The Role of Race in Attaining Substantive Representation
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Changing the Local Governing Regime: The Role of Race in Attaining Substantive Representation Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Carla Jackson Willis, M.A. Graduate Program in Political Science The Ohio State University 2010 Dissertation Committee: Harwood McClerking, Advisor Irfan Nooruddin Wendy Smooth John Wright Abstract Many scholars have examined the role of representation by minority elected officials. Underlying this examination was the assumption that black elected officials would represent the interests of black constituents in a way that was better than representation provided by white elected officials. However, support for this assumption has been mixed at best. This dissertation builds upon the political representation literature by assessing the degree to which minority elected officials address the needs of minority constituencies. In order to do this, I examine multiple forms of political representation and determine how they have been operationalized in the areas of resource allocation, local changes in governing regimes, and public attention to the current HIV/AIDS epidemic in African American communities. ii Dedicated to: Charles and Joyce Jackson iii Acknowledgements This project has been a labor of love that would not have been possible without the assistance, encouragement, and diligence of many people. First I’d like to thank my dissertation committee; Harwood McClerking, William Nelson, Irfan Nooruddin, Wendy Smooth, and Jack Wright. Dr. McClerking has taught me how to slow down and work diligently towards finding a clear message that moves the discipline forward. He has repeatedly challenged me to become a better researcher and helped me to develop both the technical and mental fortitude that is necessary in my development as a scholar. I thank him immensely for his dedication to mentoring me even in times when it was not convenient for him. For this, I am most grateful. I thank Dr. Nelson for his immeasurable knowledge and willingness to share it freely. I thank him for his comments even on early version of my work and his ability to ask tough questions that encouraged growth and academic rigor. I thank Dr. Nooruddin for his dedication to this project and for providing technical expertise as well as professional advice throughout my time as a graduate student. I also thank him for allowing me to repeatedly sit in on his methods classes in order to resolve many of my lingering methodological questions. I thank Dr. Smooth for being my ally and challenging me to find and express my voice in a way that was uniquely my own. She dared me not to be safe and create a space where I could ask the questions that were important to me in new ways that reflected both my own experiences and the knowledge that I have acquired through my doctoral journey. iv Finally, I thank Dr. Wright for his poignant and direct feedback throughout this process but even before that I thank him for introducing me to quantitative political science. It has provided a haven for me when I couldn’t figure out where I fit in. I would also like to thank the city of Atlanta and the Special Collections Department of the Robert Woodruff Library. Both of these entities were especially accommodating and open in providing information that proved crucial to this project Finally, I would like to thank my family and especially my husband, Vincent Willis, for reminding me that failure was not an option. v Vita April 4, 1981…………………………………………………….……Born- Memphis, TN May 2003………………..……………………………..………………………………B.A. African American Studies and Psychology. Washington University December 2006……………………………………………………………………….M.A., Political Science, The Ohio State University August 2005-2007……………………...…………………………………………Teaching and Research Assistant, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: Political Science Minor Field: Formal Theory vi Table of Contents Abstract ...……………………………………………………………………. ii Dedication …………………………………………………………………… iii Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………… iv Vita …………………………………………………………………………... v List of Tables ………………………………………………………………… viii List of Figures ……………………………………………………………….. ix Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………… 1 Chapter 2: Minority Representation and the Redistribution of Resources …………………………………………………. 23 Chapter 3: Becoming Politically Incorporated – The Atlanta Story ……………………………………………………………. 51 Chapter 4: Becoming Politically Incorporated – Changing the Governing Regime ……………………………………………. 85 Chapter 5: Exploring New Boundaries – HIV/AIDS as a Local Crisis …………………………………………………. 103 Chapter 6: Conclusion ……………………………………………………….. 139 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………. 152 Appendix A: Cities Used in Chapter 2: Minority Representation and the Redistribution of Resources ………………………… 162 vii List of Tables Table 2.1: Difference in African American and White Public Opinion, 1988 ………………………………………….. 44 Table 2.2: Summary Statistics …………………………………………….. 45 Table 2.3: Difference of Means Analysis …………………………………. 47 Table 2.4: Regression Results for Redistributive Expenditures ………………………………………………………………. 50 Table 3.1: Atlanta Mayors and City Council Representatives 1937 – 2010 ……………………………………………… 82 Table 3.2: Population Changes in Atlanta, GA 1950-2008 …………………………………………………… 83 Table 4.1: Description of Dependent Variables …………………………... 99 Table 4.2: Municipal Funding Decisions using the Presence of Black Mayors as Structural Breaks ………………………. 102 Table 5.1: Count of HIV/AIDS Articles in National African American Magazines 2000-2009 …………………………………. 129 Table 5.2: Count of HIV/AIDS Articles in Atlanta Newspapers 2000-2009 …………………………………………… 129 viii List of Figures Figure 3.1: Population Changes in Atlanta, GA 1950-2008 ……………………………………………………… 84 Figure 4.1: Redistributive Funding Areas …………………………………… 100 Figure 4.2: General Service Spending Areas ………………………………... 101 Figure 5.1: Trend in Naming HIV/AIDS as Most Urgent Health Problem by Race/Ethnicity ……………………………. 130 Figure 5.2: Percent Who Are “Very Concerned” about Becoming Infected with HIV ………………………………………… 131 Figure 5.3: Perceptions of Prejudice and Discrimination against People Living with HIV/AIDS in the U.S. …………………………. 132 Figure 5.4: HIV/AIDS as the Most Urgent Health Concern for African Americans vs. Total Count of HIV/AIDS Articles in the Atlanta Newspapers from 2000-2009 …………………………………………………………….. 133 Figure 5.5: Analysis of HIV/AIDS Articles in Black Enterprise 2000-2009 ……………………………………………... 134 Figure 5.6: Analysis of HIV/AIDS Articles in Ebony Magazine 2000-2009 ……………………………………………... 135 Figure 5.7: Analysis of HIV/AIDS Articles in Essence Magazine 2000-2009 ……………………………………………. 136 Figure 5.8: Analysis of HIV/AIDS Articles in Jet Magazine 2000-2009 ………………………………………………….. 137 ix Figure 5.9: Analysis of HIV/AIDS Articles in Atlanta Journal Constitution 2000-2009 ………………………………….. 138 x Chapter 1 Introduction On November 4, 2008, election night, America did the unthinkable and elected Illinois Senator Barack Obama as the first African-American president of the United States. Undoubtedly, many African Americans and whites alike never dreamed this day would happen in their lifetimes. After nearly two grueling years of a presidential campaign where race, socio economic status, an economic meltdown, and two wars took center stage, America has done what many considered a dream. In the months and years to come, Americans will have the chance to help America either move towards a new and more prosperous future or regress to the old days of hate, social stagnation, and an undemocratic democracy. Ironically, we have seen previous examples of this type of excitement and hope for what the future could be on a much smaller, yet significant, stage. The late 1960s began what would become a succession of African-American politicians serving as mayors and city council representatives of major U.S. cities. In 1967, Carl Stokes was elected as the first African-American mayor of Cleveland, OH. Stokes served as mayor from 1968-1971. Stokes’ electoral success was complimented by that of Richard Hatcher, who was elected mayor of Gary, Indiana in 1967 and served as mayor from 1968-1987. The success of Stokes and Hatcher was followed by many more African- American mayors who served throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s including Thomas Bradley of Los Angles, CA from 1973-1993, Maynard Jackson of Atlanta, GA from 1974-1982 and 1990-1994, Harold Washington of Chicago, IL from 1983-1987, David 1 Dinkins of New York City, NY from 1990-1993, and Willie Herenton of Memphis, TN from 1992-2009. In many instances, personal accounts from these elections can be categorized into two types of narratives that varied to a large degree on racial group membership. African Americans often described immense joy and hopes for a more equitable share of city resources. Many whites described fear of an African American take-over and uncertainty over their share of resources and influence within the city. Scholars have debated the role of minority representation in realizing these hopes and fears for some time. Underlying this debate was the assumption that black elected officials would represent the interests of black constituents in a way that was better than representation provided by prior white elected officials. However, support for this assumption has been mixed at best. Some scholars have found that African-American elected officials were influential in implementing policies and