WN'IT 15 : ORWELL: THE MAN, HIS WORK AND HIS TIMES

Structure 15.0 Objectives 15.1 Biographical Details 15.2 Literary Works 15.3 Economic and Social Background of the Period 15.4 Political Concerns and World War I1 15.5 The Making of Nineteen Eighty-Four 15.6 Let Us Sum Up 15.7 Suggested Reading I (f 15.8 Answers to Exercises I - 15.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit, we introduce you to the writer's life, to provide you with an idea of the range of Orwell's writing. We also intend to acquaint you with the realistic basis of Nineteen Eighrp-Four so that the novel is placed within its historical context. I By the end of this IJnit, you should be able to: relate Orwell's background to his writings; explain the genesis of Nineteen Eighty-Four ; tiescribe the economic and social background of England between the two World 'Wars; I 1:xplain Orwell's reasons for taking to political writing; and tlescribe the spread of totalitarian regimes in Europe in the post 1930's period. F

-15.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS Born in 1903 in Motihari (Bengal), George Well was to have a continuing relationship with India. His father was working in the Customs and Excise service, Bengal and both his parents were of middle class Scottish origin. Orwell's real name was Eric Hugh Blair and he was the eldest of three children, the other two beings girls. was a twm- de-plume ,a literary pseudonym which he adopted in 1932 when his first full-length book Down and Out in Pan's and London was to be published. But for many years he kept his two names apart, writing his personal letters under the name of Eric Blair. At some point, how~:ver, it became difficult to distinguish between the personal and the literary names and Ithe acquired name George Orwell took over. Orwell's early childhood was spent in India, of which there are few recorded memories. His ~xnsciousfeeling was of being a lonely child. In 1911 his mother took the children bach home to England, in the interest of their schooling. Most families in Anglo-India had to take this hard decision and the Blah were no exception. On return to England, Orwell was sent to a preparatory school, St Cyprians of which he had unhappy memories. These meniories surface both in his fiction, specially his novel A Clergyman's Daughter as well as h his criticism of educational institutions, more specifically in his autobiographical essay, "Such, Such were the Joys" which was published only in 1952 after his death. Later he went to Eton, one of the two most well-known public schools of England. Well was an intelligent and an intellectually alive student but he was not a very good sportsman. His health was also not very robust and he suffered from long spells of cold. Orwell grew up to dislike the public school stress on physical prowess, the strong rule of discipline which left little scope for innovation and resented the economic inequality evident in this institution. He himself was a scholarship boy and did not like the public announcement of his lower economic status. As a young boy he was inclined to re4all kinds of books, specially the ones which were considered unconventional like the novels of D.H. Lawrence or writings which expressed political views. Public schools have a very prestigious place in British life and most people aspire to send their sons to these schools even if it has to be done at an immense sacrifice for the rest of the family. But as it meant a great deal towards attaining public position and success, it was considered important. Many other writers, like Orwell, have been critical of the public school system yet it still continues to thrive. With his intelligence and ability, it would not have been difficult for Orwell to win a scholarship to Oxford or Cambridge. But Orwell opted out of going to a university. Instead, he joined the Imperial Police Service and went to Burma as a police officer in 1922 where he stayed till 1927 when he returned to England for a holiday. He resigned his job and stayed on in England. The years in Burma brought him into close contact with the evils of imperialism and forced him to confront the reality of England's situation. His ideals of freedom and equality, the liberal value structure which he had grown up with were at odds with the conditions in the Empire where people were divided into ruler and ruled along colour lines. There are two very well-known essays which describe the helplessness of the ruling race, and the manner in which power becomes a prison. It is likely that you have read "" (see EEG 05 'Understanding Prose', Block 7) where an elephant has to be killed merefy in obedience to the power of a crowd and to avoid being laughed at.

Orwell with brother otecer~ The ~~eofthe "pukka" sahib was one which destroyed the freedom of the individual. Therefore when Orwell returned to England on his fmt home leave, he decided to opt out of the loneliness and the guilt associated with the Empire. Also he found there were plenty of causes to be taken up at home in England. It was at this time that he decided to take up a literary career and spent some time in Paris. It would be some years before he would be able to support himself through writing alone. Omdl r The Man, Bls Work and Hls He: took up several jobs over the years. For many years, Orwell wrote a regular column for Thna, The Tribune , ran a village shop, reviewed books, worked for the BBC, taught in a school, and fought in the Spanish Civil War. All these years his health was a constant source of wony, and he travelled in search of warmer climates along with his wife Eileen. Eileen I died in 1945 while Orwell was away in Europe as a war correspondent. This was at a time 1 when the Orwells had decided to adopt a child. Despite Eileen's death Orwell went ahead 1 to adopt Richard, and giving up lifein London, moved to the Isle of Jura where life was 11 lonely and harsh. It was not easy to travel down to Jura but characteristically Orwell preferred the hardships. Over these years he continued to suffer from his lung ailment. Nineteen Eighry-Four was written during these years of illness. bellhad to be hospitalized on several occasions and just when he began responding to trealment, and had got married to Sonia Branwell, he died in January, 1950 at a fairly early age of forty- seven. 2. How much time did hellspend in India or Burma? What were his feelings about the British? !

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3. Why did Orwell resign from the Imperial Police Service?

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4. What was hell's real name?

5. What were his views about the public schools?

15.2 LITERARY WORKS

Orwell wrote several novels, a couple of poems, many journalistic pieces as well as literary criticism. He also wrote social and war documentaries. It is very likely that you are familiar with his essay "Shooting an Elephant" and may have read his novel . While "Shooting an Elephant" is an essay which can be read as a story, Animal Farm is a novel which can be classified as a utopia, an animal fable or a fairy tale. Both have political ideas at their centre. Politics remains the one strong common strand in Orwell's writings. Down and Out in Paris and London (1933) was his first book to be published. It is an account of his experiences in Paris whedfhe worked as a waiter to support himself and as a tramp in London. Poverty is the main theme. Orwell looks at.the filthiness of life very closely. Road to Wigan Pier was another documentary he wrote in 1937 for the Left Book Club. Describing the life of the miners and the unemployment in the mining district he I gives very graphic details. The very next year he went to Spain to take part in the Spanish 0rwdl:Tbc M.n,EbWorkd ! B)r lha Civil War and the result of this experience was Homage to Cafalonia (1938). His novels have been generally neglected except for Animal Farm (1945) and Ninereen Eighty-Four (1949). But his early novels lead to these two later novels. A Clergynuur's Elaughrer (1935) is about poverty and education. Keep the Aspidistra Flying (1936) again tillks about poverty and social discrimination. (1934) deals with the loneliness of a police officer in Burma and highlights the destructive nature of power. Cloning Up For Air (1939) is about hatred and war, written as it was just before the beginning of the Second World War. Chell's social and political criticism also finds place in his essays such as "" and "The Prevention of Literahue". It is interesting to note that he has written a very sensitive essay "Reflections on Gandhi". Besides these, he wrote several critical essays ranging from subjects like King Lear to popular thrillers like No Orchidsfor I I d4iss Blandish. He recognized the power which was wielded by popular literature and tonsidered it important enough for serious consideration. He also invented such categories rts "good bad literature", literature which may not always come up to the highest I iresthetic expectations but which continued to be read by ordinary people, expressed their I t:motions, and gave them something to identify with. Ibell is known for his views on culhlre and for his bold and crittcal attitude towards inequality. Always willing to see the other side of a situation, he did not indulge in any :sentimentality. His two last novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are about the .political situation of the thirties and forties. Both of them-in different ways-discuss the nature of power, of inequality, of individual aspirations and of revolutions. Animal Farm examines the nature of dictatorship. You may recall how Mr. Jones ill-treats his animals in Manor Fann until one day the animals rebel under the leadership of Old Major. The animals hope that with their own kind organizing the farm, there would be equality and fair sharing of all their food. They look forward to a golden period, but it is not to be so. The pigs become the rulers and train the dogs to be their watchdogs while the other animals keep on slogging as before. The cruelties of the human race are perpetuated in the actions of the pigs. Snowball and Napoleon, are two contestants for power until Napoleon succeeds in ousting Snowball and becomes the uncontested master. At the time of the rebellion the animals frame ten commandments as a code of conduct but as the story progresses these commandments are violated one by one. The events in Animal Farm are in close parallel to the happenings in Russia and while it begins as a commentary on the Russian Revolution, the Communist ideology and its aftermath, it ends up by being a comment on the nature of dictatorships and power. It goes on to say that the choice is between pigs and drunkards, that it doesn't take long for the oppressed to become oppressors and it also brings out the problem of classes. The proletariat, once it is educated, also adopts the characteristics of bourgeois society. The possibility of a truly classless society is remote. In several ways Animal Farm leads up to Nineteen Eighty- Four. Though the pervasive gloom of the later novel is absent in Animal Farm, the message of Animal Farm is far more negative than that of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Animal Farm ends on a note of disillusionment, while Nineteen Eighty-Four with its ambiguous ending provides for another beginning. Orwell's prose works i.e. his essays, bear a close relationship to his fiction and the theme of several of these is revolution, the nature of revolutions and their limited success.

15.3 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF THE PERIOD

Orwell was a young boy at school when the FitWorld War broke out. His writing reflects his nostalgic urge for the pre-World War One period and the changes which the War brought. England in 1914 was still a fairly strong imperialist nation and the demands for freedom in the different parts of the Empire were still not very loud. The First World War despite being a military success for Britain was a asaster in every other sense. It cost England many young lives. There was perbaps not even a single family which had not lost someone in the war. It disrupted social relationships and the educational processes. Many young boys just out of school joined the army, women had to 9 come out of their homes in order to join the war effort and take up work as ambulance drivers, factory workers and any other jobs which could be taken over by tbkm in the absence of men. Many young marriages took place to end either in widowhood or in divorce. The younger generation, no longer willing to be sacrificed to the war, began to question the position which their parents had taken. They rebelled against the conservative views of their parents. When the war ended in 1918, it was followed by an economic boom when the returning soldiers had saved paypackets and people were in a mood to spend. But this did not last long. With the rise in the cost of things, the purchasing power of money fell. There was also an acute housing shortage. In 1920-22 social insurance was extended to cover the unemployed and came to be known as the 'dole'. Unemployment figures rose and while Germany cleared the war-debt in kind (by supplying coal and building ships) British workers stayed unemployed. 1929 is the year of the Great Depression when most major countries in the West suffered from an economic recession, money lost its purchasing power and industries had to be closed down. Germany was one of the fmt countries to staxt on the road to recovery. This it achieved by reactivating its armament industry. These economic conditions were in large measure responsible for the political affiliations, and finally for the Second World War.

Exercise IL

1. Write a short note on the outcome of the First World War.

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2. How did unemployment affect family life? ., ......

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15.4 POLITICAL CONCERNS AND WORLD WAR I1

The political scene began to change during the First World War. In 1917 the October Revolution in Russia heralded a new age of faith in Communist ideology. Many young intellectuals in England turned to Communism, moving away from religion and capitalism in search of new social goals. Communism promised both -- a goal worth fighting for and an ideology which was as demanding as religion. The colonies that had participated in the war were now eager to move towards political freedom and expected the imperialist countries to concede to their demands. The First World War brought into the open the discrepancy between the ideals of liberalism and the expansion of England's empire. The Spanish Civil War 1933-37 also divided intellectuals along ideological lines with the (md:'~bcMM,BLWI~L~ m1 Tbrm Royalists on the one side and General Franco on the other. The period between the two World Wars is a period which witnessed the rise of dictatorships. The Soviet Union in its strict control over its citizens was an authoritarian fonn of govenunent, as were the new ri:sing powers in Europe. Mussolini came to power in-Italy,Hitler in Germany, General FI~COin Spain. The dictatorships were a result of economic chaos and unemploymenl. Tlhey at least provided people with some semblance of security and order, and on these bases claimed their loyalty.

The usr years These were also the years of aggressive politics when international relations worsened. Britain, on account of being engaged at home in an effort to sort out its economic problems, was more often than not a silent spectator and failed to rise to the timely support of its neighbows or friends. In September 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria and rsisted in its occupation. The Japanese aggression against China proceeded Ctcnnittently througbeut thethirtim. Italy attadred Abyssinia, GcRnany invaded Austria andl idl the time Britain, a nation which had played a very active role on the international scene, tolerated these aggressions silently. The govenunent alone was not to blame. Ninefeen Eighty-Four People were tired of war. The price of the Rrst World War had been very heavy both in terms of taxes, economic restraints and in term of casualties. Hitler reoccupied Rhineland in 1936 and two yqus later moved towards Czechoslovakia, then in early 1939 occupied Bohemia and Moravia and finally~lofurther appeasement was possible. In September 1939 the Second World War broke out once again looking for a military solution to economic and political problems. Hitler's policies and ideology actually exploited the lacuna in the Communist goals. While Communism played down upon the role of the family and of class promising a classless and a stateless society, Nazism invoked patriotic feelings and racial purity. In 1920 when their first programme was released, the Nazis aimed at the creation of a Greater Germany, the expulsion of the Jews from office or citizenship or in some cases the country. It was during the years of the Depression that the Nazis gained power. Under Hitler, Germany became a police state where individual rights had no meaning. All children went through regimentation of the 'Hitler Youth' movement, then to 'National Labour Service', and on to the Armed Forces. Children were encouraged to spy on their parents, to give top priority to the Fatherland and the state above everything else. The ministry for Propaganda and Enlightenment censured books, broadcasts, and fanatical, emotional rallies were arranged every now and then to whip up fanaticism. The Jews were persecuted. They lost their homes, their businesses were destroyed and over thirty major concentration camps were built, and so the madness spread.

The initial phases of the war were disastrous for the Allies, and there was a heavy bombardment on London. The reverse continued till mid-1941. The tide began to turn when Germany attacked the Soviet Union and the Japanese bombed the United States base at Pearl Harbour. 1942 brought greater success to the allies. The war enveloping aMost the whole world came to an end in September 1945 with Hitler's surrender and the atomic explosions in Huoshima and Nagasaki. This war was to change the face of the world. Two strong power blocs emerged in the post-war world-- the United States and the Soviet Union. There was the First World, i.e. the Western World; the second Bloc consisting of the Communist countries and the Third World which was born out of the processes of , decolonisation and continued deprivation. These were to be seen by Orwell as Oceania! Omdl :The Man, BL Wodc .ad BL Iha

1. Describe Germany under Hitler.

2. What were the goals of communist ideology? In what way did Nazism exploit the lacuna in communist ideology?

- 15.5 THE MAKING OF NINETEEN EIGHTY-FOUR

Onvell started thinking about Nineteen Eighty-Four in 1939, at the time when he had just connpleted , a novel which describes (i) the nostalgia for the pre- 1914 sta1)ility (ii) the life of a soldier on an isolated pew01 pump during the war, (iii) the hawed whch political leaders were spreading (iv) the changes which had taken place in the rural landsape on account of industrialization. One is suffocated and stifled in this atmosphere ' andl wants to surface in order to breathe fresh air. Significantly the early tentative title for Nineteen Eighty-Four was The Last Man in Europe clearly indicating the protest which Orwell wished to make against totalitarianism ancl its dehumanizing processes. An early outline of the novel was planned by 1943. Onvell was disturbed by the manner in which language was distdrted. In 1944 in an essay "Politics and the English Language", he wrote about the political use of language where words were used to hide and disguise reality rather than describe it or understand it. Increasingly language was being used to misrepresent reality, for example, the word 'liquidate' was used for death, and the phrase 'correction of frontiers' for annexation. But despite these persistent concerns, it was only by early 1948 that the fmt draft of rhe novel was completed, the title still remaining undecided. In 1949 with the final typing over, Orwell neeeded to decide on a title and on the advice of his American publishers, the title Nineteen Eighty-Four was decided upon. The title had a logical time frame incorporated in it. Winston Smith at the opening of the novel is about thirty nine, which brings his bid to 1945, the time of the ending of the Second World War. Throughout the novel we are reminded about the grim war-time period and the shortages of food and other daily necessities, of the bombarded buildings still lying unrepaired and the general harsh effect qCthe war. It is also a mere reversal of figures--1948 becomes.1984. It is a world which has gone wrong, and is in many ways standing still or moving backwards. Tieis an important consideration in Nineteen Eighty-Four. Significantly, the time frame is liiited- it is limited both for the characters as well as the readers. The utopian projection is not in the remote future, it is in the very near possible future and this is related to the nature of the novel. Though referred to as a utopia, an anti-utopia, a dystopia, it is at heart a warning- not a desire or a dream. It is not a prophecy but a feared reality. The basis of Nineteen Eighty-Four is rhe reality of the Second World War world. The three states, with their three ideological thrusts are the reality of the period. Oceania consists of the Americas and the British Empire; Russia and its satellites constitute Eurasia, while China, Japan and rhe countries south of it are Eastasia. The ruling ideology of Oceania is Ingsoc, English Socialism; Eurasia believes in Neo-Bolshevism and Eastasia in Death worship. Each superstate is under the tyranny of a single mass party whose leader has absolute power and has usurped the role and place of God. The party has a monopoly. over everything-communication, war-mnals, requirements of daily life, and the state is managed through police control. The police states are recreations of Nazi Gemany, of Mussolini's Italy, of Stalin's Russia and other dictatorial regimes, and they reproduce their methods of temrism and torture. Even though the war had formally ended in 1945 it was abundantly clear that tension, antagonism and skirmishes would continue-but'future wars when fought would not be in the Third World. Temtorial interests were not the main consideration-war meant power, money, employment and continuous war meant sacrifice and deprivation for the common person. An artificial condition of emergency enabled the rulers to extract obedience and patnotic devotion. Wars were fought not for democracy, or for causes worthy of humanity but for power. J Meyers refers to Nineteen Eighty-Four as " a realistic synthesis and rearrangement of familiar material," as an intensification of the "actuality of the present." Orwell's own experience in Spain had made it clear to him that reality is rarely described in objective ter@s, and even when facts are being described, the laws of censorship and propaganda dishit. History is written by the winners. It is created or fabricated by a selective representation. Facts can be suppressed, eliminated or altered. Orwell's own experience in war-time London is close enough to some of the irritants which Winston Smirh experienced. Shortage of coal, of soap, of foodstuffs, the rationing of foodstuffs and petrol, the constant struggle to find rhe commodities of daily requirement were a paof London life during the war years as was the constant dread of bombing. Nineteen Eighty-Four is based on Orwell's own experiences, observations, responses and the history of the war years. Exczrcise N

1. What are the three states described in Nineteen Eighty-Four?

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2. Write a short note on the realistic basis of Nineteen Eighty-Four.

115.6 LET US SUM UP

In tbis introductory Unit, we have looked at some significant details of Orwell's life and limes and how these are related to his writings. We have also seen that Orwell was a prolific writer whose prose works, that is, 'fiction and essays bear a close relationship for rhe themes in both are: the nature of revolutions and their limited success. The impact of Ithe Fmt World War on Europe and especially Britain has been discussed briefly so as to understand hell's reasons for tking to political writing. The divisim of the world into three blocks emerged after the Second World War. These historical facts combined with Orwell's own experience in post-war Britain help create the fictional world of Nineteen Eighty-Four.

15.7 Answers to Exercises '

Exercise I 1. After reading 15.1, write down the important events in Onvell's life and how these relate to Orwell's writng, in your own words. 2. Orwell was born in Bengal and spent his childhood in India. Later spent several years in Burma as a police officer. As a person who valued freedon and equality, Orwell exposed the evils of Briclsh imperialism in his writings. 3. Orwell resigned from the Imperial Police Service in Burma because he did not find the role of the 'pukka' sahib in keeping with his belief in the freedom of the individual. He did not want to participate in the exercise of power which was necessary for a member of the British Empire. 4. Eric Blair. George Orwell is a pseudonym. 5. Orwell was a scholarship boy and resented the public school system which he felt was elitist, not conducive to innovation and laid too much stress on physical prowess. Exercise I1 1. Outline the disastrous consequences of the FitWorld War after reading 15.3. 2. Refer to the second para in 15.3. Exercise III 1. Germany became a police state under Hitler. Details can be described after reading the second last para in 15.4. 2. Refer to the third last para of 15.4. Exercise IV 1. Oceania, Eastasia and Eurasia. 2. Refer to the last three pafas of 15.5.