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Science and Sex Testing: the Beginnings of a Female Testing Discourse

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Western University Scholarship@Western Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository 12-2-2020 2:30 PM Science and Sex Testing: The Beginnings of a Female Testing Discourse Camille M. Croteau, The University of Western Ontario Supervisor: Dr. Angela Schneider, The University of Western Ontario A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Kinesiology © Camille M. Croteau 2020 Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd Part of the Gender and Sexuality Commons, Medicine and Health Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Croteau, Camille M., "Science and Sex Testing: The Beginnings of a Female Testing Discourse" (2020). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 7584. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/7584 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract In the 1960s, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) sanctioned testing to verify the sex of elite female athletes. Sex tests, as they were called, did not extend to male athletes, and they have tended to rely on appearance and performance alone. Now measuring testosterone levels, the Eligibility Regulations for the Female Classification scrutinizes female athletes far more than male athletes. This dissertation contributes to the sex testing literature by investigating three under-explored avenues: the history of the sex testing sports medical literature, a medical discourse analysis of IOC documents based on the implementation of sex testing, and a critical feminist analysis of the 2019 hearing of runner Mokgadi Caster Semenya. Data collection comes from a range of sources, including the IOC’s archives, medical journals, IOC Medical Committee correspondence from 1950-1999, current regulations for hyperandrogenism in the IAAF, and the Court of Arbitration of Sport (CAS) hearing Mokgadi Caster Semenya & ASA v IAAF (2019). This dissertation introduces a discourse called ‘female testing,’ highlighting the IOC’s continued history of testing only female athletes for sex. This critical feminist analysis questions the role of the IOC and the IOC medical commission’s science in determining sex-based testing. This dissertation recommends more critical oversight into the relationship between sport science and ethics, and a more pragmatic approach to addressing female testing. Female tests in sport go far beyond what ordinary people are familiar with regarding their biological makeup. The tests currently in place leave some athletes in the women’s category at a disadvantage, including women, women of colour, trans folks, queer-identifying folks, and women from non-Western nations. Keywords Sex Testing; Female Athletes; Olympics; Discourse Analysis; Sports Medicine. ii Summary for Lay Audience Since 1967, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) has sanctioned testing females to protect the female category in sport. Initially a genetic test called ‘sex testing,’ these regulations attempted to monitor ‘fair play’ in the female category by ensuring that males do not attempt to participate in the female category and gain an unfair physiological advantage. Testing helped to discern several sex types in addition to the standard male/female binary. Sex types may present with aspects of male and female characteristics, referred to as intersex, or individuals with Differences of Sex Development (DSD). Intersex individuals might appear androgynous (containing features of both male and female characteristics), but otherwise, there might not be any indication that an individual was intersex. By sanctioning the testing of female athletes to make sure that they are female, the IOC and supporting sport governing bodies are sending several messages: i) females require testing or verification for protection against male athlete intruders; ii) males absolutely have a significant sporting advantage over females; iii) only male and female categories should exist in sport; and iv) medical science is the most appropriate way to ensure regulatory compliance for gender categories in sport. Some scholars support sex tests to protect ‘true’ females participating in the female category. Others believe that testing females is harmful since the tests maintain the gender binary. Both sides agree that the tests are harmful to those who are exposed as intersex. This dissertation adds to this discussion by presenting ‘fair play’ as defined through the sports medicine literature, historical archives, the current regulations for sex testing, and pragmatic analysis of a recent court case in the international sport’s court, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). This dissertation suggests reconsidering sex testing regulations since society does not regularly track biological makeup. Females can, therefore, only comply with sex testing regulations after being tested. iii Co-Authorship Statement There was no co-authorship contribution other than supportive input by colleagues, advisors, and my supervisor. iv Acknowledgments The road to completing this Ph.D. began about a decade ago. It is surprising to think of all the lives who have encouraged me in pursuit of this degree. I first want to acknowledge the financial support received while in my doctorate program and in conducting the research presented herein. My studies were supported by Western University’s Graduate Student Funding Program, several positions as a Graduate Teaching Assistant, and two Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) supported positions as a Graduate Research Assistant. Data collection was funded by the IOC’s Ph.D. Students and Early Career Academics Research Grant Programme. Travel for presenting at conferences was supported by the Western University Kinesiology Department’s Travel Award, the Travel Award from the Department of Health Sciences at Western University, the Roberta Park fund through North American Society for Sport History (NASSH), and the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport (IAPS) Student Travel Award. Everyone who has supported my research, been a friend, colleague, or confidant, I thank you. Like many students before me, my family continued to support me in completing this program. As an avid sports fan, I truly enjoyed long talks with my brother Alex and his wife, Julie. Alex, thanks for always being there and for your vivacity for life. My parents, Steve and Lana—thank you for always being there for me. You were available by phone call or Facetime at any time. Even outside of school, you have always rooted for my happiness and encouraged me to shoot for the stars. I am forever grateful. I must thank my high school English teacher Miriam Heinicke. I value not only our shared interests but also your zeal for life. I must also acknowledge my good friend Katherine Crosmer, who was taken from this earth too soon. The memory of her intellect, creative pursuits, and excitement for life encourage me daily. Many thanks go out to the Kinesiology crew at Cal State University, Fullerton, including my colleagues/support squad Tanya Jones and Paulina Rodríguez. Dr. Jared Coburn, Dr. Bill Beam, Dr. Daniela Rubin, Dr. Alison Wrynn, Dr. John Gleaves, Dr. Matthew v Llewellyn, and Dr. Toby Rider—you all supported my career and research, which meant a lot to someone who had little confidence navigating academia. The utmost thanks to my master’s advisor Dr. Kathleen Wilson-Thomas, for guiding me through my master’s research. My master’s thesis was my first step in learning about gender inequalities and applying my knowledge in useful ways. You encouraged me and showed me that my research questions were valid, and I am forever grateful for that support. To those at Western that helped my assimilation to Canada, I cherish those moments and appreciate the help immensely. My Ph.D. supervisor Dr. Angela Schneider has been ever so patient with all my questions. Angela, you are genuine and empathetic; your patience, kindness, and understanding have truly changed my worldview, and without your willingness and support, I would not be where I am now. Finally, thank you, Mick. Only someone who has lived with a Ph.D. student can know what the day-to-day is like. Thank you for kindness and unconditional support. vi Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Summary for Lay Audience ............................................................................................... iii Co-Authorship Statement................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Purpose .................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Sex/gender and
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