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Characterising the Structural, Petrophysical, and Geochemical Properties of Inverted Fault Zones

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Characterising the Structural, Petrophysical, and Geochemical Properties of Inverted Fault Zones Characterising the structural, petrophysical, and geochemical properties of inverted fault zones NATALIE DEBENHAM Petroleum Geoscience Australian School of Petroleum University of Adelaide This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2019 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract v Declaration vii List of publications ix Acknowledgements xi Chapter 1: Introduction and thesis outline. 1 Rationale 1 Aims of this research 2 Fault zones and subsurface fluid flow 2 Introduction to basin inversion and reactivation of faults 3 Inversion mechanics 4 Inverted fault geometries 4 Deformation associated with inversion 8 Fluid flow 8 Thesis outline 8 Chapter 2 10 Chapter 3 10 Chapter 4 11 Chapter 5 12 Chapter 6: Key findings and conclusions 12 References 12 Chapter 2: The influence of a reverse-reactivated normal fault on natural fracture 15 geometries and relative chronologies at Castle Cove, Otway Basin Introduction 19 Tectonic setting of the Otway Basin 20 Field and structural mapping methods at Castle Cove 25 Results and interpretations 28 Fracture sections 28 Section 1 28 Section 2 29 Section 3 30 Section 4 30 Section 5 30 Fracture sets at Castle Cove 30 Fracture set 1 (gold) 31 Fracture set 2 (dark green) 32 Fracture set 3 (purple) 32 Fracture set 4 (pink) 33 Fracture set 5 (blue) 33 Fracture set 6 (orange) 33 Fracture set 7 (dark orange) 33 Fracture set 8 (yellow) 34 Fracture set 9 (green) 34 Fracture set 10 (violet) 34 Fracture set 11 (brown) 36 Castle Cove Fault damage zone 36 Extent of fault damage zone deformation at Castle Cove 36 Synthetic and antithetic normal faults in the fault damage zone 36 Discussion 37 Evolution of the fracture system mapped at Castle Cove 37 Fracture formation during late Cretaceous extension 37 -i- TABLE OF CONTENTS Fracture formation during mid-Eocene to recent compression 38 Castle Cove Fault evolution 38 Castle Cove Fault geometry at depth 40 Examples of similar reverse-reactivated fault geometries and complex fracture systems 40 Implications for hydrocarbon exploration and development in the eastern Otway Basin 41 Conclusions 42 Acknowledgements 43 References 43 Chapter 3: Spatial distribution of micrometre-scale porosity and permeability across the damage zone of a reverse-reactivated normal fault in a tight sandstone: 47 insights from the Otway Basin, SE Australia Introduction 51 Geological background 52 Methods 55 Samples 55 Porosity 55 Permeability 56 Pore throat size and connectivity 56 Grain size 56 Thin section analysis 57 Results 57 Core plug porosity 57 Core plug permeability 57 Relationship between porosity and permeability 59 Pore throat size and connectivity 59 Grain size 61 Mineralogical observations 62 Microstructural observations 64 Discussion 66 Microfractures within the Castle Cove Fault damage zone 66 The relationship between clays and the permeability structure of the Eumeralla Formation 67 Enhancement of micrometre-scale permeability structure closer to the fault plane 67 Comparison of the permeability structure described in this study to other studies 69 Implications for fluid flow and fluid exploration in sedimentary basins 70 Application of results, upscaling issues, and further work 71 Conclusions 72 Acknowledgements 72 References 73 Chapter 4: The pore fluid evolution of the mid-Cretaceous Eumeralla Formation 77 in the eastern Otway Basin Introduction 81 Geological background 82 Structural setting 82 Eumeralla Formation 82 Eastern Otway Basin palaeotemperatures 83 Concretion and fracture samples in this study 84 Methods 85 Sample preparation 85 Carbonate quantification in concretions and calculated burial depth 85 Carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of fracture cements and concretions 87 -ii- TABLE OF CONTENTS Strontium isotope analysis of fracture cements and concretions 87 Results 88 Carbonate quantification in concretions 88 Carbon and oxygen isotopes 88 Strontium isotopes 90 Interpretation and discussion 92 Depth of concretion formation 92 Sources of carbon and oxygen 92 Oxygen isotopic compositions 92 Calculated oxygen isotopic compositions of original pore fluids 94 Carbon isotopic compositions 96 Sources of strontium 96 Synthesis of the pore fluid evolution of the carbonate cements in the Eumeralla Formation 98 Implications for basin-scale palaeoclimate reconstructions in the mid-Cretaceous 99 Conclusions 100 Acknowledgements 100 References 101 Chapter 5: The spatial distribution and geochemical variation of calcite and 105 gypsum cements in the eastern Bristol Channel Basin Introduction 109 Geological background 110 Methods 112 Structural sections and sample preparation 112 Oxygen and carbon stable isotopes 115 Strontium isotopes 115 Results 116 Oxygen and carbon stable isotopes 116 Quantock’s Head Fault 117 Kilve Pil Fault 117 East Lilstock Fault 118 Strontium isotopes 118 Discussion 119 Sources of oxygen: calculated oxygen isotopic compositions of original pore fluids 119 Sources of carbon 120 Sources of strontium 120 Fluid evolution and migration 121 Comparison of the results from this study with other studies 121 Conclusions 122 Acknowledgements 122 References 122 Chapter 6: Conclusions 125 The influence of inverted faults on surrounding lithology 127 How subsurface fluids flow, interact, and modify their surrounds 128 Appendix 1 135 Appendix 2 149 Appendix 3 155 Appendix 4 163 -iii- ABSTRACT It is widely recognised that inverted fault zones form economically significant structures for subsurface fluid exploration and production. Inverted fault zones are formed by the contractional reactivation and reversal of pre-existing extensional fault zones. Recognising the reverse-reactivation of normal faults in sedimentary basins is fundamental, as the reconfiguration of fault geometries has implications for overall basin geometry, sediment accommodation and supply, and fluid flow pathways. This is particularly important for understanding the modification or creation of petroleum system elements through time, which in turn allows for increased targeted exploration. Notwithstanding the broad economic relevance of inverted fault zones, integrated multi-scale (from micrometre-scale to outcrop-scale) studies on the structural, petrophysical, and geochemical properties of inverted fault zones within porous reservoir rocks are limited. This thesis characterises the structural, petrophysical, and geochemical properties of inverted fault zones from two localities, the Otway Basin (Australia) and Bristol Channel Basin (United Kingdom), in order to understand how inverted faults influence fluid flow at a range of scales. To address this, this thesis has two main topics of focus: (1) identify the influence of inverted faults on surrounding lithology by assessing the relationship between faults, damage zones around faults, and fractures related to fault growth; and (2) identify how subsurface fluids flow, interact, and modify their surrounds by assessing the geochemistry of fluids in fractures and thereby constraining the source, evolution, and migration of fluids preserved in fractures. An integrated, multi-scale approach is crucial for improving the prediction of subsurface fluid flow beyond the wellbore. In order to understand the influence of inverted faults on surrounding lithology, an inverted fault (Castle Cove Fault) in the Otway Basin, southeast Australia, is the focus of the first two chapters of this thesis. The geometries and relative chronologies of natural fractures adjacent to the Castle Cove Fault are investigated. Structural mapping in the hanging wall damage zone reveals three sets of shear fractures that are geometrically related to the Castle Cove Fault. Inversion of the Castle Cove Fault has resulted in the development of an extensive network of fractures and complex fold structures, and inversion would have subsequently improved the outcrop-scale permeability structure of the damage zone for fluid migration. At the micrometre-scale, the permeability structure has also been influenced by fault inversion. Petrophysical and petrographical analyses in the hanging wall damage zone show that microstructural changes due to faulting have enhanced the micrometre-scale permeability structure of the Eumeralla Formation. These microstructural changes have been attributed to the formation of microfractures and destruction of original pore-lining chlorite morphology as a result of fault deformation. Consequently, inversion has subsequently improved the micrometre-scale permeability structure of the damage zone adjacent to the Castle Cove fault plane. Characterisation of the permeability structure adjacent to reverse-reactivated faults at a range of scales will aid with predicting fluid flow associated with inversion structures. Structural and geochemical analyses in the next two chapters of this thesis aim to understand how subsurface fluids flow and characterise the source, evolution, and migration pathways of fluids preserved in inverted fault zones. The geochemical evolution of fluids precipitated as calcite and siderite- cemented concretions and fractures throughout the eastern Otway Basin have been investigated. Pore fluids were sourced from both meteoric water and sea water during the deposition of the Eumeralla Formation and pore fluid evolution was strongly influenced by diagenetic reactions and increased temperature during burial. Using a similar analytical approach, the geochemical evolution of fluids precipitated as calcite and gypsum-cemented fractures throughout the eastern Bristol Channel Basin have -v- ABSTRACT
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