea- Alters existing None None If lower areas If lower areas tional use of land use in closed, land closed, land the land during that areas pre- use would re- use would re- construction sently utilized vert from vert from period. for passive passive recrea- passive recrea- recreation would tion to open tion to open be in open space space natural space natural use. area. area. Economics Loss of revenue Loss of revenue None None Total loss of revenues from from binoculars from binoculars Cave-of-the-Winds tour and as a result of as a result of concession at the base of reduced atten- reduced atten- Prospect Point. Reduction dance. dance. In- in overall tourist attraction creased use of of the Reservation. Observation Tower. Cultural None None I None None None None Recreation Limited access Decrease in None None No pedestrian No pedestrian to all upper view at all access; loss access; loss viewing areas flanks with of recreational of recreational except the Ob- the excep- activity activity servation Tower tion of that on all flanks on all flanks during con- available with the excep- with the excep- s truction from Observa- tion of boardings tion of boardings period. tion Tower. of the Maid-of- of the Maid-of- Elimination the-Mis t boat the-Mist boat of Luna ride at Pros- ride at Pros- Island spect Point via spect Point via viewing area. the Observation the Observation Tower. Tower.

Aesthetic Minor construc- Decrease in None None Total loss of visual and aural tion activities the view and experience with the exception would be visible sound levels of that available from the available to Maid-of-the-Mist boat ride. . public. MATRIX G4 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF RAILING RELOCATION "c" Is a minimal setback alignment which maintains more of the sensory impact of the Falls but provides an indefinite degree of public safety.

- - Above the Falls Along the Gorge Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long Term I I I Soils Soil would be None None None None exposed in vicinity of railing footings.

Hydrology (Same as matrix 3) None None None I bone 1 None Terrestrial Flora Localized dis- None None None None None turbance of some individual plant species resulting from construction related acti- vities.

Terrestrial Fauna Displacement of None None None None None resident wild- life to areas outside con-. s truction noise perimeter. Aquatic Flora I None Pe None I None Aquatic Fauna I None pne None None Ecological Localized, None None None None transitory disturbance of terrestrial eco- system.

Land Use Limited recrea- Alters existing None None None tional use of land use in the land during that areas pre- construction sently utilized period. for passive recreation would! be in open space usage. Less land, however, would be converted to open space usage, as com- pared to align- ment "A' . Economics Loss of revenue None None None None None from binoculars because of re- duced access.

Cultural None None None None None

Recreation Limited tourist Decrease in some Mone None None None access to all of viewing area upper viewing at all flanks. areas except View at Terrapin Observation Point would be Tower during reduced. View construction from the Ob- period. servation Tower would remain same.

Aesthetics Minor construc- Reduction in view Mone None None None tion activities from Terrapin would be visible. Point. The maxi- mum sound level audible at Terrapin Point and Prospect Points would be the same as the existing sound levels. The maxi- mum sound level audible at the Goat Island flank would be reduced. MATRIX G5 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CANTILEVERED PLATFORM

Structurally supported viewing areas, constructed atop one or more of the flanks and anchored upland of potentially unstable rock. Above the Falls Along the Gorge Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Lonq-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long Term I I Soils Soil would be Permanent loss None None None None exposed and of soil. excavated to bedrock in some places. Possible increase None None None None None in sediment load of Niagara River due to exposure of base soils during construc- tion. Terrestrial Flora Some grass areas None None None None None disturbed and removed at Terrapin Point. Disturbance of grass areas and individual trees on Goat Island flank and at Prospect Point

Terrestrial Fauna I Temporary dis- None None None placement of resident wild- life to areas outside con- struction noise perimeter. Aquatic Flora I None None None 1 None None Aquatic Fauna 1 None None / None None I None None Ecological Localized, tran- None None None None None sitory distur- bance of terres- trial ecosystem. I Land Limited recrea- Conversion None None If lower areas If lower areas tional use of of some land closed, land closed, land the land during presently used use would re- use would re- con struction for passive vert from vert from passive recrea- passive recrea- Period. recreation to open space tion to open tion to open usage. space natural space natural area. area. Total loss of revenues from Econohics Loss of revenue Some diversion None due to restricted of tourists from Cave-of-the-Winds tour and access during flank area to concession at the base of construction. Observation Prospect Point. Reduction Tower. Loss of in overall tourist attraction revenue from of the Reservation. binoculars as a result of smaller number of people able to be accommo- dated on plat- form. Cultural 1 None None 1 None None I None None Recreation Restricted Possible reduc- None None No pedestrian No pedestrian tourist access tion in number access; loss access; loss during one-year of visitors able of recreational of recreational construction to view Fa1 1s. activity activity period. (Reduction in siz on all flanks on all flanks of viewing areas) with the excep- with the excep- tion of boardings tion of boardings of the Maid-of- of the Maid-of- the-Mist boat the-Mist boat ride at Pros- ride at Pros- spect Point via spect Point via the Observation the Observation Tower. Tower.

I Aesthetic Major construc- Crowded and None None Total loss of visual and aural tion activities cramped condi- experience with the exception would be visible tions which of that available from the and audible. may occur on Maid--of -the-Mist boat ride. platforms may interpose on visitors appre- ciation of the Falls. Platforms would be blended into the surroundings. Only the pave- ment and railings would be visible. Sound levels may be reduced. MATRIX G6 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF MASS STABILIZATION, DRY FLANKS OF AMERICAN FALLS

Tunnels would be constructed in the Lockport Dolomite and Rochester Shale from the flank areas of the Falls to alleviate h~drostaticpressures by facilitating drainage. Tendons would be installed in boreholes radiating from the tunnels in the rock and from upper surface areas. Above the Falls Along the Gorge Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Tenn Long-Term Short-Term Long Term None None Soils Soil would be None None None exposed and excavated to bedrock in some places. None None None Hydrology None possible reduc- None tion in ground water avail- ability and change in direction of ground water flow. None None None Terrestrial Flora Localized dis- None None turbance of some plants resulting from construction related activity. None None None Terrestrial Fauna Displacement of None None wildlife to areas outside construction noise perimeter. None None None Aquatic Flora None None None None None None Aquatic Fauna None None None None None None Ecological Localized, None None transitory disturbance of terrestrial ecosystem. None None Limited None Land Use NO passive None recreational recreational use of the . use of the land during flank areas construction during con- period. struction ( period. 1 I None None Loss of revenue None Loss in revenue None from Cave-of- from all revenue the-Winds walk generating and from con- sources except cession at base upper viewing of Prospect area concession Point. stand and Ob- servation Tower. None None None Cultural None None None None None None ~imited None Recreation Restricted tourist tourist access during access during two-year two-year construction construction period. period. None None None Aesthetic Major con- Visible None struction entrance activities shafts would be flush with visible and the ground audible. in the viewing areas. MATRIX G7 POTENTIAL IMPACT OF SURFACE STABlLl ZATlON This option includes scaling of the gorge wall, removal of unstable overhangs, installation of short rock bolts where required, the establishment of stable soil slopes and relocation of sections of railinq in the upper viewing areas. Above the Falls Along the Gorqe Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Lonq-Term Short-Term Long Term

Soils Temporary soil Increased soil None None None None disturbance and stability. erosion along cliff. Hydrology None None None None Possible in- None crease in silt load of Niagara River if scaled rock and soil enter water. Terrestrial Flora Temporary dis- Plant com- None None None None ruption of munity supple- plant com- mented by munities indigenous between ex- growth to isting stabilize railings and overburden cliff face. slope. Terrestrial Fauna Displacement of None None Scalinq of gorge None None resident wild- wall could re- life to areas move some bird outside of con- roosting and struction noise breedinq areas. perimeter. Aquatic Flora None None Destruction of None None None Cladophora mats in spray zone. Recolonization would probably be rapid.

Aquatic Fauna None None Destruction of None Possible increase in benthic aquatic fauna invertebrate populations on associated with scaled rock. Cladophora mats. Recolonization would probably be rapid. Ecological Localized, None Destruction of None Possible increase in diversity transitory ecosystem struc- of benthic invertebrates. disturbance ture resulting of terrestrial from loss of ecosystem. Cladophora mats. Recovery should be rapid, how- ever. Land Use None Railing relo- None None Loss of recrea- None cation associatec tional use during with this option construction would necessi- period. tate the loss of some land presently used for passive recreation. Economics Some loss of None None None Loss of revenue None revenue from from Cave-of-the binoculars Winds walk and due to re- from elevator and stricted access. concession at base of Prospect Point. Cultural None None None None None None Recreation Limited tourist None None None Restricted recre- None access to all ational activ- flank areas ity in during one-year lower viewing construction areas during period. one-year con- struction period. Aesthetic Major con- Supplemented Major con- Major con- None struction growth to struction struction activities stabilize activities activities would be slope may would be would be visible. improve visible. visible. appearance. MATRIX G8 ~ POTENTIAL IMPACT OF ALTERATIONS TO LOWER VIEWING AREA This option involves modifications in the lower Prospect Point and Goat Island flank areas, including but not limited to new approach paths to viewing areas and replacement of existing wooden observation deck and walkways and fencing with paths constructed in rock and bordered with talus boulders for safety. Above the Falls Alonq the Gorqe Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long Term

Soils None None None None None None Hydrology None None None None None None Terrestrial Flora None None None None Destruction of Recolonization some vegetation by indigenous resulting from vegetation footpath reloca- of those areas tion and con- no longer sub- struction of jected to rock barriers. recreational use. Terrestrial Fauna None None None None Displacement of None wildlife to areas outside of construction noise perimeter. Aquatic Flora None None None None None Destruction of algae growing on talus to be moved out of spray

Aquatic Fauna Mone None None None None Destruct ion of aquatic fauna col- onizing algae sub- strate on displaced talus boulders. Ecological None None None Mone Transitory Destruction disruption of of aquatic terrestrial communities ecosystem. associated with dis- placed talus boulders. Loss of biological productivity should be minimal.

Land Use Mone None None None Area closed to Expands recreational recreational pursuits use of land during con- via new I struction footpath ~ period. network. Economics None None None None Loss of revenue Possible from all lower increase in area tours and revenues concessions from Cave- while areas are of-the-Wind closed during walk, and construction concession period. stand at base of Prospect Point. Recreation None None None No tourist Easier access during access and construction improved period. vantage points in lower areas. Aesthetic Construction Improved 1 None None None Improved activities appearance I appearance visible from from upper I by removing upper areas. areas. wooden walkways, fencing, etc. MATRIX G9 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLOSURE OF LOWER VIEWING AREAS The assurance of absolute public safety in the lower viewing areas necessarily presumes the closure of these areas. .------Above the Falls Along the Gorge Wall Below the Falls Criteria Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long Term I Soils 1 None None None None None None Hydro logy None None None None None None Terrestrial Flora None None None None None Reestablish- ment of indigenous vegetation. Terrestrial Fauna None None None None None Number and diversity of species will increase with cessation of tourist access. Aquatic Flora I None None None None None Aquatic Fauna / None None None None None None Ecological None None None None None Increase in species di- versity and terrestrial ecosystem structure and stability.

Land Use None None None None Areas will convert from passive recreational to open space usage. Economics Potential for Potential for None None None Permanent increased increased loss of revenues from revenues from revenue from Observation Observation Cave-of-the- Tower. Tower. Winds and concession at Possible di- base of Pro- version of spect Point. tourist from Possible American to increase in Canadian side revenues from to gain better Maid-of-the- vantage points Mist. for viewing the Falls. Cultural None None None None None None

Recreational None None No tourist No tourist access. access ex- cept for boarding of the Maid-of- the-blis t at Prospect Point via the Observa- tion Tower.

Aesthetic None None None None More natural appearance of lower areas as seen from other vantage points. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Zenger, D. H. 1965. Stratigraphy of the Lockport Formation (Middle Silurian) in New York State. University of the State of New York. 21 0 pp.

2. Bastedo, J. C. Geologist, Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Personal communication.

3. International Environmental Study, Environmental Enhancement of the Niagara River, Report by the Goals and Objectives Committee for the Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board with the assistance of the Technical Advisory Committee and Candeub, Fleissig and Associates, Consultants, 1971.

4. International Joint Committee Lake Erie-Lake Ontario Advisory Board, Summary Report on Pollution Abatement Progress in the Niagara River Area, 1971.

5. Parker, C. E., Mercury-Major New Environmental Problem, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Education Information Leaflet, 1970.

6. Sibley, T. H. and K. M. Stewart, Some variation in the quality of water from the source and mouth of the Niagara River, Proceedings of the 12th Conference on Great Lakes Research, 1969.

7. Hunt, G. S., The direct effects on some plants and animals of pollution in the Great Lakes, Bio Science, v 15 (3), 1965.

8. Sweeney, R. A. Director, Great Lakes Laboratory, State University College at Buffalo. Personal communication.

9. Anon. 1973. National Climatic Center, Asheville, N. C. Climatography of the United States - New York. No. 60 - 30.

10. Anon. 1973. National Climatic Center, Asheville, N. C. Climatography of the United States - New York. No. 81.

1 1. Anon. 1973. Canada Department of the Environment. Temperature and Precipitation - Ontario, 1941 - 1970.

1 2. Harlow, W. M. and Harrar, E. S. 1958. Textbook of Dendrology. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York. 561 pp.

13. Brockman, C. F. 1968. Trees of North America. Golden Press, New York. 280 pp.

14. Peterson, R. T. and McKenny, M. 1968. A Field Guide to Wildflowers of North- eastern and Northcentral North America. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston. 420 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONT'D)

I 15. Zenkert, C. A., The Flora of the Niagara Frontier Region, Bul. Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, v. XVI, 1934.

16. Bartolone, S. Niagara Frontier Park Commission. Personal communication. I 17. Laug, G. Botanist, State of New York. Personal communication. 18. Beardslee, C. S. and Mitchell, H. D. 1965. Birds of the Niagara Frontier Region: an annotated checklist. Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Vol. 22. 478 pp.

19. Mitchell, H. D. and Andrle, R. F. 1970. Birds of the Niagara Frontier Region - Supplement. Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, vol. 22. 10 pp.

20. Anon. Threatened Wildlife of the United States, compiled by the Office of Endangered Species and International Activities, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U. S. Dept. of Interior, 1973.

2 1. Anon. 1957. Checklist of North American Birds. American Ornithologists' Union 691 pp.

22. Rue, L. L. 1973. Game Birds of North America. Harper and Row, New York. 490 pp.

23. Burt, W. H. 1964. A Field Guide to the Mammals. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 284 pp.

24. Anon. 1973. New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, N. Y. Hunting, Trapping and Fishing Guide. 44 pp.

25. Collins, H. H., Jr. 1959. Complete Field Guide to American Wildlife: East, Central and North. Harper and Row, New York. 683 pp.

26. Beeton, A. M., Observations on the Ecology of the Niagara River and American Falls, Center for Great Lakes Studies, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1970.

27. Jackson, D. F., Photosynthetic rates on Cladophora .- facta from two sites in Lake Ontario under natural and laboratory conditions, Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan, 1966.

28. Neil, J. H. and G. E. Owen, Distribution, environmental requirements and significance of Clapdophora in the Great Lakes, Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan, 1964. BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONT'D)

Storr, J. F. and R. A. Sweeney, Development of a theoretrical seasonal growth response curve of Cladophora glomerata to temperature and photoperiod, Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Great ~akesResearch. 1971.

Fassett, N. C., A Manual of Aquatic Plants, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1 969.

Williams, L. G., Dominant planktonic rotifers of major waterways of the United States, Limnology and Oceanography, v. 1 1 (7), 1966.

Widmer, C. New York Department of Environmental Conservation. Personal Communication.

Forbes, J. E., Environmental Deterioration and Declining Species, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Conservation Education, Information Leaflet, 1970.

Anon. 1970. U. S. Department of Commerce. General Social and Economic Conditions for New York.,

Anon. 1970. Erie and Niagara Counties Re~onalPlanning Board. Expansion and Amplification of Regional Economic Analysis.

Anon. 1972. New York State Department of Commerce. Buffalo area business fact book, part 1, business and manufacturing.

Anon. 197 1. City of Niagara Falls, N. Y. Community Renewal Program. Economic Report.

Anon. 1973. Niagara Falls Area Chamber of Commerce. City of Niagara Falls, N. Y. Industrial Directory.

Anon. 1973. Niagara Frontier Park Commission. Statement of Revenue and Attendance, 1973 and 1973.

Law of New York. 1885. Chapter 286.

Erie-Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board. 1972. Regional population projections. Grand Island, N. Y.

Smith, R. L. 1966. Ecology and Field Biology. Harper and Row, New York. 686 pp.

.AID SILTS

AREAS D

Appleion - Hllton - Sun assoc~at~on- 14 % + Howard- Arkpart - Phelps assoclat~on- 2% Cananda~gua- Roynham - Rh~nebeck assoc~at~on- lIo/~ I ] [*percentages ~nd~catebreakdown of entlre .--*-- L County AREAS DOMINATED BY SOILS FORMED IN LAKE - LAID Hilton - Ovld - Onfarlo association - 15% Otisvdle - Altmar - Fredon - Stafford omtation -4% CLAYS AND SILTS AREAS DOMINATED BY SOILS FORMED IN LAKE-LAID SANDS ...... Lockpart -0v1d assoc~atian- 4 % ...... -. M~noa- Galan - Elnara association -4% NOTE: From General So11 Map, US. Department of ' Aqriculture ,Soil Conservation Service . Cloverack - Casad - Elnora assoc~ation- 4% 0 Industrial Discharges Municipal Discharges I. Chevrolet (GM) I. Buffalo Sewer Authority XJ r 2. Dupont Chemical 2. Town of Tonawanda D 3. Allied Chemical 3. Grand Island d 4. Allied Chemical 4. Grand Island RYXYl XJ - - V, 5. Ashland Oil 5. City of Tonawanda < 0 6. Spaulding Fibre 6. North Tonawanda rrl 1 7. International Paper 7. City of Niagara Falls, N.Y. D 8. Union Carbide 8. Lewistown a 9. Hooker Chemical 9. Niagara Falls, Canada 0 10. Chippawa , Canada m I I. ~ortErie, Canada -7 V, 0 C Xl rn 0 W I MILES PER HOUR n> 25 MAP SHOWING VEGETATIVE COVER OF THE NIAGARA RESERVATION

I -.. . . FIGURE G5I ONTARIO 0AIG.ICKTUIIPL.WWOED.OR YICL1IT CANADA

WRCE 4FTER ERIE bND NIAObRb COIINTIES REGlONbi PLilNNlNO 80a'ID

NIAGARA REGION GENERALIZED EXISTING LAND USE

FIGURE G6

EXISTING LAND USE OF I NIAGARA RESERVATION

FIGURE 68 I. FATHER HENNEPIN'S VAN- TAGE POINT- I678 lo 1670

CURRENT POWER PLANT-1886 4. GOAT ISLANO-OIFT TO ENGLISH FROM INOIANS-1813 6. ORlOlNAL TERRAPIN TOWER 6. SITE OF NIAGARA REOION'S FIRST ELECTRIC LIOHTINO 7. JONCAIRE'S MILL

L. BYFIRST WHITE STRUCTURE MAN ERECTED

3. MAJOR S.Y.N. WHITNEV YAWIION 4. LOVELACE HOUSE

ARCHAEOLOOICALLV SlONlClCANT 1

ARCHAEOLOGICAL / HISTORIC SITES NIAGARA RESERVATION

FIGURE 69

ALIGNMENT "c"

CANTILEVERED

ALIGNMENT "A" RAILING RELOCATIO

SCALE 1" = 50'

RAILING RELOCATIONS SOUND CONTOURS CANTILEVERED PLATFORM

/------

ALIGNMENT "A I'

SCALE I" = 50'

CANTILEVERED PLATFORM TABLES FOSSILS OF THE STRATIFIED ROCK FORMATIONS WHICH OUTCROP AT THE NIAGARA FALLS*

FOSSILS OF THE DECREW MEMBER 1 P lantae Stromatoporidea Buthotrephis gracilis Ferestromatopora sp. Anthozoa Atrypa. reticularis Enterolasma caliculum Stegerhynchus acinus Bryozoa Chasmatopora asperatostriata Chilotrypa sp. Gastropoda Platyceras sp. Brachiopoda Trilobita Dalmanites limuluvus Trimerus de lphinocephalus Gastropoda [FOSSILS OF THE GASPORT MEMBER 1 Stromatoporoidea Clathrodictyon vesiculosum Trilobita Dalmanites limulurus Anthozoa Cladopora cervicornis

C,- - multi~ora- .------C . reticulata Brachiopoda- C. seriata a reticularis Cystiphyllum niagarense A* Llngu a lam=.llata Diplophyllum caespitosum Gastropoda Bryozoa Ectomaria galtensis Cephalopoda Dawsonoceras americanum Kionoceras darwini

* Atrypa reticularis Trilobita Cyrtina pyramidalis ~almaniteslimuluvus Eospirifer niagarensis I barmorthis elegantual 11 FOSSILS OF THE OAK ORCHARD MEMBER ( Anthozoa Naticonema hemis~hericum Enterolosma caliculum Platyceras niagarense Favosites niagarensis Palacophyllum multicaule Trilobita Dalmanites limulurus Pelecypoda Pterinea sp. XA~ter : Zenger (1) 0stracoda Herrmannina sp. TABLE G2 ., USE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL ASSOCIATIONS IN NIAGARA COUNTY*

Soil Association Recreation Vegetationmi ldlife Drainaae

Appleton-Hilton- Moderate to severe impact on Well suited in the areas of Natural drainage is poor with Sun Association recreation due to high water open and wood land classes but slow permeability prolonged table not wetland high water table

Hilton-Ovid-Ontario severe impact for intensive Well suited in the areas of Seasonal high water table at:. Association use moderate impact on ex- open and wood land classes but one and one-half to two feet tensive use not wetland

Lockport-Ovid Impacts are severe for inten- Better suited in the areas of Seasonal high water table with Association sive use and moderate for ex- open and wood land species than slow permeability tensive use wetland Howard-Arkport- Slight impact for recreation Well suited in open and wood Well drained to somewhat exces- Phelps Association uses land species but not so for sively drained wetland

Otisville-Altmar- Moderate to severe impact on Better suited in the open and Excessively to moderately drain- Freden-Stafford recreation wood land areas but its relative' ed with rapid permeability Association quality overall is below that of other associations

Minoa-Galen-Elnora Moderate to slight impact on Well, suited in open and wood Seasonal hiqh water table with Association recreation uses land species hut not wetland unstable sound subject to species pipinq Claverack-Cosod- Moderate impact on recreation Well suited in the open and Seasonal hiqh water table at Elnora Association activities wood land classes but not for a depth of one and one-half to wetland classes two feet Niagara-Collamer Sight impact on extensive use Fairly well suited for all wild- Seasonal hiqh water table at Association and moderate impact on inten- life (open, wood and wet land one to one and one-half feet sive use classes) Canandaigua-Raynham- Severe to moderate on all Fairly well subted for all wild- Poor drainage with water table Rhinebeck recreation uses life (open, wood and wet land seasonally hiqh one to one-half Association classes) feet deep

Odessa-Lakemont- Severe to moderate on all Better suited in the open and Slow permeability with seasonal Ovid Association recreation uses wood land areas than for wet- high water table one-half to land classes one foot deep

Development soil Association Stability Erosion (Low Buildinas)

Appleton-Hilton- Generally good Slight hazard High bearing capacity low Sun Ass~~iati~n compressibility

Hilton-Ovid-Ontario ~oodstability and sheer Slight to moderate hazard High bearing capacity Association strength

Lockport-Ovid Moderate to poor stability Slight Moderate land bearing capacity Association and sheer strength hiqh shrink-swell capacity

Howard-Arkport- Good stability and sheer Slight Moderate to high load bearing Phelps Association strength capacity possible settling under vibrating load Otisville-Altmar- ~oodstability and sheer Slight Moderate to high load bearing Freden-Stafford s trenqth capacity possible settling Association under vibrating load

Minoa-Galen-Elnora Fair stability subject to Moderate Variable compressibility Association slippage settling under vibrating loads

Claverack-Cosod- Fair to poor stability High Low bearing capacity Elnora Association

Niagara-Collamer Fair to poor stability Moderate to high Low bearing capacity variable Association compressibility

Canandaiqua-Raynham- Fair stability Moderate Variable bearing capacity Rhinebeck Association

Odessa-Lakemont- Low sheer strength Slight Low to moderate bearing Ovid Association capacity

(2) Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. ' *From U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1972 soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of Niagara County, pp 199. TABLE 63 MAJOR INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES TO THE NIAGARA RIVER (1970)*

Degree of Discharge Type of Industry Type (~d) is charge

Chevrolet Motor 28.7 MGD Oil = 2,385 lbs/day (a) Assembly Solids = 5,914 Ibs/day DuPont Tedlar 3.47 MGD Oxygen Demand = 708 lbs/day Chemical Production Solids = 7,196 lbs/day

Allied Plastics 5.0 MGD COD = 170 lbs/day Chemical Chlorides = 270 lbs/day Solids = 1,660 lbs/day

Allied Coke 12.0 MGD COD = 5,200 lbs/day Chemical Manufacture Oils = 281 lbs/day ( Seme t Solids = 27,000 lbs/day Solvay) Phenols = 61 lbs/day

Ashland Oil Refinery 20.0 MGD Oils = 430 lbs/day Oil and Phenols = 25 lbs/day Refining

Spaulding Fibres 4.0 MGD BOD = 1,600 lbs/day Fibre COD = 4,500 lbs/day Monogram Oil = 617 lbs/day Solids = 12,870 lbs/day Chlorides = 833 lbs/day

Inter- Paper 12.0 MGD BOD = 25,800 lbs/day national Products Solids = 45,200 lbs/day Paper

Union Calcium 21.6 MGD BOD = 400 lbs/day Carbide Carbides COD = 2,650 lbs/day Oil = 345 lbs/day Solids = 61,900 lbs/day Chlorides = 11,000 lbs/day

Hooker Chemical 23.6 MGD BOD = 1,190 lbs/day Chemical Chlorine COD = 39,430 lbs/day Oil = 531 lbs/day Solids .= 391,000 lbs/day Chlorines = 170,000 lbs/day

*Source : Erie-Niagara Counties Regional Planning ~oard(3) TABLE G4 MAJOR MUNICIPAL DISCHARGES. TO THE NIAGARA RIVER (1970) * ------Type Discharge of Volume BOD Ownership Treatment (mgd) (lbs/day)

Buffalo Sewer Authority Primary 162.0 120,000

Town of.Tonawanda Primary 12.8 7,950

Grand Island Primary 0.45 923 ,'

Grand Island Primary 0.265 310

City of Tonawanda Primary 5.5 8,500

North Tonawanda Primary 6.4 2,840 (1) City of Niagara Falls Primary 73.0 33,000 (1) Lewis ton Primary 0.38 323 (2) Niagara Falls, Canada Primary 4.0 ND

Chippawa, Canada Secondary ,O .4 ND

Fort Erie, Canada Primary 1.65 ND

TOTALS 266.8 173,846

*Source: Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board. (3) (1) Below Falls. (2) No data. TABLE G5 WATER QUALITY DATA FOR THE NIAGARA RIVER AT THE UNION CARBIDE RAW WATER INTAKE FOR THE PERIOD OCTOBER 1, 1969 TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1972*

Percent of Number Calcu- Samples Parameter of lated New York State Meeting (units) Samples Mean Standards Standards

Dissolved Oxygen 37 9.7 Not less than 100 (mg 02/1) than 6.0 mg/l at any time

Dissolved Oxygen (Percent Saturation)

BOD (ms 02/1)

COD (mg 02/1) 37 7.7 Within the 100 range 6 -7- 8.5 at all times

Total Alkalinity (mg/l as CaC03)

Ammonia Nitrogen 35 0.21 Not to exceed 100 (mg N/l) 1.65 mg N/1 at any time

Nitrate Nitrogen (mg N/1) Phosphate Phosphorous 37 0.30 Limited to the --- (mg P04/l) ' extent neces- sary to prevent nuisance growths of algae, weeds and slimes

Phenol 36 37.4 Not to exceed 13.89 (ug/l) 5 ug/l at any time

Total Dissolved Solids 37 224 Not to exceed 16.22 (mg/l) 200 mg/l at any time

*Source: New York Department of Environmental Conservation, unpublished data. TABLE G6 SUMMARY OF DATA FROM THE SOURCE AND MOUTH OF THE NIAGARA RIVER*

Source Mouth Mean Range Mean Range

Oxygen 96 81 - 113 104 100 - 118 (Percent Saturation)

Alkalinity 89.0 86.0 - 94.0 89.3 85.9 - 94.0 (mg/l as CaC03) Hardness 126.7 121.4 - 132.0 128.9 123.5 - 133.8 (mg/l as CaC03)

Chlorides 25.7 25.0 - 26.4 26.9 25.5 - 28.1 (mg/l of @I-)

Conductivity (umhos/cm)

*After Sibley and Stewart (6) TABLE 67 AVERAGE GROWING SEASON IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION Average Date Average Date Length Of Altitude* No. Of Years Of Last Of First Growing Station (Feet) Of Record Killing Frost Killing Frost Season

Buffalo April 30 October 25 178

Albany April 27 October 13 169

Rochester 54 7 April 28 October 21 176

Niagara Falls+ 600 May 10 ~ctober15 158+ (Ontario) - Lockport 520 May 9 October 13 157

Source: National Climatic Center. (9 * Above mean sea level. + Climatic of Southern, Ontario (~ig.25, 26) . TABLE 68 LOCATION OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS I~JTHL NI~IGARA FiiLLS IiE3;ICIIr

Elevation Station Latitude Longitude (feet)

New York (U.S .) -

Albany (WSO) 42O4 5 'N 73O48 'W 275

Buffalo (WSO) 42O56'~ 78O44 'W 70 5

Lockport 43O11'~ 78O39'~ 520

Niagara Falls International Airport (AWS) 43O06 'N 7 8O57 'LJ 590

Rochester (PISO) 43O07 '14 77O4 0 'W 547

Ontario (Canada)- Niagara Falls

Niagara Falls (Ontario Hydro)

St. Catherines

Welland

(WSO) Weatrter Service Office (AWS) Air Weather Service TABLE G9 TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION RECORDS FOR STATIONS IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION (U.S.) FOR THE YEARS 1941-1971

Mean Temperature (OF) Annual Station January February March April May June July August September October November December Average

Buffalo 23.7 24.4 32.1 44.9 55.1 65.7 70.1 68.4 61.6 51.5 39.8 27.9 47.1 Albany 21.5 23.5 33.4 46.9 57.7 67.5 72.0 69.6 61.9 51.4 39.6 25.9 47.6 Rochester 24.0 24.8 33.0 46.1 56.5 66.9 71.2 69.3 62.3 52.3 40.5 28.3 49.9 Niaaara Falls . (~nternational Airport) 2 5 2 6 3 2 4 7 5 6 6 6 71 6 9 6 2 5 2 40 29 43 Lockport 24.1 25.2 33.1 95.7 55.8 66.2 70.7 69.1 62.4 52.4 40.4 28.6 47.8 Mean Precipitation (inches)

Buff a10 2.90 2.55 2.85 3.15 2.97 2.23 2.93 3.53 3.25 3.01 3.74 3.0 36 .ll Albany - 2.20 2.11 2.58 2.70 3.26 3.0 3.12 2.87 3.12 2.63 2.84 2.93 33.36 Rochester 2.25 2.42 2.57 2.74 2.80 2.54 2.89 2.97 2.35 2.62 2.83 2.35 31.33 Niagara Falls 2.9 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.6 2.5 4.6 2.6 2.5 3.0 2.8 36.2 Lockport 2.49 2.38 2.42 2.97 3.18 2.51 2.79 3.46 2.83 2.77 2.98 2.48 33.36

Source: National Climatic Center. (10)

TABLE GI0 TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION RECORDS FOR STATIONS IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION (CANADA) FOR THE YEARS 1941-1970

Mean Temperature (OF) Station January February March April May June July August September October November December

Niagara Falls 25.4 26.5 33.9 45.7 56.1 67.4 72.1 71.1 64.1 53.7 40.9 30.1 48.9 Niagara Falls (Ontario Hydro) 23.8 24.6 32.4 44.5 54.9 65.7 70.8 69.2 62.2 51.9 40.2 27.9 47.3 St. Catherines 25.8 26.5 34.0 45.7 55.5 66.9 71.6 70.6 63.1 53.1 41.0 30.0 48.7 Welland 24.3 24.9 33.0 45.2 55.5 66.1 71.1 69.6 62.7 52.6 40.8 28.9 47.9 Mean Precipitation (inches)

Niagara Falls 2.62 2.54 2.82 2.92 3.09 2.67 2.69 3.21 3.15 2.78 2.92 3.02 34.43 Niagara Falls (Ontario Hydro) 2.87 2.88 2.65 2.96 3.12 2.30 2.98 3.36 2.94 2.62 2.94 3.05 34.67 St. Catherines 2.52 2.48 2.55 2.55 2.84 2.49 2.42 3.07 2.73 2.44 2.53 2.33 30.95 Welland 3.16 2.79 3.17 3.0 3.10 2.35 2.50 3.41 3.12 2.68 3.10 3.20 35.58

Source : Department of the Environment, Canada. (11) TABLE Gll WIND DATA FOR NIAGARA FALLS REGION PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED,

Niagara Falls Buff a10 (1951-64) Direction Speed Maximum (1944-70) Direction Speed Maximum -- January SW WSW February SW SW March SW SW April SW SW May SW SW June SW SW July SW SW August SW SW September SW s October SW S November wsw S December WS W WSW

ANNUAL

- -- - Source: Air Weather Service Personnel, Niagara Falls International Airport.

TABLE GI2 LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA IN THE NIAGARA FALLS REGION

Niagara Falls, Canada (1941-1970) Niagara Falls Intl. Airport (1951-66), Weather Extremes Mean Total # Days With Temp. Rainfall Snowfall PPT. Meas. mas. (Deq. F.) (Inches) (Inches) (Inches) Frost Rain Snow PPT. P24 PKW DPCP S24 T90+ 80+ 32- 0-

Jan. 25.4 1.31 13.5 2.62 29 4 Feb. 26.5 1.34 12.0 2.54 26 3 Mar. 33.9 1.91 8.8 2.82 25 6 Apr. 66.7 2.8 1.2 2.92 10 9 May 56.1 3.09 0.1 3.09 1 10 June 67.4 2.67 0 2.67 --- 8 July 72.1 2.69 0 2.69 0 7 ~ug. 71.1 3.21 0 3.21 0 7 Sept. 64.1 3.15 0 3.15 0 8 Oct. 53.7 2.76 0.2 2.78 1 9 Nov. 60.9 2.41 5.1 2.92 13 9 Dec. 30.1 1.95 10.7 3.02 26 6

ANNUAL 68.9 29.29 51.6 34.43 131 86

Source: National Climatic ~ep Extreme P24 Maximum precipitation observed Temperatures (Deg. F. ) in one 24-hour period. Mean daily Max. 32.6 (Jan.), 81.7 (July) PKW Peak wind observed. Mean daily Min. 18.2 (Jan.), 62.4 (July) TSTM Number of thunderstorms normally Record Max. 101 (Aug.) observed in the vicinity of the Record Min. -13 (Jan.). site. DPCP Average number of days with rain- fall or snow that can be ex- pected. S24 The maximum amount of snowfall in Temp. air temperature 24 hours. Meas. measurable T90+ Number of days with temperature PPT . precipitation above 90° F. MPH miles per hour 80+ Number of days with temperature above 80° F. 32- Number of days with temperature below 32O F. 0- Number of a s with temperature below 0' 3. TABLE GI3 NIAGARA FALLS AIR QUALITY DATA

Annual Means Pollutant Units 1970 1971 1972 1973

0 -03 0 -047 0.062 0.036

2.4 3.3 3.6 3 .O

N.A. 0.02 0.023 0.023

Oxidants (03) PPm N.A. 0 -06 0.033 0.037

CO PPm N.A. N.A. 0.02 M.A.

Suspended Particulates RUDS/1,000 ft. 0.7 0 -6 0.6 0.5 Source: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. PPm Parts per million

so2 , Sulfur dioxide NO Nitric Oxide

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide CO Carbon monoxide

RUD'S Reflectance units of dirt shade One RUDS is defined as an opti- cal reflectance of 0 .O1 caused by 10,000 linear feet of air passing through 0.786 square inches of filter paper.

N.A. No data available TABLE GI4 FLORA OF THE NIAGARA REGION

WOODY SPECIES HERBACEOUS SPECIES

Eastern white pine Purple flowering raspberry --Rubus odoratus Red pine Sumac Eastern larch (tamarack) Aster Black spruce Golden rod Hemlock Thistle Balsam fir Yarrow Northern white-cedar Grape Vitis sp. Eastern red cedar Jewel weed Impatieus capensis Peach leaf willow Common mullein Verbascnn thapsus Sandbar willow Bind weed Convolvulus arveusis pussy willow Herb Robert Geranium robertianum Black willow ~otherwokt --Leonuvus cavdiaca Bigtooth aspen Barberry Berberis sp. Quaking aspen Black mustard Brassica niqra Balsam poplar Autm dandelion Leontodon autumnalis Eastern cottonwood White snake root Eupatorium rugosum Black walnut Horseweed Eriqeron canadensis Butternut Plantain ,Plants o major shcllbark Hickory Virginia creeper Parthe:oclssus quinquefolia Pignut hickofy Cueen Anne's lace Daucus carota Shagbark hickory Blackberry R=U~SP-- ?lockernut hickory Lwsestrife Lythrum salicaria Red hickory Beggar tricks Bitternut hickory Wild black current Yellow birch Pokeweed Sweet birch Poison Ivy Paper birch Elderberry Eastern hophonrbeam Cardinal flower P.nerican hornbeam Oswego tea Gray birch Clover .Wnerican beech Colu~nbines Chestnut Fireweeds White oak Knotweeds Bur oak Trailing arbutus Chestnut oak rur ple coneflowers Swamp white oak .ioe-pye weed ~hinkapinoak Milkweed Northern red oak Tufted vetch Black oak Sharp-lobed hepatica Scarlet oak Chicory Pin oak Comon wood sorrel American elm Ihin-leaved sunflower Slippery elm Hispid buttercup Rock elm Common dandelion Hackberry Moth mullein Red mulberry Dutchmans-breeches Cucumber tree Swamp saxifrage Tuliptree - yellow-poplar May apple witch-hazel Blood root Catalpa Squirrel corn Sycamore Harbinger-of-spring Black cherry Jack-in-the-pulpit Pin cherry Canada lily Common chokecherry Shadylady 's slipper Honeylocust Bittersxeet nightshade Sugar maple White trilium Black maple Painted trilium Red maple White trout-lily Sllver maple MOSS Box elder MOS s Striped maple MOS s Mountain maple Seuted liverwort American basswood Madenhair fern Blackgum Rock polypody Flowering dogwood Marsh fern Alternate-leaf dogwood Christmas fern Sassafras White ash From: Harlow arf~~jiarrar112' Green ash Brockman Black ash Peterso a d ~c~enny'l~' American moutain ash Zenkert720P Sweet crab apple Serviceberry Frosted hawthorn Scarlet hawthorn Cockspur hawthorn Downy hawthorn Eastern redbud Kentucky coffeetree Common prickly-ash Staghorn sumac Poison sumac Rhodedendron Mountain laurel Viburnums Common buttonbush Yew Red-stemmed dogwood TABLE GI5 FlAElAGIT SPFf lFS nF TF!E PT1,n.C-F??. PFSERI'ATIOPJ*

Woody Londen plane Platanus acerifolia European white poplar Populus -alba Cockspur thorn Crataeuus crusaalli Washington hawthorn Crataequs nhaenonvrwn English hawthorn Crataequs oxvacantha Siberian crab apple Malus baccata Japanese f lowerinq crab apple Malus f loribunda Rivers crab apple Malus spectabilis "Riversii" Wild plums Prunus sarqenti

European* mountain-ash Sorbus aucu~aria Yew Taxus cuspihata densifomus Regels privet -Liaustrum -- reqelianum

Border ~rivet Lisustrum* obtusifalium Euonvmus Euonvmus fortunei radi'cans a - Hall's honeysuckle -Lonicera japonica halliana Boston ivy Parthenocissus- tricus~idata Common periwinkle Vinca minor Tall hedge Rhamnus franqula Ginko Ginko biloba Armor maple --Acer qinella Crimson king maple Acer platanoides schwedleri niqra Herbaceous Prickly-near -Pachysandra Forsythia ~orsvtmntermediaspectahilis Siberian pea -----Caraqana -arborescens ---

*Source : Sam Bartolone, IJiagara Frontier Parks Commission. ( 16) TABLE C16 UNIQUE NATURAL FLORA OF THE NIAGARA RESERVATION*

WOODY SPECIES

American white birch Betula papyrif era Butterf ly-weed Asclepias tuberosa Northern white cedar Thuja occidentalis Four-leaved milkweed Asclepias quadrifolia American basswood Tilia americana Common gromwell Lithospermum officinale Mountain maple -Acer spicatum European stickweed Lappula echinata White pine --Pinus Strobus Virginia stickweed Lappula virginiana Red cedar Juniperus vGiniana Wild bergamot Monarda fistulosa Chestnut oak Quercus montana Hairy beardtongue Pentstemon hirsutus Chinka pin oak Quercus Muhlenbergii Figwort Scrophularia marilandica Sassafras Sassafras officinale Downy false foxglove Aureolaria virginica Red mulberry --Morus rubra Squawroot Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana Fringed houstonia Waxy-fruited thorn Crataegus pruinosa Harebell Roundleaf dogwood Cornus rugosa Pl~ntain-leaved pussytoes Bladdernut Staphylea trifolia Ijpland white aster Aster ptarmicoides Carrion flower --Smilax herbacea Woodland sunflower American yew Taxus canadensis Cylindric blazing-star Western arrow-wood Viburnum affine, var. hypomalacum White lettuce, rattlesnake-root Roundleaf juneberry Amelanchier sanguinea Robin-plaintai: Aromatic sumac -Rhus canadensis Balsam groundsel Canada buffaloberry Shepherdia canadensis Sharp leaved goldenrod Solidago arguta Dwarf rose --Rosa carolina Bottle brush grass Asperella Hystrix Ninebark ~hysocar~us~pulifolius - - Oryzopsis racemosa Snowberry Symphoricarpos albus Bearded short-husk Dilepyrum erectum Northern prickly-ash Xanthoxy lum ameritanum Indian grass Sorghastrum nutans Fall deerberry Vaccinium stamineum Thin grass Agrostis perennans Black huckleberry Gaylussacia baccata Nodding wild rice Elymus Wiegandii Evergreen bearberry Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi Broad-leaved panic-grass Panicum latifolium Winter grape --Vitis bicolor Tall millet-grass --Milium effusum **Balsam Fir --Abies balsamea Wild timothy Muhlenbergia racemosa - - Muhlenbergia foliosa HERBACEOUS SPECIES Golden-fruited sedge --Carex aurea - - Carex convoluta Water willow Dianthera americana Few fruited sedge Carex oligocarpa Lizard's tail --Saururus cernuus Nodding fescue grass --Festuca nutans Zygadene Zygadenus chloranthus **Holly fern Polystichum lonchitis Wood lily Lilium philadelphicum **Painted Trillium Trillium undulatum Sawbane Chenopodium hybridum **White trout-lily Erythronium albidum Field chickweed Cerastium arvense Grove sandwokt Arenaria lateriflora FERNS AND FERN ALLIES Thimbleweed Anemone virginiana Columbine Aquilegia canadensis Common wood fern var . intermedia Round-lobed hepatia Hepatica americana Marginal shield fern Hairy rock cress --Arabis hirsuta Goldie's shield fern Sicklepod Arabis canadensis Oak fern Drummond's rock cress Arabis Drwondi Christmas fern ides Early saxifrage Saxifraga virginiensis Polypody Naked miterwort --Mitella nuda Narrow leaved spleenwort Wood strawberry Fragaria m, var. americana Bulb-bearing bladder fern Large flowered tick trefoil Desnodium grandiflorum Brittle bladder fern Naked-flowered tick trefoil Desnodium nudiflorum Maidenhair spleenwort Milk-vetch Astragalus canadensis Ebony spleenwort Cream-colored vetchling Lathyrus ochroleucus Hay-scented fern Purple vetch -Vicia americana Maidenhair Pale vetch Vicia caroliniana Walking fern Seneca snakeroot Polygala Senega Purple cliff brake Green violet Hybanthus concolor Rock selaginella Selaginella rupestris Smaller enchanter's nightshade Circaea alpina

* Source: Zenkert (I5) ** Source: Laug (I7) TABLE GI7 WATER AND SHORE BIRDS OF THE NIAGARA REGION *

Game Resident Game Resident Common Name Scientific Name Bird Abundance Status II Common Name Scientific Name Bird Abundance Status American oystercatcher Common loon Gavia immer Common Visitant Haematopus palliatus Rare Visitant Arctic loon GaviH arctica Rare Visitant Semipalmated plover Charadrius semipalmatus Piping plover Common Visitant Red-throated loon Gavia stellata Rare Visitant Charadrius melodus Rare Visitant Red-necked grebe Podiceps qrisegena Rare Visitant Killdeer Charadrius vociferus American golden plover Common Summer Horned grebe Podiceps auritus Common Visitant Pluvialis dominico Rare Visitant Eared grebe Podicens caspicus Rare Visitant Black-bellied plover Sg~iatarolasquat.a*a . Rare Visitant Western grebe Aechmophorus occidental Rare Visitant Ruddy turnstone Arcnaria interpres Common Visitant Pied-billed grebe Podilymbus podicens Common Visitant American woodcock CapellaPhilohela gallinago minor Black-capped petrel Pterodroma hasitata Rare Visitant Game Rare Summer Common snipe Common Visitant Scaled petrel Pterodroma inex~ectata Rare Visitant Long-billed curlew Numenius americanus Wilson's petrel Oceanites oceanicus Rare Visitant Rare Visitant Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus Common Visitant White-tailed tropic-bird Phaethon lenturus Rare Visitant Eskimo curlew Numenius borealrs White pelican Pele~anuserythPorh~nch Rare Visitant Rare VisitantSummer Upland plover Bartramia longicauda Rare Brown pelican ** --Pelecanus occidentalis Rare Visitant Spotted sandpiper Actitis macularia Gannet Yorus bassanus Rare Visitant Comnon Summer Solitary sandpiper TrinqaCatoptronhorus solitaria semipalmatu Common Visitant Double-crested cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus Rare Visitant Willet Great blue heron Ardea herodixs- Common Summer Rare Visitant Greater yellowlegs --Totanus melanoleucus Common Visitant Green heron Butorides virescens Common Summer Lesser yellowlegs Totanus flavipes Little blue heron Florida caerulea Rare Visitant Common Visitant Knot Calidris canutus Rare Visitant Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis Rare Visitant Purple sandpiper -Erolia.- -- -maritina- - Rare Visitant Common egret ~asmerodir- Rare Visitant Pectoral sandpiper ~roliamelanotus Snowy egret Leucophoyx thula Common Visitant Rare Visitant White-rumped sandpiper Erolia fuscicollis Rare Visitant Louisiana heron Hydranassa tricolor Rare Visitant Baird's sandpiper Erolia Bairdii Black-crowned niqht heron Nycticorax nycticorax Rare Common Summer Least sandpiper Erolia minuti_'illaferruql'iga Common Visitant Yellow-crowned niqht heron Nyctanassa violacea Rare Visitant Curlew sandpiper Least bittern --Ixobrychus exilis Rare Visitant Rare Summer Dunlin Erolia al~ina Common Visitant American bittern Botaurus lentiginosus Common Summer Short-billed dowitcher ~imnodrzriisus Glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus Rare Visitant Rare Visitant Lono-billed dowitcher --Limnodromus scolopaceus Rare Visitant White-faced ibis Pleqadis chihi Rare Visitant stiit sandpiper -Micropalama himantopus Rare Visitant ?lute swan Semipalmated sandpiper cyqnus olor Rare Visitant --Ereunetes "nusillus Common Whistling swan Olor columbianus Common Visitant Western sandpiper Ereunetes mauri Rare Visitant Canada goose Branta canadensis Game Abundant Visitant Buff-breasted sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis Rare Visitant Brant Branta bernicla Game Common Visitant Marbled godwit Limosa fedoa Rare Black brant Branta nigricans Game Rare Visitant Hudsonian qodwit Limosa haemastica Rare Visitant Barnacle goose Branta leucopsis Rare Visitant Ruff ..Philomachi~s_ puqnax Rare Visitant White-fronted goose Anser alhifrons Game Rare Visitant Sanderling ~rocethia$I& Snow goose Chen hyperborea Common Visitant Game Rare Visitant American avocet Recurvirostra americana Rare Visitant Blue goose Chen caerulescens Game Rare Visitant Red phalarop ~halaropuilicarius Mallard Anas platvrhvnchos Rare Visitant Game Conmon Summer Wilson's phalarope Ste ano us tricolor Rare Black duck Anas rubripes Game Common Summer Northern phalarope Gadwall *ba tus Rare Visitant Anas strepera Game Rare Visitant Pomarine jaeger Stercorarlus pomarinus Rare Pintail Anas acuta Game Common Visitant Parasitic jaeger Stercorarius parasiticus Common teal -- Rare Visitant Anas crecca Rare Visitant Skua Catharacta skua Rare Visitant Green-winged teal Anas carolinensis Game Common Visitant Glaucous gull Larus hyperboreus Blue-winged teal Anas discors Rare Visitant -- Game Common Summer Iceland gull --Larus ylaucoides Rare European widgeon Mareca penelone Rare Visitant Great black-backed gull Larus marinus American widgeon -- Rare Visitant Mareca americana Game Common Visitant Lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus Visitant Shoveler Spatula clypeata -- Rare Game Rare Visitant Herring gull Larus argentatus Common Summer Wood duck Aix sponsa Game Common Summer Mew gull Red head -- --Larus canus Rare Visitant Aythya americana Game Common Visitant Ring-billed gull Larus delawarensis Summer Ring-necked duck Aythya collaris Common Game Common Visitant Black-headed gull Larus ridibundus Rare Visitant Canvasback Aythya valisineria Game Abundant Visitant Laughing gull Greater scaup Lams atricilla Rare Visitant Ayth a marila Game Abundant Visitant Franklin's gull Larus pipixcan Visitant Lesser scaup &s Rare a Game Common Visitant Bonaparte's gull Larus philadelphia nbundant Visitant Common goldeneye Bucephala clan Game Common Visitant Little gull Larus minutus Barrow's goldeneye Buce~hala&a Rare Visitant -- Game Rare Visitant Ivory gull Pagophila eburnea Rare Visitant Bufflehead Bucephala albeola Game Common Visitant Black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla Rare Visitant Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis Game Common Visitant Sabine's gull -Xema sabini Rare Visitant Harlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus Game Rare Visitant Forster' s tern Sternateri Rare Visitant Common eider Somateria mollissima Game Rare Visitant Common tern Sterna hirundo Common Summer King eider Somateria spectabilis Game Rare Visitant Arctic tern Rare Visitant White-winged scoter Melanitta deqlandi Game Common Visitant Roseate tern Rare Visitant Surf scoter Melanitta persplcillata Game Rare Visitant Least tern Sterna albifrons Rare Common scoter -Oidemia nigra Game Rare Visitant Caspian tern Hydroproqne ;asnia Rare Visitant Ruddy duck -7. Oxyura iamaicensis Game Common Visitant Black tern Chlidonias nlqer- Common Smew Mergellu- Hooded merganser Rare Visitant Black skimmer Rynchons ni- Rare Visitant Lophodytes cucullatus Game Common Visitant Thick-billed murre Common merganser --Uria lomvia Rare Visitant Mergus merganser Common Visitant Black guillemot Cen~busgrvlle Rare Visitant Red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator Game Abundant Visitant Ancient murrelet Sandhill crane Syntllliboram~husantiquum Rare Visitant Grus canadensis Game Rare Visitant Dovekie King rail - Plautus alle Rare Visitant Rallus elegans Game Rare Summer -- Virginia rail --Rallus --limicola Game Common Smer Sora Porzana carolma Game Common *Compiled from: Beardslee and Yellow rail Summer itche ell"^' Coturnicops noveboracensis Rare Visitant Andrle and Mitchell (I9) Black rail Laterallus jamaicensis Rare Visitant U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisherir~~yd~ildlife(~~) Purple gallinule Porphyrula martinica Game Rare Common gallinule Visitant American Ornithologists Union Gallinula chloropus Game Common Summer Rue (22) American coot --Fulica americana Game Abundant Visitant **Rare and endangered species. TABLE GI8

LAND BIRDS OF THE NIAGARA REGION"

Game Resident Game Resident Game Resident Common Name Scientific Name Bird Abundance Status Common Name Scientific Name Bird Abundance Status Common Name Scientific Name Bird Abundance Status // Barn swallow Hirundo rustica Common Summer Prairie warbler Dendroica discolor Rare Visitant Turkey vulture Comon summer Rare Visitant Cliff swallow Petrochilidon pyrrhonota Rare Summer Palm warbler Dendroica palmarum Rare Visitant Black vulture Common Summer Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus Common Summer swallow-tailed kite Rare Visitant Purple martin Progne subis Rare Visitant Blue jay Cyanocitta cristata Common Permanent Northern waterthrush Seiurus ftoveboracensis Common VisitantSummer Goshawk Pica Rare Visitant Louisiana waterthrush ~eiurGmotacilla Rare Sharp-shinned hawk Common Visitant Black-billed magpie - pica Corvus corax Rare VisitantPermanent Kentucky warbler Oporornis formosus Rare Visitant cooper's hawk Common Visitant common raven -- Common Permanent Common crow Corvus brachyrhynchos Abundant Connecticut warbler Oporornis aqilis Rare Visitant ~ed-tailedhawk Parus atricapillus Common Permanent Mourning warbler Oporornis philadel~hia Rare Summer ~ed-shoulderedhawk Common Summer Black-capped chickadee Parus hudsonicus Rare Visitant Yellowthroat Geothlwis trichas Common Summer road-winged hawk Common Visitant Boreal chickadee -. Rare Visitant Tufted titmouse Parus bicolor Rare Permanent Yellow-breasted chat ~cceriavirens Rare Summer Swainson's hawk Permanent Buteo lagopus Common Visitant White-breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis common Hooded warbler Wilsonia citrina Common summer ~ough-leggedhawk Visitant Aquila chrysaetos Rare Visitant Red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis Rare Wilson's warbler Wilsonia pusilla Rare ~isitAnt Golden eagle Certhia familiaris Common Visitant Canada warbler Wilsonia canadensis Common Visitant Bald eagle** Haliaeetus leucoceph Rare Visitant Brown creeper Circus c aneus Common summer House wren Tro lod tes aedon Common Summer American redstart Stetophaga ruticilla Common summer Marsh hawk Visitant Pandionbtus Rare Visitant Winter wren Tro:lod;tes wodytes Rare House sparrow Passer domesticus Abundant Permanent Osprey - Visitant Dolichonvx oryzivorus Summer Falco rusticolus Rare Visitant Bewick ' s wren Thryomanes bewickii Rare Bobolink Common Gyrfalcon Rare Permanent Eastern meadowlark Sturnella magna Common Summer Peregrine falcon* Falco pe;e~;;y;~ Rare Visitant Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicianus * Telmatodytes palustris Common Summer Western meadowlark Sturnella neglecta Rare Summer Pigeon hawk palco co u Rare Visitant Long-billed marsh wren Cistothorus platensis Rare Summer Yellow-headed blackbird Xanthocephalus xanthocepha lus Rare Visitant Sparrow hawk Falco s arverius Common Permanent Short-billed marsh wren - =a* =a* Game Rare Permanent Rock wren Salpinctes obsoletus Rare Visitant Red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus Abundant summer Ruffed grouse Visitant Orchard oriole Icterus spurius Rare summer Bobwhite Colinus virginianus Game Rare Permanent Mockingbird Mimus polyglottas Rare Game Common Permanent Catbird Dumetella carolinensis Common Summer Baltimore oriole Icterus yalbula Common Summer ~ing-neckedpheasant Phasianus colchicus Visitant Alectoris graeca Game Rare Permanent Brown thrasher Toxostoma ruf um Common Summer Rusty blackbird Euphagus carollnus Common Chukar Visitant Brewer's blackbird Euphaqus cyanocephalus Rare VisitantSummer Gray partridge Game Rare Permanent Sage thrasher Oreoscoptes montanus Rare Summer Comon grackle Quiscalus quiscala Abundant Turkey Game Rare Permanent Robin Turdus miqratorius Abundant Common Permanent Varied thrush Ixoreus naevius Rare Visitant Brown-headed cowbird Molothrus ater Abundant Summer ~ockdove Western tanager Piranga ludoviciana Rare Visitantsummer Mourning dove Game Common Summer Wood thrush Hylocichla mustelina Common Summer Visitant Scarlet tanager Plranqa olivacea Common Yellow-billed cuckoo Rare Summer Hermit thrush Hylocichla guttata Common Common Visitant Swainson's thrush Hylocichla ustulata Common Visitant Summer tanager Plranqa rubra Rare Visitant Black-billed cuckoo Visitant Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis Comn PermanentSummer Barn owl Rare Permanent Gray-checked thrush H locichla minima Rare Permanent Veery -tens Common Summer Rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus Common Screech owl -- Common b Visitant Bubo virginianus Rare Permanent astern bluebird hl~a Rare Summer Black-headed grosbeak Pheucticus m~lanocephalus Rare Great horned owl Passerina c anea Common Summer Nyctea scandiaca Rare Visitant Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe Rare Visitant Indiqo bunting snowy owl Painted bunting Passerina Rare Visitant Hawk-owl Surnia ulula Rare Visitant Blue-gray gnatcatcher Polioptila caerulea Rare Summer SZ Permanent Golden-crowned kinglet Regulus satrapa Common Visitant Dickcissel Spiza amerTGiiS Rare Visitant Barred owl strix varia Rare Visitant Rare Visitant Ruby-crowned kinglet Regulus calendula Common Visitant EveningPurple finchgrosbeak Hesperiphona vespertina Common Great gray owl -- nebulosa carpodacus- purpureus Common Visitant Grooved-billed ani Crotophaga sulcirostris Rare Visitant Water pipit Anthus spinoletta Common Visitant Visitant House finch Carpodacus mexicanus Rare Visitant Long-eared owl Asio otns Rare Permanent Bohemian waxwing Bombycilla garrula Rare Visitant Cedar waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum Common Summer Pine grosbeak Pinicola enucleator Rare Visitant Short-eared owl Rare Visitant Rare Visitant Northern shrike Lanius excubitor Rare Visitant European goldfinch Carduelis carduelis Rare Boreal owl Hoary redpoll Acan this homernanny Rare Saw-whet owl Rare Visitant Loggerhead shrike Lanius ludovicianus Rare Summer Strunus vulgaris Abundant Permanent Common redpoll Acanthis flammea common Visitant Visitant Starling ~ Whip-poor-wi 11 Rare - Visitant Common Summer White-eyed vireo Vireo gfiseus Rare Visitant Pine siskin spinus oinus Conmon Common nighthawk American goldf inch Spinus tristis Abundant Summer Chimney swift Common Summer Yellow-throated vireo Vireo f avifrons Rare Summer Summer Solitary vireo Vireo solitarius Rare Summer Red crossbill Loxia c-tra Rare Visitant Ruby-throated humminqbird Common Visitant Common Summer Red-eyed vireo Vireo_ olivaceus Common Summer White-winqed crossbill Loxia leuco~tera Common Belted kingfisher Green-tailed towhee Chlorura chlorura Rare Visitant Yellow-shaf ted flicker Common Summer Philadelphia vireo Vireo philadelphicus Rare Visitant Permanent Warbling vireo Vireo gilvus Common Summer Rufous-sided towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus Common Summer Pileated woodpecker Rare Visitant Rare Permanent Black-and-white warbler miltavaria Common Visitant Lark buntinq Calamosniza melanocorvs Rare Red-bellied woodpecker Savannah sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis Common summer Red-headed woodpecker Common Summer Prothonotary warbler Frotonotariatrea Rare SummerVisitant Visitant Worm-eating warbler Helmitheros vermivorus Rare Grasshopper sparrow Common summer Yellow-bellied sapsucker Common Visitant Comon Permanent Golden-winged warbler Vermivora chrysoptera Rare Summer LeContels sparrow Rare Hairy woodpecker I~enslow' s sparrow Common Summer Downy woodpecker Common Permanent Blue-winged warbler Vermivora pinus Rare Summer Tennessee warbler Vermivora peregrina Common Visitant Sharp-tailed sparrow Rare Visitant Black-backed three-toed Summer Rare Visitant Orange-crowned warbler Vermivora celata Rare Vesper sparrow Common woodpecker Lark sparrow Rare VisitantSummer Northern three-toed woodpecker Rare Visitant Nashville warbler Vermivora ruficapilla Common Visitant Common Summer Parula warbler Parula americana Rare Visitant Slatecolored junco Junco hyemalis Common Eastern kingbird Oregon junco Rare Visitant Western kingbird Rare Visitant Yellow warbler Dendroica petechia Abundant Summer Magnolia warbler Dendroica magnolia Common Visitant Tree sparrow Common Great-crested flycatcher Common Summer Summer Common Summer Cape May warbler Den roica ti rina Common Visitant Chipping sparrow Common Eastern phoebe Clay-colored sparrow Rare Visitant Say's phoebe Rare Visitant Black-throated blue warbler Denddroica bscens Common Visitant Myrtle warbler Dendroica coronata Common Visitant Field sparrow Common summer Yellow-bellied flycatcher Empidonax flaviventris Rare Visitant Harris ' sparrow Rare Visitant Empidonax virescens Rare Visitant Black-throated gray warbler Dendroica -ns Rare Visitant Acadian flycatcher Common Summer White-crowned sparrow Common Visitant Trail1's flycatcher Empidonax traillii Common Summer Black-throated green warbler Dendroica virens Cerulean warbler Dendroica cerulea Rare Summer White-throated marrow Common Visitant Least flycatcher Eh idonax minimus Common Summer Fox sparrow Rare Visitant -ire.. Common Summer Blackburnian warbler Dendroica fusca Common Visitant Eastern wood pewee Rare Visitant Lincoln's sparrow Rare VisitantSummer Olive-sided flycatcher Nuttal o&s borealis Rare Visitant Yellow-throated warbler Dendroica dominica Chestnut-sided warbler Dendroica pensylvanica Common Summer Swamp sparrow CommonAbundant Horned lark Eremophila alpestris Common Sumiier Song sparrow Summer Common Summer Bay-breasted warbler Common Visitant Tree swallow Iridoprocne bicolor Visitant Lapland Longspur Rare Visitant Riparia riparia Common summer Blackpoll warbler Common Bank swallow Rare Visitant Snow buntinq Rare Visitant Rough-winged swallow Stelgidopteryx ruficoll Common summer Pine warbler

*Compiled from: Beardslee and Mitchell I 18) Andrle and Mitchell (I9) U.S. Bureau of S ort Fisheries and Wildlife(2o' ~mericanOrnithoPogists Union(2 I) Rue (22) **Rare and Endangered Species TABLE G19. THE NIAGARA REGIOIJ* -- Common Name Scientific Name Game Species

Opossum -Didelphis marsupialis Xasked shrew Sorex --cinereus Smoky shrew Sorex --fumeus Least shrew -Cryptotis Darva-- Blarina shrew shorttail shrew p- Starnose mole Condylura --cristata Hairytail mole Parascalops breweri Keen Myotis Myotis keeni Little brown myotis Mvotis.'-- lucifuncrus

Indiana myotisC* -Mvotis -J - - - -- sodalis------Small-footed myotis Mvotis subulatus Silver-haired bat ~asion~cterisnoctivagans Eastern Pipistrel Pipistrellus suhflavus Red bat LasiFus borealis-

Big brown bat E~tesicusL fuscus Hoary bat Lasiurus clnereus- . Raccoon Shorttail weasel Longtail weasel Mink Mustela vison River Otter Lutra canadensis Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis Coyote Canis latrans Red fox Vulpes fulva Gray fox Urocyon -cinereoarqenteus Bobcat Lynx rufus Woodchuck Marmota monax Eastern Chipmunk Tamias striatus Eastern gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Red squirrel Tamiascirus- hudsonicus Southern flying squirrel Glaucomys volans Northern flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus Beaver Castor canadensis White-footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus Deer mouse -Peromyscus maniculatus Southern bog lemming S na tomys cooperi Boreal redback vole -mys gapperi Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanlcus Muskrat Ondatra zibethica Meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonicus- Snowshoe hare Lepus americanus European hare Lepus europaeus Eastern cottontail Svlvilaaus floridanus Whitetail deer Odocoileus virginianus Norway rat Rattus norveqicus

House mouse Mus- -~- musculus -~ ~ - Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum

*from: Burt (23) (20) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (24 Mew York Department of Pnvironmental Conservation ~01ii.n~(25) t threaten^? specles . TABLE 620 REPTILES OF THE NIAGARA REGION*

Common Name Scientific Name

Snapping turtle Stinkpot Spotted turtle Clernmvs auttata Wood turtle clemmys insculpta Painted turtle Chrvsemvs ~icta Spiny softshell ~rion~x-feroxL Coal skink Eumeces anthracinus Common water snake Natrix si~edonL Brown snake Storeria dekayi Red-bellied snake Storeria occ~p~tomaculata.7 Common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis Eastern ringneck snake Diadophis punctatus Racer Coluber constrictor Smooth green snake Haldea valeriae Rat snake Elaphe obsoleta Milk snake Lampropeltis doliata Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus Timber rattlesnake Crotalus hirrodus

*from: Collins(25 )

TABLE G21 AMPHIBIANS OF THE NIAGARA REGION*

Common Name Scientific Name

Mudpuppy Jefferson salamander Spotted salamander Newt ~iemictvlusviridescens Dusky salamander Desmognathus fuscus Mountain salamander Desmo nathus ochrophaeus Red-backed salamander *nefeus Slimy salamander Plethodon qlutlnosus

Four-toed salamander HemidactvliumA scutatum-- ~ .~- -.- ~ Common American toad Bufo terrestris Spring peeper crucifer Gray treef rog i$X versicolor Bullfrog -Rana calesbeiana Green frog -Rana clamitans Wood frog -Rana sylvatica Leopard frog -Rana pipiens Pickerel frog -Rana palustris

*from: Collins(25 1 TABLE G22 ALGAE OF THE NIAGARA RIVER IN THE NI4GARA RESERVATION*

Filamentous Alaae ~lado~horaglomerata 3E3Fs;:- atoms Amphora purpusilla Navicula tripunctata Dlatoma tenue 1. tenue Navicula sp. ~raqilariapucina Nitzschia dissipata

Fraailaria construens------~- - Nitzschia SD. Fraqilaria vaucheriae Rhiocosphenia curvata Gomphonema sp. Caloneis sp.

*after: Beeton(26)

------

TABLE G23 AQUATIC MACROPHYTES OF THE NIAGARA RIVER*

Scientific Name Common Name

quillwort Isoetes echinospora broad-leaved cattail narrow-leaved cattail qiant burreed Sparganium eurycarpum Nutall' s burreed Sparganium americanum filiform pondweed Potamogeton filiformis pondweed Potamoqeton vaqinatus fennel-leaved pondweed Potamogeton peetinatus pondweed Potamoqeton robinsii pondweed Potamogeton zosteriformm leafy pondweed -Potamogeton foliosus pondweed Potamogeton panormitanus small pondweed Potamogeton usillus pondweed Potamogeton ---rtenulfo ius broad-leaved pondweed Potamoqeton amplifolius pondweed Potamogeton americanus floating pondweed Potamo eton natans pondweed ~otamozeton3XiiEiensi.s pondweed Potamo eton ramineus pondweed ~otamozetonhnii pondweed Potamo eton bupleuroides horned pondweed ZZZZ&G palustris najas exilis water plantain Ea£;lantaqo broad-leaved arrowhead Sagittaria latifolia arrowhead Sa ittaria heterophylla water weed badensis eel grass Valisneria americana greater duckweed pickerel weed water star grass Heteranthera dubia toad rush Juncus bufonius rush Juncus nodosus rush Juncus torre i rush datus rush Juncus alpinus rush Juncus canadensis rush Juncus brachycephalus water smartweed mnumamphibium swamp smartweed Polygonum coccineum smartweed Pol onum unctatum spatterdock (yellow pond lily) +tba lake cress Armoracia aquatica water purslane Ludvi ia alustrls water milfoil dlhescens water milfoil Myriophyllum heterophyllum water milfoil M rio h llum verticillatum great bladderwort ~vulqaris flat-leaved bladderwort Utricularia intermedia water mariqold Bidens beckii

*after: Zenkert (15) TABLE 624 BENTHIC FAUNA OF THE NIAGARA RIVER IN THE NIAGARA RESERVATION*

Turbellaria (flatworms) Planaria sp. Oliqochaeta (seqmented worms)

Peloscolex ferox Peloscolex mult-isetosus Peloscolex multisetosus longidentus Unidentified immature species Crustacea (crustaceans) Gammarus fasciatus Hyalella azteca Oronectes obscurus Oronectes proplnquus propinquus A! Hydracarina (water mites) Libertia sp. Insecta (insects) Trichooters (caddisf lies)

coleoptera (beetles) C biod ta sp. Z%$i& lacustris Hvarotus so. G5~FZlusmaculosus &tatus Hemiptera (bugs) Corixidae Gerridae Diptera (true flies) Corynoneura sp. Diamesa sp. Euparyphus sp. Helius sp. Hydrobaenus sp. Pedicia sp. Tabanus sp. Gastropoda (snails) ~ithiniasp. Gyraulus sp. Lvmnaea so. --Physa sp. Pelecypoda (clams, mussels) Sphaeriidae Unionidae

*Compiled from ~eeton.(26) TABLE G25 FISHES OF THE NIAGAW* RIVER*

Scientific Name Common Name

bowfin Amia calva longnose gar Le isosteus osseus

American eel *stata.I alewife Alosa pseudoharengus smelt Osmerus mordax quillback carpsucker Carpiodes cyprinus northern hogsucker Hypentelium niqricans silver redhorse Moxostoma anisurum white sucker Catostomus commersoni carp Cyprinus carpio goldfish Carassius auratus blacknose dace in- s atratulus hornyhead chub wguttata bluntnose minnow p a es notatus emerald shiner Notropis antheroides spottail shiner Notropis hudsonius common shiner Notropis cornutus blacknose shiner Notropis heterolepis bridle shiner Notro is bifrenatus northern pike --dius muskellunge Esox masquinongy brown bullhead channel catfish stonecat - --- banded killifish Fundulus dia hanus brook silverside Labidesthes+ siccu us ninespine stickleback Pungitius pungitius mottled sculpin Cottus bairdii white bass --Roccus chrysops white perch ~occusamericana

- largemouth bass Micro~terus& salmoi des smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieui black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus rock bass Amblo lites rupestris pumpkinseed *bosus bluegill & mkrus ye1low perch Perca f lavescens walleye Stizostedion vitreum log perch Percina ca rodes greenside darter Etheostoma-%r ennoides Iowa darter Etheostoma exile faintail darter Etheostoma f labellare rainbow darter Etheostoma caeruleum johnny darter Etheostoma nigrum freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens burbot --Lota lota golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucus

*Source: New York Department of Environmental Conservation TABLE G26 TABVLATION OF LANP USES* Miagara Countv Niaqara Falls Citv Area Area Sqwre Percent Square Percent Cateaorv Kiles County Miles County

Active Aqriculture 258.30 iCoodlands 103.60 Wetlands 16.55 Water 22.57 Desidential 29.50 Commercial 4.32 Industrial 6.17 Extractive 1.28 Public and Semi-public 9.85 Outdoor Recreation 7.23 Transportation 5.79 Nonproductive 04.59

Total 549.75 100.0 19.03 100.0 Source: New York State Office of Planninq Services, LUNR County Summaries (Albany: New York State Office of Planning Services, 1972). *Mote: Compatibility of these land use cateqories to those presented on the Generalized Existing Land Use Map was not possible to achieve, due primarilv to differences between data aqqregation by various public agencies. TABLE 627 IE?DIJSTRIAL ACTIVITIES OF E!IAC-ARA REGION (niaaara County and lJiaaara Falls, M.Y.) (1970) Emplovment Per Industrv Niagara Falls Niagara Countv New York Percent Percent Industrv Regional Of Total Local Of Total

Agriculture Minino Construction Manufacturing (durables) (nondurables Transportation Communication Utilities Wholesale Trade Food & Dairy Places Eating & Drinking Places General Retailing Plotor Vehicle Retailing and Service Other Retail Banking and Credit Service Insurance and Real Estate Business and Repair Services Private Households Other Personal Services Entertainment & Recreation IIospitals Health Services Education Public Administration

-- Total Employed 87,610 (100 .O%) 31,751 (100.0%) Source: U.S. Department of Comrnerce.(34)

TABLE 628 TOURISM ECOMOMICS (Niagara County and Niagara Falls, N.Y.) ($1,000)* 1967 Niagara Niagara Falls County New York

Establishments per 10,000 persons 36.1 51.3 Employees per establishment 4.2 4.8 Total Receipts ($36,435) ($21,906) *Receipts per employee $13,485 $13,190 Payroll per employee $ 3,165 $ 3,215

Economic Activity: Hotels, Motels, etc.: Total Establishments Total Receipts Payroll Number of Employees

Amusements and Recreation: Total Establishments Total Receipts *Payroll Number of Employees

*Expressed in actual dollars: not $ x 1,000. Source : New York State Department of Comerce. (36) TABLE G29 RETAIL SALES LEVELS Niagara County and Niagara Falls. M.Y. (196 7) Niaqara Percent Niaaara Falls Percent Retail Sales Data County Of Total New York Of Total

Total Establishments Total Sales Employment Sales : Total Sales ($1,000) Sales Per Establishment Sales Per Capita

--Retail Data By Retail Activity ($1,000) Food Stores: No. Establishments Total Sales Eating, Drinking Places: No. Estahlishments Total Sales General Merchandise: No. Establishments Total Sales Apparel, Accessories: No. Establishments Total Sales Furniture, Furnishings: No. Establishments Total Sales

Drug Stores & Proprietary: No. Establishments 60 Total Sales $ 12,321 Automotive Dealers: No. Establishments Total Sales

Gasoline Stations : No. Establishments Total Sales

Building Materials & Hardware: No. Establishments 99 Total Sales $ 15,582 Nonstore Retailers: No. Establishments Total Sales

Other Retail : No. Establishments Total Sales

Totals : Total No. Establishments 2,081 Total Sales $333,881

-- Source: New York State Department of Commerce. (36) TABLE G30 TOURIST VISITATION PATTERNS*

1. Purpose : siahtseeing . 2. Transportation: automobile.

3. Compliment: party of 3.6.

4. Length of Stav: 1.7 nishts.

5. Facilities most interested in seeins: a. Falls Area (1) Towers (2) Tours ( 3) Maid-of - the-Pis t (4) Cave-of -the-Winds (5) Viewmobile b . Restaurants c. Gift Shops

6. Average Distance Traveled: 400 miles or less.

7. Anticipated Spending: $20.00 per day per capita.

8. Origin: U. S. 66.0 percent Canada 27.2 percent Other 6.8 percent

9. Place of Overnight Lodqing: Niauara Falls, New York.

*Source: City of Niagara Falls, New York. (37) Percentage TABLE G31 Personal Characteristics NIAGARA FALLS. NLIJ YORK Age: 18 .29 ...... 27% Tourism Survey 30-45 ...... 48% Summer of 1970 46-65 ...... 25% Percentage Number of Children: Number Percent Area of Residency 1 .35 2 .47 Foreign ...... 9% 3 .26 United States ...... 91% 4 .15 5- 3 6- 2 7- 2 Automobile ...... 93% EUS ...... 4% Length of Triz Airplane ...... 2% Other ...... 1% OneDay ...... 8% Two to Four Days ...... 21% Destination Five Days to One Week ...... 31% Eight Days to Two Weeks ...... 27% Niagara Falls ...... 41% Over Two Weeks ...... 13% Stopover ...... 59% Ti.me in Niacrara Falls Number of Times Visited One Day or Less ...... 53% First ...... 58% Two to Three Days ...... 42% Second ...... 17% Four to Five Days ...... 2% Third ...... 7% More than ~iveDays ...... 3% Fourth or Fifth ...... 8% Sixth orMore ...... 10% Place of Stay Time Since Last Visit Niagara Falls. Ontario ...... 28% Niagara Falls. Nevi York ...... 72% Less than One Year ...... 7% Holiday Inn ...... 14% OneYear ...... 9% Campsite ...... 14% TWOYears ...... 13% Parkway Inn ...... 4% Three of Four Years ...... 18% Schraffts ...... 4% More than Four Years ...... 53% Treadway Inn ...... 3% Ilovlard Jo9nsons ...... 3% Number in Party Number Percent Canada vs . United States 1- 4 2 .83 Visited Canada ...... 45% 3 .35 Plan to Visit Canada ...... 34% 4 .60 Prefer Canada ...... 42% 5 .35 Average Party .3.8 Prefer United States ...... 30% 6 .18 No Preference 28% 7- 4 Parties Travelling ...... 8- 3 with Children .130 ...... 52% Attitude (fron those on first visit) 9- 4 I 10 . 4 1 lore Impressive than Inagir~ed ...... 72% 39 . 1 Less In~ressive...... 11% ,%out as Expected ...... 17% ( 36) Source: Citl? of iJia~raraFalls. Kew York . TABLE G32 AFI'FJUAT, ATTENDANCE AND REVENUES - AMERICAN FALLS* Attendance Annual Revenue ~giayaraileservat ion Through All of Through All of Revenue Source:; August 1973 1972 August 1973 1972

Binoculars 1,277,980 1,323,280 $ 12,779.80 $ 13,232.80

Parking (three lots) 118,201 170,369 214,668.00 253,825.00 Cave-of-the-Winds 25,602 19,359 38,402.25 29,038.87

Maic-of-tile-:?is t 121,323 114,073 242,645,253 228,142.91

Helicopter (scenic aides) 960 . 1,948 4,324.32 8,945.66 Observation Tov;er 432,952 501,902 108,238.00 125,475.50 Food - Cafeteria ** ** 19,204.27 33,681.24 Unclassified Sources 989,748 611,860 ** **

TOTAL 3,d18,000 2,830,000 $704,304.53 $811,152.52

-- - - ** Data not available *Source: Niagara Frontier State Earh and Recreation Commission. (39) TABLE 633 NIiiGAIIA FROdTILK STATL PARK AND RECREATION COM&lISSION ATTENDANCE ANa =VENUES PLR PARK FACILITY - COMPARISON

Revenues Attendance Percentage of Percentage of Total Frontier Total Frontier Total Revenues Park Revenues Total Attendance Park Attecdance All of Through All of Through All of Through All of Through Park Facility 1972 August 1973 1972 August 1973 1972 August 1973 1972 August 1973

Niagara lieservation $ 834,791 $ 704,304 52.0% 67.0% 2,830,000 3,018,000 50.80 % 57.60%

Devil's Hole State Park N.P. N.A. N .A. N.A. 386,460 296,750 6.93% 5.73%

Whirlpool State Fark i4 . . N.A. N .Z.. N ,A. 813,765 528,200 14.60% 10.10% Fort Niagara State Park 104,078 95,552 8.0% 9 .O% 692,471 610,899 12.40% 11.70%

Golden liill State Park 5,070 3,202 0.4% 0.3% 5,726 3,926 0.10% 0.07%

Beaver Islanu State Park 197,568 180,626 16.6% 17.0% 618,920 528,825 11.10% 10.10%

Evangola State Park 32,135 34,248 2.7% 3.0% 165,4313 147,850 2.96% 2.80%

Joseph Uavis State Park 13,843 18,927 1.1% 1.0% 49,730 85,970 0.87% 1.60%

Reservoir State Park N.A. N.A. N.A.. N.A. 13,699 17,803 0.24% 0.30%

Estir-ated Total i,ark Revenues $1,187,485 $1,036,859

Source: Niaqara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission. (39) TABLE 634 NIAGAHA WSLRVAT 1013 TCURISl VIS ITATIOW SUMMARY (1973 Rounded Figures)

Attendance for Period of:

January through March

April through June 836,000 760,000

July tilrough August 2,260,000 2,146,500

SepteriqLer through December --- 413,000

Source: Niagara Fr n ier State Park and Recreation Commission-P3 75 TABLE G35 POPULATIOPT PROJRCTIOPIS FOR NIAGARA FALLS CITY

AGENCY

Erie-Miaaara Counties Mew York State Office Repional Planning Board Of Plannins Services Year Male Female Total Male Female Total

Source: Erie-Niaqara Counties Reaional Planning Board.(41) TABLE G36 VEGETATIGIi FOUND ON PKOSPBCT PO :NT FLANK

General Percent of Total General Percent of Total Locat ion Conxion Nane Composition Scientific Name Location Corrunorl Name Composition Scientific Name

- WOODY PLANTS I I HI REACEOUS PLANTS *@ white ash 7 Fraxinus americana qrape Vitis sp. Cd black locust 5 Robinia pseudoacacia purple flowerinc *@ sugar maple 4 Acer saccharurn ras1)berri Rubus a. * honey locust 3 Gladitisia triacanthos golden rod Sol idaqo -sp. # hawthorne 13 Crataequs a. y etzr Taxus sp. *@ ironwood 0s trva virqiniana s urnac &us typhina @# red maple ~cer-rubr& aster Aster sp. *@ basswood Ti1ia americana jewel weed Impatiens capensis *@ black willow Salix nigra white snake root Eupa toriurn ruqosum # silver maple Acer saccharinum ilorsexeed Erigeron canadens is .,lantain Plantago major @ American elm -Ulmus - americana :>in oak 3 Quercus palus tris thistle Dispsacus sylvestris Nor\ ay maple 1 Acer platanoides Virginia cree1)er Parthenocissus quinquefolia butternut 2 Juglans cinerea cjueen Anne's lace Dancus carota paper birch 3 Betula papyrifera Llacl-&err17 Rubus sp. No~jayspruce 3 Picea abies looses trife Ly thrun salicaria green ash 5 Fraxinus pennsylvanica beggar tricks Uidens sy>. white po;~lar 3 Populus alba wild black current Rib es anler icanum cottonwood 2 Po~ulusdeltoides pokeweed Ph;? tolacca- amer- icana - in7 Rhus toxicodendron lombardy poplar 1 Populus nigra poison black cherry 2 Prunus serotina elderberry Sarnbucus canadensis catalpa 1 Catalpa speciosa bittersweer bicj tooth aspen 2 Populus grandidentata nightshade Solanurn dulcamara sycamore 1 Platanus occidentalis euorgnus Euonymus fortunei radicans box elder 2 Acer nequndo Bos ton ivy- Parthenocissus tricuspidata blue s9ruce 1 Picea punqens myrtal 3 sycamore maple 1 Acer sinnala dall ' s hone-suckle 4 Lonicera-- japonica halliana slippery elm 2 Ulmus fulva northern red oak 2 yuercus rubra crab apple 8 Malus 2. London plane tree 1 Platanus acerifolia moss 2 Cratoneuron filicinum Tulip tree 1 Liriodendran tulipifera moss 2 --l5r7um sp. Euro;,ean mountain- ash 1 Sorbus aucuparia moss ~hilonot i s sp. Curo1)ean larch 2 Larix decidua madenhair fern ---Adia~tum pedatum roc]: yol:7:~ody Polypodium virginianum Chris tnlas fern Polystichum. acreost ichoi- # Nanaged - uilper flank areas. *+ scented 1iverr;ort 1 Conocephalum conicum @ Natural - upper flank areas. + Natural qorqe wall. * Natural - lower flank areas. TABLE G37 VEGCTATION FOUND OX GOAT ISLAI'JD FLAYK OF AMERICA?! FATJLS

General Percent of Total General Percent of Total Locat ion Cornon Name composition Sci entiqic ;Jame Locat ion Cor,n;on l.i ar,w Composition Scientific Name

WOODY PLAIJTS liLi:E;.CEOLS I LALJTS (Continued)

svhi te ash 11 Fraxinus anericana red stemed black locust 11 Robinia pseudoacacia do q~.r00 ti Cornus stolonifera suqar mav>le 4 Acer saccharum jewel weed Impatiens- capensis ~ronwood 5 0s trya virqiniana golden rod Solidago =. Ilonq locust 4 Gleditsia triacanthos common mu 11 ein Verbascum thapsus bas sv~ood 4 Tilia a~ericana bindweed ~onvolvu~us--arvensis black willow 4 Salix niqra herk-rohert Geranium robertianum cotton1:ood 4 Fonulus delto ides motherwort --Leonurus cardiaca i~atsthorne 9 Crataegus sp, barberry Serberis sp. eastern larch 5 Larix laricina black mustard Urassica niara- American hornbeam 5 Carpinus caroliniana autumn dandelion Leontodon autumnal is black walnut 1 Juglans niqra varrow Achiltea millefolium silver ma1-le 1 Acer saccharinum euonynus Euonvmus fortunei radicans ~\Jonva;l malble 1 Picea abies i3oston ivy Parthenocissus tricuspid- black oak 2 Quercus velutina mjrrtal myrtus cornmunis flo~..ering doq, ood 2 Cornus florida Hall's honeysuckle -Konicera iarmnica halliana American elm 1 U lmus amer icana pay:er birch 2 Betula papyrifera catalpa 2 Catalpa speciosa black cherry 2 Prunus serotina scented liverwort -Conocephalum conicum Virginia pine 1 Pinus virqiniana rock polypody Polypodium virqinianum slippery elm 2 Ulmus fulva Christmas fern Fo1.j~tichum acros tichoides pin oak 1 Quercus palustr is madenhair fern Adiantum pedatum tuli~poplar 1 Liriodendron tulipifera marsh fern ~hel~~terispolustris northern white cedar 2 Thuja occidentalis moss Cratoneuron f ilicinG hemlock 2 Tsuqa canadensis moss 2 Uxyum sp. red ma~le 2 Acer rubrum Platanus acerifolia London plane tree 1 # Managed upper flank areas crab apple 5 Malus sp. - @ Natural - upper flank areas. Natural qorqe wall. HLiZUACEOUS PLANTS + * Natural - lower flank areas. grape 2 Vitis E. purple flowering rasl~berry 4 Rubus x. ;I eviv 6 Taxus sg-. sumac 6 Rilus typhina alternate leaf dopk;ood 3 Cornus alternifolia TABLE G38 VEGETAT IOlJ FOUND 01J TERRAPIN POINT FLANK General Location Common Name 3 Corn?. Scientific Name

WOODY PLANTS wliite ash 5 Fraxinus americana ironwood 7 0s trva viruiniana catalpa 5 Catalpa speciosa northern white cedar 2 , Thuia occidentalis horse-chestnut 1 Aesculus hippocas tanum black willow 1 Salix nisra hawthorne 2 3 Crataequs e. red maple 2 Acer rubrum larch 3 Larix decidua box elder 5 -Acer nequndo contorted willow 5 Salix matsudana crab apple 2 6 14alus a. white oak 10 Quercus alba

HERBACEOUS PLANTS

Cd purple flowering raspberry 19 Rubus sp. @ sumac 3 Rhus . typhina @ aster 4 Aster sp. @ golden rod 17 Solidaqo x. cj thistle 11 Dispsacus sylvestris Cd yarrot~. 12 Achiltea millefolium @ autumn dandelion 2 Leontodon autumnalis (2 plantain 8 Plantaqo major @ begqar tricks 9 Bidens sp. @ elderberry 3 Sambucus canadensis @ milkweed 8 Asclepias syriaca # Yew 3 Taxus a # forsythia 1 Forsythia intermedia spectabilis

# Managed - upper flank areas. @ Natural - upper flank areas. TABLE G39 SPECIES OF INTEREST

-- Normal Reason for Their Presence Common Name Geographic Range on Niagara Reservation

WOODY eastern red cedar South and central Limestone outcrops or basic I United States soil p~ due to Lockport dolomite balsam fir Central and south- Cool climate, mist and higher b laddernut ern Canada relative humidity in proximity roundleaf juneberry -- . . _ _.to Falls _ - Canada buff aloberry ninebark HERBACEOUS bulb-bearing bladder fern Central and south- Cool climate, mist and higher oak fern ern Canada relative humidity in proximity holly fern to Falls smaller enchanter ' s nightshade naked miterwort painted trilium white trout- lily

*From Zenkert . ( IS) TABLE G40 WILDLIFE AT TERRAPIN POINT, PROSPECT POINT AND THE GOAT ISLAND FLANK OF THE AMERICAN FALLS * Common Name Scientific Name eastern gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis eastern fox squirrel Sciurus niqer red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus eastern cottontail rabbit Sylvilaqus floridanus white-footed mouse Deromyscus ~~UCOPUS muskrat Ondatra zibethica raccoon Procyon lotor least shrew E5igt;tis pay q ura cris ata starnose mole -- - herring gull Larus argentatus smithsonianus starling Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris robin Turdus misratorius rock dove Columba livia white-breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis cookei blue. jay Cyanocitta cristata bromia cortunon crow Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos black-capped chickadee Parus a~ri~apiliusatricapillus downy woodpecker Dendrocowos- ~ubescens painted turtle Chrysernys pActa common water snake Natrix sipe on common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis Jefferson salamander Ambystoma jeffersonianum common American toad Bufo terrestris spring peeper Hyla crucifer bullfrog Rana catesbeiana leopard frog Rana pipieus

- - * From Beardslee and Mitchell (18) Collins(25) TABLE G41 AULATIC FLORA AND FAWA AT TiIL At~'Xi7ICAIJ FALLS*

Habitat Ifabitat Talus at base of falls Algae - Cladophora sp. Area ir,mediately ak:ove Alaae crest of falls, mostly Diatoms - Fragilaria vaucheriae Molluscs flat rock, large flat -F. cons truens-. Snails - Lymnaea sp de~ressions Nitzschia dissipata Physa sp. Rhoicospheria curvata Cladophora sp. Insects Caddisflies - Hvdro s che sp. Crustaceans dchesp. Orconectes propinquus (crayfish) True flies - Helius Sp. Plolluscs Chironomids (midges) Snails - Physa sp. Lymnaea sp. Beetles - Cymbiody ta sp. ~ithiniasp. Fish - c inus carpio (carp) Flatworms - Planaria pYe:ca flavescens (yellov~perch) ROCCUS chrysops (white bass) Insects Beetles - Helophorus lacustris Pools at base of falls Crustaceans Crayfish - Oronectes propinquus Caddisf lies - Cheumatopsyche sp. 0. obscurus Hydropsyche sp. - MacroiiekUm sp. Oligochaets - Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri Peloscolex ferox True flies - Corynoneura sp. Molluscs Fish - Hv entelium ni ricans +aiG-h* Gyraulus sp. Face of cliff kept Algae - Cladophora sp. moist by spray from Spirogyra sp. Insects falls Beetles - Cymbrodyta sp. Crustaceans - Gammarus fasciatus (amphipod) Caddisflies - Hvdro s che sp. Molluscs achesp. Snails - Lyrnnaea sp. Physa sp. True flies -

Insects Helius SKI. Caddisflies - Cheumatopsyche sp. ~hirononids(midges)

True flies - Fish - C prinus carpio (carp) L: omis macrochirus (bluegill) . Helius sp. Rozcus chrysops (white bass) Pedicia sp. Eupar~phussp. * After Beeton (26) TABLE G42 ANNUAL TOURIST VISITATION TO FLANK AREAS UPPER AND LOWER VIEWING AREAS

I Visitations Flank Areas : Through Aug. 1973 All of 1972 B Prospect Point: Upper Viewing Area (Observation Tower) 432,952 501,902

I *Lower Viewing Area (80%) 346,362 401,520

Luna Island Flank Not Available Not Available

Goat Island Flank Upper Not Available Not Available Lower (Cave-of-the-Winds) 25,601 19.359

Terrapin Point Upper Not Available Not Available **Binoculars (Total)

Source: Niagara Frontier State Park and Recreation Commission. (39) * According to the elevator operator of the Prospect Point Observation Tower, it is estimated that 80% of these people visiting the upper viewing area also take the elevator to the lower flank area. ** User count for individual binocular locations not available. I *** Prospect Point count, only. TABLE G43

COMMON NOISE LEVELS

COMMON OUTDOOR NOISE LEVEL COMMON INDOOR NOISE LEVELS (dBA) NOISE LEVELS 110 Rock Band Jet Flyover at 1000' I 100 Inside Subway Train (New York) Gas Lawn Mower at 3' 90 Diesel Truck at 50' Food Blender at 3'

Noisy Urban Daytime Garbage Disposal at 3' Shouting at 3' t 8o Gas Lawn Mower at 100' Vacuum Cleaner at 10' t 70 Commercial Area Normal Speech at 3' Heavy Traffic at 300' 60 Large Business Office Quiet Urban Daytime t Dishwasher Next Room Quiet Urban Nighttime 40 Small Theatre,Large Conference (Background) Room Quiet Suburban Nighttime Library 30 Bedroom at Night Quiet Rural Nighttime Concert Hall (Background) 20 Broadcast and Recording Studio

t lo Threshold of Hearing

SOURCE :BOLT, BERANEK & NEWMAN, INC., FUNDAMENTALS & ABATEMENT OF HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE, OFFICE OF ENVIROMENTAL POLICY, FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, WASHINGTON 0.C. , 1973. TABLE G44 SOUND LEVELS AT HORSESHOE FALLS AND THE AMERICAN FALLS Time of Site Date Of Measurement '50 Weather Location Number Measurement (24 Hr. Clock) (dBA Conditions

A. Terrapin Point 1. Overcast, 33O, Slight Breeze 2. Overcast, 33O, Slight Breeze 3. Overcast, 33O, Slight Breeze Overcast, 33O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36'. Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36", Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze

I?. Goat Island Flank Partly Cloudy, 36'. Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 36O, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze C. Prospect Point Partly .Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, .30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30'. Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze Partly Cloudy, 30°, Slight Breeze TABLE G45 SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVES

ALTERNATIVE APPROXIMATE COST

"as is" Expanded Safety Warning System Railing Alignment "A" with closure of lower areas $ 300,000 Railing Alignment "C" with other actions allowing lower areas to remain open Railing Alignment "C" $ 250,000 Expanded Safety Warning System 350,000 Alterations to Footpaths 850,000 Surface Stabilization 1,300,000 Total $ 2,750,000, say $2,800,000 Railing Alignment "C" with. lower areas accessible and cantilevered platform at Terrapin Point Railing Alignment "C" $ 250,000 Platform (Terrapin Point) 1,000,000 Expanded Safety Warning System 350,000 Alterations to Footpaths 850,000 Surface Stabilization 1,300,000 Total $ 3,750,000, say $3,800,000 Cantilevered platforms all areas with closure of lower areas Cantilevered platforms at Goat Island and TerrapinPoZ,mass and surface- stabilization at Prospect Point, Alteration to footpaths at Prospect Point Platforms (Goat Island, Terrapin Point) $ 1,550,000 Mass Stabilization (Prospect Point) 9,500,000 Alteration to Footpaths (Prospect Point) 350,000 Surface Stabilization (Prospect Point) 700,000 Total. $12,100,000, say $12,000,000

Mass- -- stabilization- of American Falls drv flanks sures, cantilevered platform at

Mass stabilization % 14,800,000 Platform (Terrapin Point) 1,000,000 Alterations to footpaths 850,000 Surface Stabilization 1,300,000 Total % 19,150,000, say $1 9,008,000